What is Mathematics? What is mathematics all about?

● a language we understand ● Numbers, symbols, notations

● what our eyes can see, what our ears ● Operations, equations, functions
can hear, and even what we can ● Processes and “thingification” of
perceive in our physical environment processes (that are abstractions)
● language in different forms like ● Proof
patterns, shapes, and music, among
others; How mathematics is done?
● unbelievable patterns of numbers ● With curiosity
formed by nature and of the universe; ● With a penchant for seeking patterns
● A formal system of thought for and generalities (inquisitiveness)
recognizing, classifying, and exploiting ● With a desire to know the truth
patterns (Stewart, 1995). ● With trial and error
● With the fear of facing more
Common notions associated with questions and problems to solve
mathematics:
● Numbers and counting (operations) Who uses mathematics?
● Numeric and Geometric patterns ● Mathematicians who specialize in
● Patterns of movement either Pure or Applied fields.
● Scientists studying either natural or
Any person can recognize the beauty of social sciences.
nature’s mathematical patterns without any ● Practically everyone uses mathematics
mathematical training. in dealing with everyday life activities.

Recognize Deduce the Every individual uses different mathematics

the clues of —> rules and at different times for different purposes
patterns in regularities using different tools with different
nature attitudes.

Where is Mathematics? Why mathematics is important to know?

1. We see hints or clues in nature! ... puts order in disorder
2. In our daily routine! ... helps us become a
3. In our work! better person
4. In people and communities! ... helps make the world a
5. In events! better place to live in

What is mathematics for? ● It is mathematics that reveals the

1. To help us unravel the puzzles of nature simplicities of nature and permits us
and to serve as a useful way to think about to generalize from simple examples to
nature. the complexities of the real world. It
2. Organize patterns and regularities as well took many people from many different
as irregularities. areas of human activity to turn a
3. To be able to predict. mathematical insight into a useful
4. To help us control weather and epidemics. product. (Stewart, 1995)
5. Provide tool for calculation. ● The Pythagoreans believed that the
6. Provide new questions to think about. nature of the universe was directly

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 related to mathematics and that the Indicates that you can draw an imaginary line
whole numbers and the ratios formed across an object and the resulting parts are
by whole numbers could be used to mirror images of each other.
describe and represent all natural
events. (Aufmann, 2014) 1. Bilateral Symmetry

Without Mathematics, all these inventions

and discoveries are not possible.

Probabilities - Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss 2. Proportion and Symmetry

Pascal’s Triangle - Blaise Pascal (Vitruvian Man)
Laws of Motion - Isaac Newton
Modern Calculus - Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
Cartesian Coordinate System - Rene
Descartes 3. Rotational Symmetry - Type of symmetry
Theory of Relativity - Albert Einstein depending on the number of sides or faces
Polonium and Radium - Marie Curie that are symmetrical.
● Angle of Rotation - The smallest
Stewart (1995) explained in his book measure of angle that a figure can be
Nature’s Numbers that mathematics is a rotated while still preserving the
systematic way of digging out the rules and original position. Best way to describe
structures to explain what is going on. rotational symmetry is by order of
rotation.
Mathematics is everywhere because it ● A figure has a rotational symmetry of
finds many practical applications in life. order n (n-fold rotational symmetry)
if 1/n of a complete turn leaves the
“Those laws [of nature] are within the figure unchanged.
grasp of the human mind; God wanted Angle of rotation = 360°/n
us to recognize them by creating us
after his own image so that we could Packing Problem
share in his own thoughts.” ● It involves finding the optimum
- Johannes Kepler method of filling up a given space such
as a cube or spherical container.
Pattern
➢ Regular
➢ Repeated
➢ Recurring forms or designs
➢ Identify relationships
➢ Find logical connections to
form generalizations
➢ Make predictions

Symmetry

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 The Fibonacci Rabbit Problem is a simple way
to explain the Fibonacci sequence.

