PAVAAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025

PRESENTER’ S MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COURSE NAME: AUTOMATION IN MANUFACTURING
COURSE CODE: ME20701
YEAR/SEM: IV YEAR – VII SEMESTER
What is Paavai Teaching Methodology?
At Paavai Educational Institutions, inclusive, flexible and insightful learning aims to provide engaging
educational experiences and meet the needs of learners from all the backgrounds. Teachers should align
their teaching with everyday life which will make learning meaningful.
This semester is based on the teaching methodology following three cardinal components:
1. Concept Class
2. Lab Manual
3. Directed Learning Class

Concept class: This is a theory class that will focus on the concepts. Whenever required this session will
also demonstrate how these concepts get translated into Mechanical Engineering topics.
Lab Manual: The lab manual follows the concept class. The students learn to implement the concepts
learnt in the concept class.
Directed Learning Class: Learning and application may be challenging for some students. One of the
oldest and most comprehensive ways of delivery information, self-directed class allows the student to
apply themselves in a manner that makes understanding content more accessible. In this process, learners
take initiative in their own learning by planning, implementing and evaluating their learning.
The entire purpose of this methodology is to make the students more:
 Concept focused
 Adapted to real life work environment
 SYLLABUS
ME20701 AUTOMATION IN MANUFACTURING 3003

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION 9 hours

Introduction- Automation in Production Systems- Automated Manufacturing Systems, Computerized
Manufacturing Support Systems, Reasons for Automating; automation principles and strategies- the USA
Principle, Ten Strategies for Automation and Process Improvement, and an Automation Migration
Strategy; basic elements of automated system- Power to Accomplish the Automated Process, Program of
Instructions, Control System; Levels of automation

UNIT 2: AUTOMATED MATERIAL HANDLING AND STORAGE SYSTEM 9 hours

Overview of material handling-Material transport equipment, Design Considerations in Material
Handling- Material Transport Equipment- Industrial Trucks, Automated Guided Vehicles, Conveyors,
Cranes and Hoists
Introduction to Storage Systems-Storage System Performance; Conventional Storage Methods and
Equipment; Automated Storage Systems- Fixed-Aisle Automated Storage/Retrieval Systems.

UNIT 3: AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEM 9 hours

Components and classifications of manufacturing systems, automated production lines-Fundamentals,
system configurations, workpart transfer mechanisms, storage buffers, control of production line,
applications, Automated assembly systems – fundamentals.
UNIT 4: INDUSTRY 4.0 9 hours
Cyber Physical Systems and Next Generation Sensors, Collaborative Platform and Product Lifecycle
Management, Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality, Artificial Intelligence, Big Data and Advanced
Analysis
UNIT 5: INDUSTRIAL INTERNET OF THINGS 9 hours
IIoT-Introduction, Industrial IoT: Business Model and Reference Architerture: IIoT-Business Models,
Industrial IoT- Layers: IIoT Sensing, IIoT Processing, IIoT Communication, IIoT Networking

Total hours: 45
TEXT BOOKS PRESCRIBED:

1. Mikell P. Groover, Automation, Production Systems and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing,

2016, Fourth edition, Pearson Education, New Delhi.
REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. P. Radhakrishnan, S. Subramanyan, V. Raju, CAD/CAM/CIM, New age International, New Delhi.

2. Kaushik Kumar , Divya Zindani , J. Paulo Davim. Industry 4.0- Developments towards the Fourth
Industrial Revolution
3. Yusuf Altintas, Manufacturing Automation, 2012, Cambridge University Press, USA.
4. Gupta A. K., Arora S. K., Industrial Automation and robotics, 2013, Third Edition, University
Science Press, New delhi.
5. Rajesh Mehra, Vikrant Vij, PLSc & SCADA Thory and Practice, 2011, First Edition, University

Introduction to the Course

This Presenter’s Manual is to be used for the seventh semester of Mechanical Engineering for the course
of Automation in Manufacturing. The syllabus of this course enhances the students’ knowledge and skill
in in designing and implementing automation in the manufacturing industries.

Prerequisites for taking this course

 Understanding of fundamental engineering concepts and manufacturing processes
 Basic knowledge of mechanical systems, electrical and electronic systems (sensors etc.).
 Computer software and hardware skill sets PLC programming, control systems.

Course Objectives:
To enable the students to
 Understand the requirements of automation in manufacturing systems.
 Get familiar with automation of material handling and storage systems in industries
 Gain knowledge about the concepts of control strategies and mechanisms in production.
 Become fully aware of Industry 4.0 and elements associated with it.
 Acquire knowledge in artificial intelligence based systems and IOT in manufacturing

Student Learning Outcomes:

Clearly written student learning outcomes are the foundation upon which effective courses are designed.
Outcomes inform both the ways students are evaluated in a course and the way a course will be organized.
Effective learning outcomes are student-centered, measurable, concise, meaningful, achievable and
outcome-based (rather than task-based). The course contents are designed for those who are keen on
getting themselves a career in the field of Mechanical engineering, specifically for those who want to be
involved in the design and implementation of automation in manufacturing industries.
At the end of the course, the students will be able to:
 Give a brief exposure to automation principles and elements of automated system.
 Implement automation concepts in the areas of material handling and storage systems in industries.
 Apply control strategies and mechanisms to automate production lines.
 Monitor production processes using smart sensors and other AI elements to implement Industry 4.0.
 Apply IIoT and information technology in manufacturing systems and form networking of industries.

Mapping of Course Outcomes with Programme Outcomes

(1/2/3 indicates strength of correlation) 3-Strong, 2-Medium, 1-Weak
Programme Outcomes(POs)
COs
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2
CO1 3 - 2 - 3 - - - - - - 2 2 3
CO2 3 - 2 - 3 - - - - - - 2 2 3
CO3 3 - 2 - 3 - - - - - - 2 2 3
CO4 3 - 2 - 3 - - - - - - 2 2 3
CO5 3 - 2 - 3 - - - - - - 2 2 3

* For Entire Course, PO & PSO Mapping

POs & PSO REFERENCE:

PO1 Engineering PO7 Environment & PSO1 Professional Skills
Knowledge Sustainability
PO2 Problem Analysis PO8 Ethics PSO2 Problem-Solving
Skills
PO3 Design & Development PO9 Individual & Team Work PSO3 Successful Career and
Entrepreneurship
PO4 Investigations PO10 Communication Skills
PO5 Modern Tools PO11 Project Mgt. & Finance
PO6 Engineer & Society PO12 Life Long Learning
 UNIT WISE HOURS ALLOCATION
Course Concept Class Dir. Learning Class Total
Hrs. Hrs. Hrs.
Unit - 1 7 2 9
Unit - 2 7 2 9
Unit - 3 7 2 9
Unit - 4 7 2 9
Unit - 5 7 2 9
Total 35 10 45

I. CONCEPT CLASS
LESSON PLAN

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION 9 hours

Introduction- Automation in Production Systems- Automated Manufacturing Systems, Computerized
Manufacturing Support Systems, Reasons for Automating; automation principles and strategies- the USA
Principle, Ten Strategies for Automation and Process Improvement, and an Automation Migration
Strategy; basic elements of automated system- Power to Accomplish the Automated Process, Program of
Instructions, Control System; Levels of automation

Method Lecture
S.No Proposed notes – Teaching
Topics to be covered Ref
. Date Page Method
Number
1. Introduction to Automation CC 15.07.24 1- 2 T1 CB/L
2. Automation in Production systems CC 16.07.24 3-7 T1 CB/L
Types of Production Automation CC
3. 18.07.24 8 - 11 T1 CB/L
systems
Automation Principles and CC
4. 19.07.24 11 - 12 T1 CB/L
Strategies- The USA principle
Ten Strategies for Automation & CC
5. 20.07.24 13 - 15 T1 CB/L
Migration strategy
Basic elements of an automated CC
6. 22.07.24 16 - 18 T1 CB/L
system
7. Program of instructions CC 23.07.24 19 - 20 T1 CB/L
Control systems DL1
8. 24.07.24 23 - 24 T1 CB/L
QUIZ
Levels of automation DL2
9. Flipped 25.07.24 25- 27 T1 CB/L
class
*T1 – Textbook 1, CC – Concept Class, DL – Directed Learning
 1. Technical Terms

UNIT -1 INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION

S.NO Technical Terms Literal Meaning Subject Meaning
1. Embedded to fix something a microprocessor-based computer
firmly and hardware system with software
deeply that is designed to perform a
dedicated function
2. Communication act of sharing or a process that involves sending
exchanging and receiving messages through
information, ideas the verbal and non-verbal
or methods
feelings
3. Stand alone a device or program not connected to or requiring
with their connection to something else in
characteristics by order to be used or to function
own
4. Frame work building of a layered structure indicating
something that what kind of programs can or
expands the should be built and how they
structure into would interrelate
something useful.
5. Interfacing An inner shared boundary across which
construction two or more separate components
material that lies of a computer system exchange
between information
layers of fashion
fabric

Note: Insert terms with condensed literal and subject meanings avoiding full paragraph
explanation
 2. Faculty Guide

Structure for 55/50-minute Class

TOPIC – Automation – Introduction & History
S.No Time Structure
1. 2 mins Attendance
2. 2 mins Pranayama
3. Revision of previous class – Traditional manufacturing
3 mins What is Automation?
What is the origin of automation?
What are the examples of automation in day to day life?
4. 5 mins Evolution of automation over the years
Invention of computers
Invention of sensors, transducers, semi-conductors
5. 35 mins Introduction to automation
History of automation
Mechanization Vs. automation
Reasons for Automating
6. 3 mins Students queries and answers

7. 2 mins Revision with questions

1. Define Automation?
2. Distinguish between mechanization and automation?
3. How automation is possible?
8. 3 mins Summarizing – Automation, Mechanization, advantages and
disadvantages of automation, elements of automation.
Automation examples in day-to-day life:
 Online money transactions, online booking of gas,
hotels, ATM machines etc.
 House-hold electronic appliances having automatic
switch-off controls: Washing machine, Fridge etc.
 3. Student Course Material

ME20701 AUTOMATION IN MANUFACTURING VII SEM/MECH

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION

1.1 Introduction to Automation

Automation can be defined as the technology by which a process or procedure is

accomplished without human assistance. It is implemented using a program of instructions
combined with a control system that executes the instructions. To automate a process, power
is required, both to drive the process itself and to operate the program and control system.
Although automation is applied in a wide variety of areas, it is most closely associated with
the manufacturing industries. It was in the context of manufacturing that the term was
originally coined by an engineering manager at Ford Motor Company in 1946 to describe the
variety of automatic transfer devices and feed mechanisms that had been installed in Ford’s
production plants (Historical Note 4.1). It is ironic that nearly all modern applications of
automation are controlled by computer technologies that were not available in 1946.

1.1.1 History of Automation

The history of automation can be traced to the development of basic mechanical devices, such
as the wheel (circa 3200 B.C.), lever, winch (circa 600 B.C.), cam (circa 1000), screw (1405),
and gear in ancient and medieval times. These basic devices were refined and used to
construct the mechanisms in waterwheels, windmills (circa 650), and steam engines (1765).
These machines generated the power to operate other machinery of various kinds, such as
flour mills (circa 85 B.C.), weaving machines (flying shuttle, 1733), machine tools (boring
mill, 1775), steamboats (1787), and railroad locomotives (1803). Power, and the capacity to
generate it and transmit it to operate a process, is one of the three basic elements of an
automated system. After his first steam engine in 1765, James Watt and his partner, Matthew
Boulton, made several improvements in the design. One of the improvements was the flying-
ball governor (around 1785), which provided feedback to control the throttle of the engine.
The governor consisted of a ball on the end of a hinged lever attached to the rotating shaft.
The lever was connected to the throttle valve. As the speed of the rotating shaft increased, the
ball was forced to move outward by centrifugal force; this in turn caused the lever to reduce
the valve opening and slow the motor speed. As rotational speed decreased, the ball and lever
relaxed, thus allowing the valve to open. The flying-ball governor was one of the first
examples of feedback control—an important type of control system, which is the second basic
element of an automated system. The third basic element of an automated system is the
program of instructions that directs the actions of the system or machine. One of the first
examples of machine programming was the Jacquard loom, invented around 1800. This loom
was a machine for weaving cloth from yarn. The program of instructions that determined the
weaving pattern of the cloth consisted of a metal plate containing holes. The hole pattern in
the plate directed the shuttle motions of the loom, which in turn determined the weaving
pattern. Different hole patterns yielded different cloth patterns. Thus, the Jacquard loom was a
programmable machine, one of the first of its kind. By the early 1800s, the three basic
elements of automated systems—power source, controls, and programmable machines—had
been developed, although these elements were primitive by today’s standards. It took many
years of refinement and many new inventions and developments, both in these basic elements
and in the enabling infrastructure of the manufacturing industries, before fully automated
systems became a common reality. Important examples of these inventions and developments
include interchangeable parts (circa 1800, Historical Note 1.1); electrification (starting in
1881); the moving assembly line (1913, Historical Note 15.1); mechanized transfer lines for
mass production, whose programs were fixed by their hardware configuration (1924,
Historical Note 16.1); a mathematical theory of control systems (1930s and 1940s); and the
MARK I electromechanical computer at Harvard University (1944). These inventions and
developments had all been realized by the end of World War II. Since 1945, many new
inventions and developments have contributed significantly to automation technology. Del
Harder coined the word automation around 1946 in reference to the many automatic devices
that the Ford Motor Company had developed for its production lines. The first electronic
digital computer was developed at the University of Pennsylvania in 1946. The first numerical
control machine tool was developed and demonstrated in 1952 at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology based on a concept proposed by John Parsons and Frank Stulen (Historical
Note 7.1). By the late 1960s and early 1970s, digital computers were being connected to
machine tools. In 1954, the first industrial robot was designed and in 1961 it was patented by
George Devol (Historical Note 8.1). The first commercial robot was installed to unload parts
in a die casting operation in 1961. In the late 1960s, the first flexible manufacturing system in
the United States was installed at Ingersoll Rand Company to perform machining operations
on a variety of parts (Historical Note 19.1). Around 1969, the first programmable logic
controller was introduced (Historical Note 9.1). In 1978, the first commercial personal
computer (PC) was introduced by Apple Computer, although a similar product had been
introduced in kit form as early as 1975. Developments in computer technology were made
possible by advances in electronics, including the transistor (1948), hard disk for computer
memory (1956), integrated circuits (1960), the microprocessor (1971), random access
memory (1984), megabyte capacity memory chips (circa 1990), and the Pentium
microprocessors (1993). Software developments related to automation have been equally
important, including the FORTRAN computer programming language (1955), the APT
programming language for numerical control (NC) machine tools (1961), the UNIX operating
system (1969), the VAL language for robot programming (1979), Microsoft Windows (1985),
and the JAVA programming language (1995). Advances and enhancements in these
technologies continue.
1.1.2 Mechanization Vs. Automation
The terms automation and mechanization are often compared and sometimes confused.
Mechanization refers to the use of machinery (usually powered) to assist or replace human
workers in performing physical tasks, but human workers are still required to accomplish the
cognitive and sensory elements of the tasks. By contrast, automation refers to the use of
mechanized equipment that performs the physical tasks without the need for oversight by a
human worker.