You start with 1 pair of baby rabbits. After 1

month, they grow into adults, but they don’t
have babies yet. From the second month
onward, every adult pair produces 1 new pair
of rabbits each month.

So, the number of rabbit pairs increases like

Hexagonal Packing this:

● Month 1: 1 pair (the original pair).

● Month 2: Still 1 pair, as they just
became adults.
● Month 3: 2 pairs (the original pair
produces 1 new pair).
● Month 4: 3 pairs (the original pair
produces another new pair, and the
second pair produces their first pair).
● Month 5: 5 pairs, and so on.

The number of pairs of rabbits follows the

Fibonacci sequence: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13... where
each number is the sum of the two previous
numbers.

Fibonacci a.k.a. Leonardo Bigollo Pisano

● (which means Leonardo the Traveler
from Pisa) is one of the best-known
mathematicians of medieval Europe.
● Took a trip to several Arab and
Eastern countries in 1202
● Wrote a book titled Liber Abaci (Book
of Calculations)
● Introduced modus Indorum (method
of the Indians) – Hindu-Arabic
Numerical System
● Explained why the Hindu-Arabic
numeral system was a more
sophisticated and efficient system
than the Roman numeral system.

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 The exponential growth model A = 30e 0.02t
describes the population of a city in the
Philippines in thousands, t years after 1995.

Binet’s Formula Characteristics of Mathematical Language

This formula was named after French Mathematics as a language is ...
mathematician, physicist, and astronomer ● precise (able to make very fine
Jacques Philippe Marie Binet (1786-1856). distinctions)
● concise (able to say things briefly)
● powerful (able to express complex
thoughts with relative ease)

Just as English language has nouns and

sentences, so does mathematics that
have its own ‘nouns’ (objects or quantities
being studied) and ‘sentences’ (stating
complete mathematical thoughts).

Expressions vs. Sentences

● An expression is an object of interest

represented by mathematical symbols
(number, variable, or both).
Population Growth expressions because thoughts are
A = Pert incomplete.
A − size of the population after it grows ex: x+2, ⅘ * y
P − initial number of people ● Synonyms also exist among
r − rate of growth mathematical expressions.
t − time 4 can be written as:
e − Euler′s constant: 2.718 16 1+1+1+1+1 8/2

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 ● A sentence involves a collection of Conventions in the Mathematical Language
expressions related by equality or SENTENCES
inequalities symbols. These symbols ● Regardless if real or imaginary,
act as verb that connect the numbers carry their own values. They
expressions on its left and right sides. are constant because their values do
ex: 20 – 17 = 13 not change. As for the real numbers,
“20 – 17” and “13” are two different they can be plotted on a number line
expressions related by “=” to visualize their exact position.

Truth of Sentences ENGLISH ALPHABET

Sentences can either be true or false.
However, expressions could not be classified
as true or false simply because they carry an
incomplete thought. A mathematical
sentence can either be true or false
depending upon what message it conveys.
GREEK ALPHABET
25 = 5 This is true because getting ● Greek letters play a fair share in
the square root of 25 is really 5. mathematics language. Usually, they
are used in formulas not only in
mathematics but also in different
6 – (−7) < −1 This is false because using the branches of science like chemistry
rule of subtracting integers, 6 and physics.
minus negative 7 results to 13, Greek Alphabet Symbols &
and 13 is not less than -1. Characters: Mathematical Uses »
Electronics Notes
x + 8 = 23 → This is sometimes
true/sometimes false. This a conditional STATEMENTS
sentence because its truth depends upon the ● Sentences in mathematics may be
value of the variable. If x is 15, then the considered universal, conditional, or
sentence is true. Otherwise, it is false. existential statements.