1.2 Production Systems

A production system is a collection of people, equipment, and procedures organized to perform the
manufacturing operations of a company. It consists of two major components as indicated in Figure
1.1

1. Facilities. The physical facilities of the production system include the equipment, the way the
equipment is laid out, and the factory in which the equipment is located.

2. Manufacturing support systems. These are the procedures used by the company to manage
production and to solve the technical and logistics problems encountered in ordering materials,
moving the work through the factory, and ensuring that products meet quality standards. Product
design and certain business functions are included in the manufacturing support systems. In modern
manufacturing operations, portions of the production system are automated and/or computerized. In
addition, production systems include people. People make these systems work. In general, direct
labor people (blue-collar workers) are responsible for operating the facilities, and professional staff
people (white-collar workers) are responsible for the manufacturing support systems.
Figure 1.1 The production system consists of facilities and manufacturing support systems.
1.2.1 Facilities

The facilities in the production system consist of the factory, production machines and tooling,
material handling equipment, inspection equipment, and computer systems that control the
manufacturing operations. Facilities also include the plant layout, which is the way the equipment
is physically arranged in the factory. The equipment is usually organized into manufacturing
systems, which are the logical groupings of equipment and workers that accomplish the processing
and assembly operations on parts and products made by the factory. Manufacturing systems can
be individual work cells consisting of a single production machine and a worker assigned to that
machine. More complex manufacturing systems consist of collections of machines and workers,
for example, a production line. The manufacturing systems come in direct physical contact with
the parts and/or assemblies being made. They “touch” the product. In terms of human
participation in the processes performed by the manufacturing systems, three basic categories can
be distinguished, as portrayed in Figure 1.2: (a) manual work systems, (b) worker-machine
systems, and (c) automated systems.

Manual Work Systems. A manual work system consists of one or more workers performing one
or more tasks without the aid of powered tools. Manual material handling tasks are common
activities in manual work systems. Production tasks commonly require the use of hand tools, such
as screwdrivers and hammers. When using hand tools, a workholder is often employed to grasp
the work part and position it securely for processing. Examples of production-related manual tasks
involving the use of hand tools include.
• A machinist using a file to round the edges of a rectangular part that has just been milled
• A quality control inspector using a micrometer to measure the diameter of a shaft
• A material handling worker using a dolly to move cartons in a warehouse
• A team of assembly workers putting together a piece of machinery using hand tools.

Worker-Machine Systems. In a worker-machine system, a human worker operates powered

equipment, such as a machine tool or other production machine. This is one of the most widely
used manufacturing systems. Worker-machine systems include combinations of one or more
workers and one or more pieces of equipment. The workers and machines are combined to take
advantage of their relative strengths and attributes, which are listed in Table 1.1. Examples of
worker-machine systems include the following:

Figure 1.2. Three categories of manufacturing systems: (a) manual work system,
(b) worker-machine system, and (c) fully automated system.
• A machinist operating an engine lathe to fabricate a part for a product
• A fitter and an industrial robot working together in an arc–welding work cell
• A crew of workers operating a rolling mill that converts hot steel slabs into flat plates
• A production line in which the products are moved by mechanized conveyor and
the workers at some of the stations use power tools to accomplish their processing
or assembly tasks.

Automated Systems. An automated system is one in which a process is performed by a machine

without the direct participation of a human worker. Automation is implemented using a program
of instructions combined with a control system that executes the instructions. Power is required to
drive the process and to operate the program and control system (these terms are defined more
completely in Chapter 4). There is not always a clear distinction between worker-machine
systems and Automated systems, because many worker-machine systems operate with some
degree of automation. Two levels of automation can be identified: semiautomated and fully
automated.

A semiautomated machine performs a portion of the work cycle under some form of program
control, and a human worker tends to the machine for the remainder of the cycle, by loading and
unloading it, or by performing some other task each cycle.
A fully automated machine is distinguished from its semiautomated counterpart by its capacity to
operate for an extended period of time with no human attention. Extended period of time means
longer than one work cycle; a worker is not required to be present during each cycle. Instead, the
worker may need to tend the machine every tenth cycle, or every hundredth cycle. An example of
this type of operation is found in many injection molding plants, where the molding machines run
on automatic cycles, but periodically the molded parts at the machine must be collected by a
worker. Figure 1.2(c) depicts a fully automated system. The semiautomated system is best
portrayed by Figure 1.2(b). In certain fully automated processes, one or more workers are required
to be present
to continuously monitor the operation, and make sure that it performs according to the intended
specifications. Examples of these kinds of automated processes include complex chemical
processes, oil refineries, and nuclear power plants. The workers do not actively participate in the
process except to make occasional adjustments in the equipment settings, perform periodic
maintenance, and spring into action if something goes wrong.

Table 1.1 Relative Strengths and Attributes of Humans and Machines

1.3 Automation in Production Systems

Some components of the firm’s production system are likely to be automated, whereas others
will be operated manually or clerically. The automated elements of the production system can
be separated into two categories: (1) automation of the manufacturing systems in the factory,
2) computerization of the manufacturing support systems.
 Figure 1.3. Opportunities for automation and computerization in a production
system.

In modern production systems, the two categories are closely related, because the automated
manufacturing systems on the factory floor are themselves usually implemented by computer
systems that are integrated with the manufacturing support systems and management
information system operating at the plant and enterprise levels. The two categories of
automation are shown in Figure 1.4 as an overlay on Figure 1.1

1.3.1 Automated Manufacturing Systems

Automated manufacturing systems operate in the factory on the physical product. They
perform operations such as processing, assembly, inspection, and material handling, in many
cases accomplishing more than one of these operations in the same system. They are called
automated because they perform their operations with a reduced level of human participation
compared with the corresponding manual process. In some highly automated systems, there is
virtually no human participation. Examples of automated manufacturing systems include:
• Automated machine tools that process parts
• Transfer lines that perform a series of machining operations
• Automated assembly systems
• Manufacturing systems that use industrial robots to perform processing or assembly
operations
• Automatic material handling and storage systems to integrate manufacturing
operations
• Automatic inspection systems for quality control.
1.3.2 Types of production automation systems
Automated manufacturing systems can be classified into three basic types: (1) fixed
automation, (2) programmable automation, and (3) flexible automation. They generally
operate as fully automated systems although semiautomated systems are common in
programmable automation. The relative positions of the three types of automation for
different production volumes and product varieties are depicted in Figure 1.5.

Fixed Automation. Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of processing (or
assembly) operations is fixed by the equipment configuration. Each operation in the sequence
is usually simple, involving perhaps a plain linear or rotational motion or an uncomplicated
combination of the two, such as feeding a rotating spindle. It is the integration and
coordination of many such operations in one piece of equipment that makes the system
complex. Typical features of fixed automation are (1) high initial investment for custom-
engineered equipment, (2) high production rates, and (3) inflexibility of the equipment to
accommodate product variety. The economic justification for fixed automation is found in
products that are made in very large quantities and at high production rates. The high initial
cost of the equipment can be spread over a very large number of units, thus minimizing the
unit cost relative to alternative methods of production. Examples of fixed automation include
machining transfer lines and automated assembly machines.