0/0 = 1 → This is indeterminate because its

Statement Definition Example
truth is not fully determined, because it
satisfies all of the rules in mathematics Universal - states that a certain All positive
enumerated below. Statement property is true for numbers are
● Any fraction whose numerator is equal all greater than
elements in a set. zero.
to the denominator is equal to 1.
● If a fraction’s numerator is 0, then its
value is 0. Conditional - indicates that if one If 378 is
● If a fraction’s denominator is 0, then Statement thing is true, then divisible
some other things are by 18, then 378
it is undefined. also true. is divisible by 6.
- usually constructed
as an if-then
statement.

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Existential - says that, given a There is a prime written as: X = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. From here it
Statement property that may or number that is can be seen that set X has 5 elements. So:
may not be true. even. n(X) = 5.
there
is at least one thing
for which the 3 Ways in Writing a Set
property is true.

Set Definition EXAMPLE:

SET S = {FIRST
Four Basic Concepts: Sets, Functions, Notation
THREE
Relations and Binary Operations MULTIPLES OF 9}

1. Roster - requires all the S = {9, 18, 27}

A. SETS Method/ elements of the set to
● A set is a collection of well-defined Listing be written inside a
objects called elements. Method pair of braces and
separated by comma.
● “Well-defined” refers to an objective
If the set has infinite
and common understanding of all number of elements,
regarding the commonalities of the an ellipsis (3 dots) is
elements in a set. used to denote the
unlisted elements.
● The name of the set is always written
in capital letters, while its elements
are in lowercase letters. If the 2. Verbal - defines the set’s Set S contains
elements are numeric, they should be Descriptive unifying characteristic the first three
Method in a sentence format. multiples of 9.
written in ascending order.

Example: 3. Set - identifies the rule S = { x | x is the

1. The group of easy subjects in junior high Builder behind the set using first three
Notation the format { x | (state multiples of 9}
school is not a set because the definition
the rule)} and is read
of the term “easy” varies from person to as “x such that x is
person. (state the rule)”
2. The group of all the first year students - the verb in set
builder notation is
enrolled in PUP Santa Rosa for the
always singular.
academic year 2023-2024 is a set because However, it describes
one can easily identify if a student belongs all the possible
to this set using the registration card. elements
in the set.
3. The collection of all even positive
numbers is also a set.
From Example 3, it can be noted that 4 is an Furthermore, the following are
element of this set, which will now be the kinds of sets:
referred as set A. This can be written as 4 ∈
A, and is read as “4 is an element of A”. On UNIVERSAL SET - contains all the possible
the other hand, 11 is not an element of elements of any set used in the present
A or 11 ∉ A. situation being studied. It is always
represented by a capital letter U.
Cardinality of a set A (written as n(A)) NULL SET or (EMPTY SET) - a set with no
refers to the number of elements contained elements. It is denoted by an empty pair of
in a set. For example, set X contains the even braces { } or ∅.
counting numbers below 11. Thus, set X can be UNIT SET - a set with exactly one element.

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FINITE SET - a set with definite and
countable number of elements.
INFINITE SET - a set with indefinite
number of elements. If written in roster
method.

Sets can also be related to each

other in multiple ways:

Joint Sets Disjoint Sets Operations on sets can also be done.

Furthermore, Venn diagram can be helpful
Two or more sets are said Two or more sets are to visualize these operations, and interpret
to be joint if they have at disjoint if they have no
what the data in the set actually imply.
least one element in element in common.
common.

Examples:
C = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}
D = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19}
E = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50, ... }
● Sets C and D are joint sets because
they both have the elements 12, 15,
and 18.
● Sets C and E are disjoint sets because
they do not have any element in
common.

Equivalent Sets Equal Sets

Two sets are equivalent if Two or more sets are

they have the same equal if they have the
cardinality. same cardinality and
exactly the same
elements (regardless of
order).

Examples:
B = {a, e, i, o, u}
T = {96, 97, 98, 99, 100}
S = {100, 99, 98, 96, 97}
note: example ay nasa ppt
● Sets B and T are equivalent because
n(B) = 5 and the n(T) = 5, too.
● Sets T and S are equal sets because B. RELATIONS
they have the same cardinality and Man, by nature, is related to others. Be it by
exactly the same elements. blood (if they share common ancestor), by
marriage, or just be hierarchical position (e.g.
leader-and-subordinate, employer-and

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employee, etc.). Similarly, objects in Property Operations Definition
mathematics are may be related Involved
in various ways.
Closure Addition and If a ∈R and b
Multiplication ∈R,
C. FUNCTIONS
A function F from a set A to a set B is a then:
(a + b) ∈ R
relation with domain A and co-domain B that
(a)(b) ∈ R
satisfies the following two properties:
1. For every element x in A, there is an Commutative Addition and a+b=b+a
element y in B Multiplication (a)(b) = (b)(a)

such that (x, y) ∈ F Assosiative Addition and a+b+c

2. For all elements x in A and y and z in B, If Multiplication = a + (b + c)
(x, y) ∈ [(a) (b)] (c)
= (a) [(b)(c)]
F and (x, z) ∈ F, then y = z.
Identity Addition and a + 0 = a or 0 +
D. BINARY OPERATIONS Multiplication a=a
(The identity
Primarily, the word “binary” means “composed
element of
of two”. Thus, binary operation is simply a addition is 0.)
rule combining two values in order to give a (a) (1) = a or
new value. (1)(a) = a

(The identity
● For sets, the binary operations are element of
intersection, union, and difference. multiplication
is 1.)
● For logic statements, the binary
operations are conjunction and Inverse Addition and a + (−a) = 0
disjunction. Multiplication (a)(1/a) = 1
● For real numbers, the binary
operations are addition, subtraction, Closure property is very important in binary
multiplication and division. operations. You can only say that an
operation is a binary operation under a
certain group/set of numbers if and only if
it is closed under the said operation.

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 LOGIC
● branch of science that studies
correct forms of reasoning.
● plays a fundamental role in such
disciplines as philosophy,
mathematics, and computer science.
● Like philosophy and mathematics, logic
has ancient roots.
● The earliest treatises on the nature
of correct reasoning were written
over 2000 years ago.

Aristotle (384–322 BCE)

● Modern logic originated in his work
● most famous student of
Plato (c.427–c.347 BCE)
● one of the most influential thinkers of
all time

Chrysippus of Soli (c.278–c.206 BCE)

● advances in modern logic were made
by him
● developed the basics of what we now
call propositional logic
ELEMENTARY LOGIC
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)
● one of the first mathematicians to For centuries, the study of logic focused on
seriously study symbolic logic. interpreting Aristotle's works and, to a lesser
● tried to introduce logic as a formal extent, Chrysippus's largely forgotten
mathematical subject, rather than a contributions. However, logical arguments
philosophical one. However, he never were expressed in words, lacking the formal
achieved this goal. tools needed for a systematic calculus of
Augustus De Morgan (1806- 1871) and deduction.
George Boole (1815-1864)
● Boole in 1848 and 1854 published his
works called “The Mathematical
Analysis of Logic” and “An
Investigation of the Laws of
Thought,” respectively.

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Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716) work on logic and mathematical
● first to realize the need to formalize foundations, profoundly influencing
logical argument forms. 20th-century developments in the
● Leibniz dreamed of creating a field.
universal formal language for science
to resolve philosophical disputes Logic provides rules to assess the validity of

through calculation by translating arguments. Classical Aristotelian logic offers

reasoning into this language. principles and methods for evaluating

reasoning, later developed into symbolic logic

George Boole (1815–1864) by mathematicians who represented verbal

● First real step in this direction in arguments using mathematical symbols.

logic was made by him.