Figure 1.4. Three types of automation relative to production quantity and product
variety.
Programmable Automation. In programmable automation, the production equipment is
designed with the capability to change the sequence of operations to accommodate different
product configurations. The operation sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of
instructions coded so that they can be read and interpreted by the system. New programs can
be prepared and entered into the equipment to produce new products. Some of the features
that characterize programmable automation include:
 (1) high investment in general-purpose equipment, (2) lower production rates than fixed
automation, (3) flexibility to deal with variations and changes in product configuration, and
(4) high suitability for batch production.

Programmable automated systems are used in low- and medium-volume production. The
parts or products are typically made in batches. To produce each new batch of a different
item, the system must be reprogrammed with the set of machine instructions that correspond
to the new item. The physical setup of the machine must also be changed: Tools must be
loaded, fixtures must be attached to the machine table, and any required machine settings
must be entered. This changeover takes time. Consequently, the typical cycle for a given
batch includes a period during which the setup and reprogramming take place, followed by a
period in which the parts are produced. Examples of programmable automation include
numerically controlled (NC) machine tools, industrial robots, and programmable logic
controllers.

Flexible Automation. Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation. A

flexible automated system is capable of producing a variety of parts or products with
virtually no time lost for change-overs from one design to the next. There is no lost
production time
9
while reprogramming the system and altering the physical setup (tooling, fixtures, machine
settings). Accordingly, the system can produce various mixes and schedules of parts or
products instead of requiring that they be made in batches. What makes flexible automation
possible is that the differences between parts processed by the system are not significant, so
the amount of changeover between designs is minimal. Features of flexible automation
include (1) high investment for a custom-engineered system, (2) continuous production of
variable mixtures of parts or products, (3) medium production rates, and (4) flexibility to
deal with product design variations. Examples of flexible automation are flexible
manufacturing systems that perform machining processes.

1.3.3 Computerized Manufacturing Support Systems

Automation of the manufacturing support systems is aimed at reducing the amount of manual
and clerical effort in product design, manufacturing planning and control, and the business
functions of the firm. Nearly all modern manufacturing support systems are implemented
using computers. Indeed, computer technology is used to implement automation of the
manufacturing systems in the factory as well. Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM)
denotes the pervasive use of computer systems to design the products, plan the production,
control the operations, and perform the various information-processing functions needed in a
manufacturing firm. True CIM involves integrating all of these functions in one system that
operates throughout the enterprise. Other terms are used to identify specific elements of the
CIM system; for example, computer-aided design (CAD) supports the product design
function. Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is used for functions related to
manufacturing engineering, such as process planning and numerical control part
 programming. Some computer systems perform both CAD and CAM, and so the term
CAD/CAM is used to indicate the integration of the two into one system.

Computer-integrated manufacturing involves the information-processing activities that

provide the data and knowledge required to successfully produce the product. These activities
are accomplished to implement the four basic manufacturing support functions identified
earlier: (1) business functions, (2) product design, (3) manufacturing planning, and (4)
manufacturing control.

1.4 Reasons for Automating

Companies undertake projects in automation and computer-integrated manufacturing for good
reasons, some of which are the following:

i). Increase labor productivity. Automating a manufacturing operation invariably increases

production rate and labor productivity. This means greater output per hour of labor input.
ii). Reduce labor cost. Increasing labor cost has been, and continues to be, the trend in the world’s
industrialized societies. Consequently, higher investment in automation has become economically
justifiable to replace manual operations. Machines are increasingly being substituted for human
labor to reduce unit product cost.
iii). Mitigate the effects of labor shortages. There is a general shortage of labor in many advanced
nations, and this has stimulated the development of automated operations as a substitute for labor.
iv). Reduce or eliminate routine manual and clerical tasks. An argument can be put forth that
there is social value in automating operations that are routine, boring, fatiguing, and possibly
irksome. Automating such tasks improves the general level of working conditions. v). Improve
worker safety. Automating a given operation and transferring the worker from active participation
in the process to a monitoring role, or removing the worker from the operation altogether, makes
the work safer. The safety and physical well-being of the worker has become a national objective
with the enactment of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) in 1970. This has provided
an impetus for automation.
vi). Improve product quality. Automation not only results in higher production rates than manual
operation, it also performs the manufacturing process with greater consistency and conformity to
quality specifications.
vii). Reduce manufacturing lead time. Automation helps reduce the elapsed time between
customer order and product delivery, providing a competitive advantage to the manufacturer for
future orders. By reducing manufacturing lead time, the manufacturer also reduces work-in-
process inventory.
viii). Accomplish processes that cannot be done manually. Certain operations cannot be
accomplished without the aid of a machine. These processes require precision, miniaturization, or
complexity of geometry that cannot be achieved manually. Examples include certain integrated
circuit fabrication operations, rapid prototyping processes based on computer graphics (CAD)
models, and the machining of complex, mathematically defined surfaces using computer
numerical control. These processes can only be realized by computer-controlled systems.
ix). Avoid the high cost of not automating. There is a significant competitive advantage gained in
automating a manufacturing plant. The advantage cannot always be demonstrated on a company’s
project authorization form. The benefits of automation often show up in unexpected and intangible
ways, such as in improved quality, higher sales, better labor relations, and better company image.
Companies that do not automate are likely to find themselves at a competitive disadvantage with
their customers, their employees, and the general public.

1.5 Automation Principles and Strategies

The preceding section leads one to conclude that automation is not always the right answer
for a given production situation. A certain caution and respect must be observed in applying
automation technologies. This section offers three approaches for dealing with automation
projects:1 (1) the USA Principle, (2) Ten Strategies for Automation and Process Improvement, and
(3) an Automation Migration Strategy.

1.5.1 The USA Principle

The USA Principle is a commonsense approach to automation and process improvement

projects. Similar procedures have been suggested in the manufacturing and automation trade
literature, but none has a more captivating title than this one. USA stands for (1) understand the
existing process, (2) simplify the process, and (3) automate the process. A statement of the USA
Principle appeared in an article published by the American Production and Inventory Control
Society [5]. The article is concerned with implementing enterprise resource planning (ERP,
Section 25.7), but the USA approach is so general that it is applicable to nearly any automation
project. Going through each step of the procedure for an automation project may in fact reveal that
simplifying the process is sufficient and automation is not necessary.

Understand the Existing Process. The first step in the USA approach is to comprehend the
current process in all of its details. What are the inputs? What are the outputs? What exactly
happens to the work unit2 between input and output? What is the function of the process? How
does it add value to the product? What are the upstream and downstream operations in the
production sequence, and can they be combined with the process under consideration? Some of
the traditional industrial engineering charting tools used in methods analysis are useful in this
regard, such as the operation chart and the flow process chart [3]. Application of these tools to the
existing process provides a model of the process that can be analyzed and searched for
weaknesses (and strengths). The number of steps in the process, the number and placement of
inspections, the number of moves and delays experienced by the work unit, and the time spent in
storage can be ascertained by these charting techniques. Mathematical models of the process may
also be useful to indicate relationships between input parameters and output variables. What are
the important output variables? How are these output variables affected by inputs to the process,
such as raw material properties, process settings, operating parameters, and environmental
conditions? This information may be valuable in identifying what output variables need to be
measured for feedback purposes and in formulating algorithms for automatic process control.