The first step in symbolic logic is learning to
● In 1854 he published An Investigation
represent statements, focusing only on
of the Laws of Thought, in which he
declarative statements that are either true
developed an algebraic system for
or false, excluding commands, questions, or
discussing logic
exclamations.
● His work was advanced further by
Augustus De Morgan (1806–1871),
These statements are called:
Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914),
PROPOSITIONS or ASSERTIONS
Ernst Schröder (1841–1902), and
● Thus the statement: “I studied for
Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932).
the test.” is a proposition whereas the
command “Study for the test.” is not.
Gottlob Frege (1848–1925)
● Note that propositions can be
● Next key step was made by him.
verified to be true or false, but the
● Created a powerful and profoundly
command does not have any truth
original symbolic system of logic.
value.
● Suggested that the whole of
mathematics could be developed on
Proposition – a statement which is either true
the basis of formal logic, resulted in
or false but not both.
the well-known school of logicism
Simple proposition – a proposition that
conveys one thought with no connecting
(Early 20th Century)
words.
Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) and Alfred
Compound proposition – contains two or more
North Whitehead (1861–1947)
simple propositions that are put together
● gave a modern account of logic and
using connective words
the foundations of mathematics in
their influential treatise Principia
Mathematica.
● Published between 1910 and 1913,
Principia synthesized 19th-century

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PROPOSITIONAL or By concept, compound propositions may be
STATEMENT VARIABLE obtained from simpler propositions with the
● represented by a lowercase letter in use of logical operators most of which are
the English Alphabet denotes an connectives.
arbitrary proposition with an
unspecified truth value. CONNECTIVES
● The most usual statement variables a) Conjunction – two simple propositions
that are used in a particular connected using the word and. The sentence
discussion starts with p, q, r, s, t … “Today is Friday and tomorrow is Saturday”
is a conjunction. Sometimes, the word but will
PROPOSITIONAL FORM be used in place of and in a given sentence.
● An assertion that contains at least
one propositional variable. b) Disjunction – Two simple propositions that
● Appears as a sequence of symbols are not connected using the word or. The
containing propositional variables and sentence “I will pass the Math exam or I
logical operators. will be promoted” is an example of
disjunction.
LOGICAL OPERATORS
● Used to combine propositions c) Negation – the negation of a given
constructing new ones. statement is a statement that is false
whenever the given statement is true, and
PROPOSITIONAL or true whenever the given statement is false.
STATEMENT CONSTANT The negation can be obtained by inserting the
● represented by an uppercase letter in word not in the given statement or by
the English Alphabet denotes an prefixing it with phrases such as “It is not
actual proposition used in particular. the case that… ”
● represents an actual given statement.
The negation of the statement “Herbert is
The proposition “If Jena studies well on her good” can be written as: “Herbert is not
exams, then she will have good grades” is good”
combining the propositions: “Jena studies The negation of the statement “Jerry has
well on her exams”, and “She have good diabetes” can be written as: “Jerry does not
grades”. It shows that if-then is a logical have diabetes.”
operator. In symbols, this maybe written as:
“If J then G”, where J stands for the first d) Material Implication (Conditional) - Two
proposition and G for the second. J and G simple propositions that are not connected
here are statement constants, since they using the words if … then. The sentence “if
represent actual statements. you will recite the poem, then you will pass
the oral examination” is an example of a
conditional.

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The statement between the if and then is QUANTIFIERS - used to describe the
called the antecedent of the conditional. The variable( s) in a statement.
sentence that follows then is called the UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIER - usually written
consequent. in the English language as “for all” or “for
a. If you will recite the poem, you will every”. It is denoted by the symbol: ∀
pass the oral examination; or EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIER - expressed
b. You will pass the oral examination if in words as “there exist” or “for some”. This
you will recite the poem. quantifier is denoted by: ∃

e) Material Equivalence (Biconditional) - Translations and Punctuations - grouping