Simplify the Process. Once the existing process is understood, then the search begins for ways to
simplify. This often involves a checklist of questions about the existing process. What is the
purpose of this step or this transport? Is the step necessary? Can it be eliminated? Does it use the
most appropriate technology? How can it be simplified? Are there unnecessary steps in the
process that might be eliminated without detracting from function? Some of the ten strategies for
automation and process improvement (Section 1.4.2) can help simplify the process. Can steps be
combined? Can steps be performed simultaneously? Can steps be integrated into a manually
operated production line?
Automate the Process. Once the process has been reduced to its simplest form, then automation
can be considered. The possible forms of automation include those listed in the ten strategies
discussed in the following section. An automation migration strategy (such as the one in Section
1.4.3) might be implemented for a new product that has not yet proven itself.

1.5.2 Ten Strategies for Automation and Process Improvement

Applying the USA Principle is a good approach in any automation project. As suggested
previously, it may turn out that automation of the process is unnecessary or cannot be cost
justified after the process has been simplified. If automation seems a feasible solution to
improving productivity, quality, or other measure of performance, then the following ten strategies
provide a road map to search for these improvements. These ten strategies were originally
published in the author’s first book.3 they seem as relevant and appropriate today as they did in
1980. They are referred to as strategies for automation and process improvement because some of
them are applicable whether the process is a candidate for automation or just for simplification.

1. Specialization of operations. The first strategy involves the use of special-purpose equipment
designed to perform one operation with the greatest possible efficiency. This is analogous to the
specialization of labor, which is employed to improve labor productivity.
2. Combined operations. Production occurs as a sequence of operations. Complex parts may
require dozens or even hundreds of processing steps. The strategy of combined operations
involves reducing the number of distinct production machines or workstations through which the
part must be routed. This is accomplished by performing more than one operation at a given
machine, thereby reducing the number of separate machines needed. Since each machine typically
involves a setup, setup time can usually be saved by this strategy. Material handling effort,
nonoperation time, waiting time, and manufacturing lead time are all reduced.
3. Simultaneous operations. A logical extension of the combined operations strategy is to
simultaneously perform the operations that are combined at one workstation. In effect, two or
more processing (or assembly) operations are being performed simultaneously on the same work
part, thus reducing total processing time.
4. Integration of operations. This strategy involves linking several workstations together into a
single integrated mechanism, using automated work handling devices to transfer parts between
stations. In effect, this reduces the number of separate work centers through which the product
must be scheduled. With more than one workstation, several parts can be processed
simultaneously, thereby increasing the overall output of the system.
5. Increased flexibility. This strategy attempts to achieve maximum utilization of equipment for
job shop and medium-volume situations by using the same equipment for a variety of parts or
products. It involves the use of programmable or flexible automation (Section 1.2.1). Prime
objectives are to reduce setup time and programming time for the production machine. This
normally translates into lower manufacturing lead time and less work-in-process.
6. Improved material handling and storage. A great opportunity for reducing non-productive time
exists in the use of automated material handling and storage systems. Typical benefits include
reduced work-in-process, shorter manufacturing lead times, and lower labor costs. 7. On-line
inspection. Inspection for quality of work is traditionally performed after the process is
completed. This means that any poor-quality product has already been produced by the time it is
inspected. Incorporating inspection into the manufacturing process permits corrections to the
process as the product is being made. This reduces scrap and brings the overall quality of the
product closer to the nominal specifications intended by the designer.
8. Process control and optimization. This includes a wide range of control schemes intended to
operate the individual processes and associated equipment more efficiently. By this strategy, the
individual process times can be reduced and product quality can be improved.
9. Plant operations control. Whereas the previous strategy is concerned with the control of
individual manufacturing processes, this strategy is concerned with control at the plant level. It
attempts to manage and coordinate the aggregate operations in the plant more efficiently. Its
implementation involves a high level of computer networking within the factory.
10. Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM). Taking the previous strategy one level higher,
CIM involves extensive use of computer systems, databases, and networks throughout the
enterprise to integrate the factory operations and business functions. The ten strategies constitute
a checklist of possibilities for improving the production system through automation or
simplification. They should not be considered mutually exclusive. For most situations, multiple
strategies can be implemented in one improvement project.

1.5.3 Automation Migration Strategy

Owing to competitive pressures in the marketplace, a company often needs to introduce a new
product in the shortest possible time. As mentioned previously, the easiest and least expensive way
to accomplish this objective is to design a manual production method, using a sequence of
workstations operating independently. The tooling for a manual method can be fabricated quickly
and at low cost. If more than a single set of workstations is required to make the product in
sufficient quantities, as is often the case, then the manual cell is replicated as many times as
needed to meet demand. If the product turns out to be successful, and high future demand is
anticipated, then it makes sense for the company to automate production. The improvements are
often carried out in phases.
Many companies have an automation migration strategy, that is, a formalized plan for evolving the
manufacturing systems used to produce new products as demand grows. A typical automation
migration strategy is the following:
Phase 1: Manual production using single-station manned cells operating independently. This is
used for introduction of the new product for reasons already mentioned: quick and low-cost
tooling to get started.
Phase 2: Automated production using single-station automated cells operating independently. As
demand for the product grows, and it becomes clear that automation can be justified, then the
single stations are automated to reduce labor and increase production rate. Work units are still
moved between workstations manually.
Phase 3: Automated integrated production using a multi-station automated system with serial
operations and automated transfer of work units between stations. When the company is certain
that the product will be produced in mass quantities and for several years, then integration of the
singlestation automated cells is warranted to further reduce labor and increase production rate.

Figure 1.5. A typical automation migration strategy. Phase 1: manual production with single
independent workstations. Phase 2: automated production stations with manual handling between
stations. Phase 3: automated integrated production with automated handling between stations.
Key: Aut = automated workstation.
This strategy is illustrated in Figure 1.6. Details of the automation migration strategy vary from
company to company, depending on the types of products they make and the manufacturing
processes they perform. But well-managed manufacturing companies have policies like the
automation migration strategy. There are several advantages of such a strategy:
• It allows introduction of the new product in the shortest possible time, since production cells
based on manual workstations are the easiest to design and implement.
• It allows automation to be introduced gradually (in planned phases), as demand for the product
grows, engineering changes in the product are made, and time is provided to do a thorough design
job on the automated manufacturing system.
• It avoids the commitment to a high level of automation from the start, because there is always a
risk that demand for the product will not justify it.

1.6 Basic Elements of an Automated System

An automated system consists of three basic elements: (1) power to accomplish the Process and
operate the system, (2) a program of instructions to direct the process, and (3) a control system to
actuate the instructions. The relationship among these elements is illustrated in Figure 4.2. All
systems that qualify as being automated include these three basic elements in one form or another.
They are present in the three basic types of automated manufacturing systems: fixed automation,
programmable automation, and flexible automation

Figure 1.6. Elements of an automated system: (1) power

(2) program of instructions, and (3) control systems.

1.6.1 P ower to Accomplish the Automated Process

An automated system is used to operate some process, and power is required to drive the process
as well as the controls. The principal source of power in automated systems is electricity. Electric
power has many advantages in automated as well as non-automated processes:
•Electric power is widely available at moderate cost. It is an important part of the industrial
infrastructure.
• Electric power can be readily converted to alternative energy forms: mechanical, thermal, light,
acoustic, hydraulic, and pneumatic.
• Electric power at low levels can be used to accomplish functions such as signal transmission,
information processing, and data storage and communication.
• Electric energy can be stored in long-life batteries for use in locations where an External source
of electrical power is not conveniently available.

Alternative power sources include fossil fuels, atomic, solar, water, and wind. However, their
exclusive use is rare in automated systems. In many cases when alternative power sources are
used to drive the process itself, electrical power is used for the controls that automate the
operation. For example, in casting or heat treatment, the furnace may be heated by fossil fuels, but
the control system to regulate temperature and time cycle is electrical. In other cases, the energy
from these alternative sources is converted to electric power to operate both the process and its
automation. When solar energy is used as a power source for an automated system, it is generally
converted in this way.

Power for the Process. In production, the term process refers to the manufacturing operation that
is performed on a work unit. In Table 4.1, a list of common manufacturing processes is compiled
along with the form of power required and the resulting action on the work unit.
 Table 2. Common Manufacturing Processes and Their Power Requirements

Most of the power in manufacturing plants is consumed by these kinds of operations. The
“power form” indicated in the middle column of the table refers to the energy that is applied
directly to the process. As indicated earlier, the power source for each operation is often
converted from electricity.

In addition to driving the manufacturing process itself, power is also required for the following
material handling functions:
• Loading and unloading the work unit. All of the processes listed in Table 4.1 are
accomplished on discrete parts. These parts must be moved into the proper position and
orientation for the process to be performed, and power is required for this transport and
placement function. At the conclusion of the process, the work unit must be removed. If the
process is completely automated, then some form of mechanized power is used. If the process
is manually operated or semi-automated, then human power may be used to position and locate
the work unit.
 •Material transport between operations. In addition to loading and unloading at a given
operation, the work units must be moved between operations.

Power for Automation. Above and beyond the basic power requirements for the
manufacturing operation, additional power is required for automation. The additional power is
used for the following functions:

• Controller unit. Modern industrial controllers are based on digital computers, which require
electrical power to read the program of instructions, perform the control calculations, and
execute the instructions by transmitting the proper commands to actuating devices.

• Power to actuate the control signals. The commands sent by the controller unit are carried
out by means of electromechanical devices, such as switches and motors, called actuators
(Section 6.2). The commands are generally transmitted by means of low-voltage control
signals. To accomplish the commands, the actuators require more power, and so the control
signals must be amplified to provide the proper power level for the actuating device.

• Data acquisition and information processing. In most control systems, data must be
collected from the process and used as input to the control algorithms. In addition, for some
processes, it is a legal requirement that records be kept of process performance and/or product
quality. These data acquisition and record-keeping functions require power, although in modest
amounts.

1.7 Program of Instructions

The actions performed by an automated process are defined by a program of instructions.

Whether the manufacturing operation involves low, medium, or high production, each part or
product requires one or more processing steps that are unique to that part or product. These
processing steps are performed during a work cycle. A new part is completed at the end of each
work cycle (in some manufacturing operations, more than one part is produced during the
work cycle: for example, a plastic injection molding operation may produce multiple parts
each cycle using a multiple cavity mold). The particular processing steps for the work cycle
are specified in a work cycle program, called part programs in numerical control. Other
process control applications use different names for this type of program.

Work Cycle Programs. In the simplest automated processes, the work cycle consists of
essentially one step, which is to maintain a single process parameter at a defined level, for
example, maintain the temperature of a furnace at a designated value for the duration of a heat-
treatment cycle. (It is assumed that loading and unloading of the work units into and from the
furnace is performed manually and is therefore not part of the automatic cycle, so technically
this is not a fully automated process.) In this case, programming simply involves setting the
temperature dial on the furnace. This type of program is set-point control, in which the set
point is the value of the process parameter or desired value of the controlled variable in the
process (furnace temperature in this example). A process parameter is an input to the process,
such as the temperature dial setting, whereas a process variable is the corresponding output of
the process, which is the actual temperature of the furnace.

To change the program, the operator simply changes the dial setting. In an extension of this
simple case, the one-step process is defined by more than one process parameter, for example,
a furnace in which both temperature and atmosphere are controlled. Because of dynamics in
the way the process operates, the process variable is not always equal to the process parameter.
For example, if the temperature setting suddenly were to be increased or decreased, it would
take time for the furnace temperature to reach the new set-point value. Work cycle programs
are usually much more complicated than in the furnace example described. Following are five
categories of work cycle programs, arranged in approximate order of increasing complexity
and allowing for more than one process parameter in the program:

•Set-point control, in which the process parameter value is constant during the work cycle (as
in the furnace example).
• Logic control, in which the process parameter value depends on the values of other variables
in the process. Logic control is described in Section 9.1.1.
• Sequence control, in which the value of the process parameter changes as a function of time.
The process parameter values can be either discrete (a sequence of step values)
• Interactive program, in which interaction occurs between a human operator and the control
system during the work cycle.
• Intelligent program, in which the control system exhibits aspects of human intelligence (e.g.,
logic, decision making, cognition, learning) as a result of the work cycle program.

Most processes involve a work cycle consisting of multiple steps that are repeated with no
deviation from one cycle to the next. Most discrete part manufacturing operations are in this
category. A typical sequence of steps (simplified) is the following: (1) load the part into the
production machine, (2) perform the process, and (3) unload the part. During each step, there
are one or more activities that involve changes in one or more process parameters.

Example: An Automated Turning Operation

Problem: Consider an automated turning operation that generates a cone-shaped product. The
system is automated and a robot loads and unloads the work units.
The work cycle consists of the following steps: (1) load starting workpiece, (2) position cutting
tool prior to turning, (3) turn, (4) reposition tool to a safe location at end of turning, and (5)
unload finished workpiece. Identify the activities and process parameters for each step of the
operation.
Solution: In step (1), the activities consist of the robot manipulator reaching for the raw work
part, lifting and positioning the part into the chuck jaws of the lathe, then retreating to a safe
position to await unloading. The process parameters for these activities are the axis values of
the robot manipulator (which change continuously), the gripper value (open or closed), and the
chuck jaw value (open or closed).In step (2), the activity is the movement of the cutting tool to
a “ready” position. The process parameters associated with this activity are the x- and z-axis
position of the tool. Step (3) is the turning operation. It requires the simultaneous control of
three process parameters: rotational speed of the workpiece (rev/min), feed (mm/rev), and
radial distance of the cutting tool from the axis of rotation. To cut the conical shape, radial
distance must be changed continuously at a constant rate for each revolution of the workpiece.
For a consistent finish on the surface, the rotational speed must be continuously adjusted to
maintain a constant surface speed (m/min); and for equal feed marks on the surface, the feed
must be set at a constant value. Depending on the angle of the cone, multiple turning passes
may be required to gradually generate the desired contour. Each pass represents an additional
step in the sequence. Steps (4) and (5) are the reverse of steps (2) and (1), respectively, and the
process parameters are the same.

Many production operations consist of multiple steps, sometimes more complicated than in the
turning example. Examples of these operations include automatic screw machine cycles, sheet
metal stamping, plastic injection molding, and die casting. Each of these manufacturing
processes has been used for many decades. In earlier versions. of these operations, work cycles
were controlled by hardware components, such as limit switches, timers, cams, and
electromechanical relays. In effect, the assemblage of hardware components served as the
program of instructions that directed the sequence of steps in the processing cycle. Although
these devices were quite adequate in performing their logic and sequencing functions, they
suffered from the following disadvantages: (1) They often required considerable time to design
and fabricate, forcing the production equipment to be used for batch production only; (2)
making even minor changes in the program was difficult and time consuming; and (3) the
program was in a physical form that was not readily compatible with computer data processing
and communication.

Modern controllers used in automated systems are based on digital computers. Instead of
cams, timers, relays, and other hardware components, the programs for computer- controlled
equipment are contained in compact disks (CD-ROMs), computer memory, and other modern
storage technologies. Virtually all modern production equipment is designed with some form
of computer controller to execute its respective processing cycles. The use of digital computers
as the process controller allows improvements and upgrades to be made in the control
programs, such as the addition of control functions not foreseen during initial equipment
design. These kinds of control changes are often difficult to make with the hardware
components mentioned earlier.
A work cycle may include manual steps, in which the operator performs certain activities
during the work cycle, and the automated system performs the rest. These are referred to as
semiautomated work cycles. A common example is the loading and unloading of parts by an
operator into and from a numerical control machine between machining cycles, while the
machine performs the cutting operation under part program control. Initiation of the cutting
operation in each cycle is triggered by the operator activating a “start” button after the part has
been loaded.
Decision Making in the Programmed Work Cycle. In the above Example, the only two
features of the work cycle were (1) the number and sequence of processing steps and (2) the
process parameter changes in each step. Each work cycle consisted of the same steps and
associated process parameter changes with no variation from one cycle to the next. The
program of instructions is repeated each work cycle without deviation. In fact, many
automated manufacturing operations require decisions to be made during the programmed
work cycle to cope with variations in the cycle. In many cases, the variations are routine
elements of the cycle, and the corresponding instructions for dealing with them are
incorporated into the regular part program. These cases include:
• Operator interaction. Although the program of instructions is intended to be carried out
without human interaction, the controller unit may require input data from a human operator in
order to function. For example, in an automated engraving operation, the operator may have to
enter the alphanumeric characters that are to be engraved on the work unit (e.g., plaque,
trophy, belt buckle). After the characters are entered, the system accomplishes the engraving
automatically. (An everyday example of operator interaction with an automated system is a
bank customer using an automated teller machine. The customer must enter the codes
indicating what
transaction the teller machine must accomplish.)

• Different part or product styles processed by the system. In this instance, the automated
system is programmed to perform different work cycles on different part or product
styles. An example is an industrial robot that performs a series of spot welding operations on
car bodies in a final assembly plant. These plants are often designed to build different body
styles on the same automated assembly line, such as two-door and four-door sedans. As each
car body enters a given welding station on the line, sensors identify which style it is, and the
robot performs the correct series of welds for that style.

• Variations in the starting work units. In some manufacturing operations, the starting work
units are not consistent. A good example is a sand casting as the starting work unit in a
machining operation. The dimensional variations in the raw castings sometimes necessitate
an extra machining pass to bring the machined dimension to the specified value. The part
program must be coded to allow for the additional pass when necessary.

In all of these examples, the routine variations can be accommodated in the regular work
cycle program. The program can be designed to respond to sensor or operator inputs by
executing the appropriate subroutine corresponding to the input. In other cases, the variations
in the work cycle are not routine at all. They are infrequent and unexpected, such as the failure
of an equipment component. In these instances, the program must include contingency
procedures or modifications in the sequence to cope with conditions that lie outside the normal
routine.
•Process parameters. How many process parameters must be controlled during each step? Are
the process parameters continuous or discrete? Do they change during the step, for example, a
positioning system whose axis values change during the processing step?
• Number of steps in work cycle. How many distinct steps or work elements are Included in
the work cycle? A general sequence in discrete production operations is (1) load, (2), process,
(3) unload, but the process may include multiple steps. • Manual participation in the work
cycle. Is a human worker required to perform Certain steps in the work cycle, such as loading
and unloading a production machine, or is the work cycle fully automated?
• Operator interaction. For example, is the operator required to enter processing data for each
work cycle?
• Variations in part or product styles. Are the work units identical each cycle, as in mass
production (fixed automation) or batch production (programmable automation), or are different
part or product styles processed each cycle (flexible automation)?
• Variations in starting work units. Variations can occur in starting dimensions or materials. If
the variations are significant, some adjustments may be required during the work cycle.

1.8 Control System

The control element of the automated system executes the program of instructions. The control
system causes the process to accomplish its defined function, which is to perform some
manufacturing operation. A brief introduction to control systems is provided here. The
following chapter describes this technology in more detail.
The controls in an automated system can be either closed loop or open loop.
A closedloop control system, also known as a feedback control system, is one in which the
output variable is compared with an input parameter, and any difference between the two is
used to drive the output into agreement with the input. As shown in Figure 4.3, a closed-loop
control system consists of six basic elements: (1) input parameter, (2) process, (3) output
variable, (4) feedback sensor, (5) controller, and (6) actuator. The input parameter (i.e.,set
point) represents the desired value of the output. In a home temperature control system, the set
point is the desired thermostat setting. The process is the operation or function being
controlled. In particular, it is the output variable that is being controlled in the loop. In the
present discussion, the process of interest is usually a manufacturing operation, and the output
variable is some process variable, perhaps a critical performance measure in the process, such
as temperature or force or flow rate.

A sensor is used to measure the output variable and close the loop between input and output.
Sensors perform the feedback function in a closed-loop control system. The controller
compares the output with the input and makes the required adjustment in the process to reduce
the difference between them.The adjustment is accomplished using one or more actuators,
which are the hardware devices that physically carry out the control actions, such as electric
motors or flow valves. It should be mentioned that Figure 4.3 shows only one loop. Most
industrial processes require multiple loops, one for each process variable that must be
controlled.
 Fig. 1.7 A feedback control system

Fig. 1.7. An open loop control system

In contrast to a closed-loop control system, an open-loop control system operates without the
feedback loop, as in Figure 4.4. In this case, the controls operate without measuring the output
variable, so no comparison is made between the actual value of the output and the desired
input parameter. The controller relies on an accurate model of the effect of its actuator on the
process variable. With an open-loop system, there is always the risk that the actuator will not
have the intended effect on the process, and that is the disadvantage of an open-loop system.
Its advantage is that it is generally simpler and less expensive than a closed-loop system.
Open-loop systems are usually appropriate when the following conditions apply: (1) the
actions performed by the control system are simple, (2) the actuating function is very reliable,
and (3) any reaction forces opposing the actuator are small enough to have no effect on the
actuation. If these characteristics are not applicable, then a closed-loop control system may be
more appropriate. Consider the difference between a closed-loop and open-loop system for
the case of a positioning system. Positioning systems are common in manufacturing to locate
a work part relative to a tool or work head. Figure 4.5 illustrates the case of a closed-loop
positioning system. In operation, the system is directed to move the worktable to a specified
location as defined by a coordinate value in a Cartesian (or other) coordinate system. Most
positioning systems have at least two axes (e.g., an x–y positioning table) with a control
system for each axis, but the diagram only illustrates one of these axes.
 Fig. 1.8. A (one-axis) positioning system consisting of a lead-screw driven by a dc
servomotor

A dc servomotor connected to a lead-screw is a common actuator for each axis. A signal

indicating the coordinate value (e.g., x-value) is sent from the controller to the motor that
drives the lead-screw, whose rotation is converted into linear motion of the positioning table.
The actual x-position is measured by a feedback sensor (e.g., an optical encoder). As the table
moves closer to the desired x-coordinate value, the difference between the actual x-position
and the input x-value decreases. The controller continues to drive the motor until the actual
table position corresponds to the input position value. For the open-loop case, the diagram for
the positioning system would be similar to the preceding, except that no feedback loop is
present and a stepper motor would be used in place of the dc servomotor. A stepper motor is
designed to rotate a precise fraction of a turn for each pulse received from the controller.
Since the motor shaft is connected to the lead-screw, and the lead-screw drives the worktable,
each pulse converts into a small constant linear movement of the table. To move the table a
desired distance, the number of pulses corresponding to that distance is sent to the motor.
Given the proper application, whose characteristics match the preceding list of operating
conditions, an open-loop positioning system works with high reliability.

1.8.1 Levels of Automation

Automated systems can be applied to various levels of factory operations. One normally
associates automation with the individual production machines. However, the production
machine itself is made up of subsystems that may themselves be automated. For example, one
of the important automation technologies discussed in this part of the book is computer
numerical control (CNC, Chapter 7). A modern CNC machine tool is a highly automated
system that is composed of multiple control systems. Any CNC machine has at least two axes
of motion, and some machines have more than five axes. Each of these axes operates as a
positioning system, as described in Section 4.1.3., and is, in effect, an automated system.

Similarly, a CNC machine is often part of a larger manufacturing system, and the larger
system may be automated. For example, two or three machine tools may be connected by an
automated part handling system operating under computer control. The machine tools also
receive instructions (e.g., part programs) from the computer. Thus three levels of automation
and control are included here (the positioning system level, the machine tool level, and the
manufacturing system level). For the purposes of this text, five levels of automation can be
identified, and their hierarchy is depicted in Figure 1.10.

Fig 1.9. Five levels of automation and control in manufacturing

1. Device level. This is the lowest level in the automation hierarchy. It includes the actuators,
sensors, and other hardware components that comprise the machine level. The devices are
combined into the individual control loops of the machine, for example, the feedback control
loop for one axis of a CNC machine or one joint of an industrial robot.
2. Machine level. Hardware at the device level is assembled into individual machines.
Examples include CNC machine tools and similar production equipment, industrial robots,
powered conveyors, and automated guided vehicles. Control functions at this level include
performing the sequence of steps in the program of instructions in the correct order and
making sure that each step is properly executed.

3. Cell or system level. This is the manufacturing cell or system level, which operates under
instructions from the plant level. A manufacturing cell or system is a group of machines or
workstations connected and supported by a material handling system, computer, and other
equipment appropriate to the manufacturing process. Production lines are included in this
level. Functions include part dispatching and machine loading, coordination among machines
and material handling system, and collecting and evaluating inspection data.
 4. Plant level. This is the factory or production systems level. It receives instructions from the
corporate information system and translates them into operational plans for production. Likely
functions include order processing, process planning, inventory control, purchasing, material
requirements planning, shop floor control, and quality control.
5. Enterprise level. This is the highest level, consisting of the corporate information system. It
is concerned with all of the functions necessary to manage the company: marketing and sales,
accounting, design, research, aggregate planning, and master production scheduling. The
corporate information system is usually managed using Enterprise Resource Planning

QUESTION BANK
PART – A
1. Define automation
2. What are advanced automated functions?
3. What are different types of automation?
4. Differentiate between fixed and programmable automation.
5. Distinguish between automated production system and CIM.
6. Mention the control elements of an automated system
7. Give any four important reasons for automation.
8. Name the basic elements of a production system
9. What are the main components of an automated system?
10. Write the significance of USA principle for automation.
11. Name some modern manufacturing approaches
12. State some activities that humans need to perform even after automation of manufacturing
system.
13. What do you mean by a manufacturing cell?
14. What do you mean by work cycle program?
15. Name different levels of automation
16. Define ‘Enterprise level automation’
 PART –B
1. Explain the reasons for automation in manufacturing
2. With neat sketch, explain different types of automation with examples
3. Discuss the approach of USA principle for automation
4. Describe the ‘Ten strategies for automation and Process improvement’
5. Discuss the three phases of ‘Automation Migration Strategy’ with a neat diagram
6. How levels of automation are classified? Explain each with a block diagram
7. Discuss the steps involved in a ‘Work cycle Program’ of automation with an example
8. Briefly explain the various basic elements of an automated system with a neat sketch
9. Explain the control system elements of an automated system with a diagram
10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of automation
11. What are three categories of manufacturing systems? Explain.
12. Discuss manufacturing support systems with information processing cycle diagram

UNIT II -

Method Lecture
Proposed notes – Teaching
S.No. Topics to be covered Ref
Date Page Method
Number
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

1. Technical Terms
2. Faculty Guide
a) Structure for 55-minute Class
 3. Student Course Material

UNIT III -

Method Lecture
Proposed notes – Teaching
S.No. Topics to be covered Ref
Date Page Method
Number
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

1. Technical Terms
2. Faculty Guide
a) Structure for 55-minute Class
3. Student Course Material

UNIT IV -

Method Lecture
Proposed notes – Teaching
S.No. Topics to be covered Ref
Date Page Method
Number
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
 9.

1. Technical Terms
2. Faculty Guide
a) Structure for 55-minute Class
3. Student Course Material

UNIT V -

Method Lecture
Proposed notes – Teaching
S.No. Topics to be covered Ref
Date Page Method
Number
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

1. Technical Terms
2. Faculty Guide
a) Structure for 55-minute Class
3. Student Course Material

II. Lab Manual (This Lab manual is framed for Diagnostic and Therapeutic Equipment)

COURSE OBJECTIVES
To enable students to
 Study the function of different therapeutic equipment’s.
 Provide practice on recording and analysis of different Bio potentials.
 Formulate the measurement of respiratory parameters using diathermy.
 Formulate the skin resistance measurement and muscle stimulator.
COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of this course, the students will be able to
 Measure different bioelectrical signals using various methods.
 Examine the electrical safety measurements.
 Analyze the different bio signals using suitable tools.
 Analyze the skin resistance measurement and muscle stimulator.

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1) Simulation of ECG - detection of QRS complex and heart rate
2) Recording of Audiogram.
3) Recording and analysis of ECG signals.
4) Recording and analysis of EMG signal and plotting of fatigue characteristics.
5) Recording and Analysis of EEG Signals and Evoked Potential.
6) Measurement of Respiratory parameters using spirometry
7) Electrical safety measurements.
8) Analyze the working of ESU cutting and coagulation modes.
9) Analysis of characteristics of surgical diathermy.
10) Galvanic skin resistance (GSR) measurement.
11) Study of muscle stimulator.
*Insert Lab CO/PO

III DIRECTED LEARNING CLASS

This class session should be used to evince student interaction. A set of carefully prepared questions will
be given to students. The answers to these are provided in the Solution Guide. These questions are to be
used to provide a quick recap of earlier sessions, create student participation, and clarify doubts and FAQs
(Frequently Asked Questions). This class also gives more information on what is latest in the industry
relevant to the concept that is under study
Objectives: The objective is to create an environment for student relationship building and built in
development of communication skills & personality through student interaction. This class will
consolidate all the knowledge that the student has gained in the previous sessions of concept class, lab
session and the on-line training lab session.
Making the Directed Learning Class Successful: This class will consolidate all the knowledge that the
student has gained in the Concept & Lab classes. Another important objective that is hoped to be achieved
through this class is that of activity-based learning. All learning is great. But, learning is effective when
the students retain what is taught to them. This retention happens when some amount of fun is woven in
the teaching pattern

DL 1: QUIZ
Example: Which of the following is not a control system

i) TV remote
ii) CD
iii) On-Off switch
iv) Thermostat

DL 2: Flipped Class (students explore the topic with link given below at home and brainstorming
happens in the class room)

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2yQA7uwRU88

Note: For every unit type two topics of Directed Learning Class