Conjunction of two conditional statements marks have to be used especially in
where the antecedent and consequent of symbolizing lengthy propositions. These
the first statement have been switched in include parentheses, braces, or brackets.
the second statement.
1) The parenthesis is used whenever the
The sentence “If two sides of a triangle are word “both” goes with “and” and “either”
congruent, then the angle opposite them are goes with “or”. The translations of the
congruent, and if two angles of a triangle are following phrases are:
congruent, the then sides opposite them are a) Both p or q and r (𝐩 ∨ 𝐪)⋀𝐫
congruent”, is an example of a biconditional. b) p or both q and r 𝐩 ∨ (𝐪⋀𝐫)
c) Either p and q or r (𝐩⋀𝐪) ∨ 𝐫
The sentence above is usually stated as “Two d) p and either q or r 𝐩⋀(𝐪 ∨ 𝐫)
sides of a triangle are congruent if and
only it two angles opposite them are 2) Since “neither p nor q” is the same as ”not
congruent.” either p or q”, then it is denoted by ~(𝐩 ∨ 𝐪).
This is also expressed by the phrase “both p
SYMBOLS or q are not”
● used to simplify work in logic.
● letters p, q, or r are often used to 3) The order of the words “both” and “not”
represent propositions in logic. should also be taken into consideration. Thus
the translations of the following phrases are:
a) p and q are not both ~(𝐪⋀𝐫)
b) p and q are both not ~𝐪⋀~r

4) The parenthesis, brackets and braces are

used in symbolic logic in the same manner as
in mathematical expressions. As an example,
the proposition “It is impossible that if he is
sick and you are there, then he will instantly
get well or he will at least feel secure” should

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be symbolized as follows in terms of CONJUNCTION (𝐩⋀𝒒)
statement constants: ~[(𝐒 ⋀ 𝐘) → (𝐖 ⋀ 𝐅)] ● The proposition p and the proposition
q are called conjuncts.
Examples: ● Other words that can be used in place
a) If students understand mathematics, then of “and” are moreover, although,
they will be interested to learn more. still, furthermore, also,
(V -> I) nevertheless, however, yet, but,
b) Carrots and squash are both nutritious etc.
vegetables. ● A comma or a semicolon between two
(C ⋀ S) statements may also stand for “and”.
c) Feathers protect the bird against the
weather; moreover, feathers insulate the bird The rule for conjunction is given by:
against loss of heat. ● The conjunction 𝐏 ∧ 𝐐 is true when P
(P ⋀ I) and Q are both true; otherwise, the
d) It is not true that the number of covid conjunction is false.
cases decreases in the Philippines.
~ C
p q 𝐩⋀q
e) If the cake gets hot then the icing melts
and if the icing melts then the cake cannot be T T T
used at the wedding reception.
T F F
(H -> M) ⋀ (M-> ~ W)
f) Either he is here and she is there, or it is F T F
not true that either he is not here or she is
F F F
there.
(H ⋀ T) v ~ (H ⋀ T)
g) The school principal already gave a warning DISJUNCTION (𝐩 ∨ 𝒒)
call, moreover, his father and mother are ● The proposition p and the proposition
both not happy about it. q are called disjuncts.
P ⋀ (~ F ^ ~ M) ● p or q can be replaced by p unless q.
h) What Paolo can do is both concentrate on
his studies or find a tutor, and stop seeing his The rule for conjunction is given by:
friends on schooldays. ● Notice that the proposition p∨𝑞 is
(C v T) ⋀ S TRUE when at least one of the
propositions p or q is TRUE. It is
FALSE when both p and q are
FALSE.

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 Other ways of expressing “p implies q” are:
p q 𝐩 ∨ 𝒒
● If p then q, p is a sufficient condition
T T T for q, p only if q, q is a necessary
condition for p, q if p, q follows from
T F T
p, q provided p, q whenever p, q is a
F T T logical consequence of p.

F F F
The rule for implication is given by:
● Observe that 𝒑 → 𝒒 is FALSE only
NEGATION (∼ 𝐩) when the consequent is FALSE, and it
● The proposition not p represented by is TRUE for the rest.
~p is called negation of p.
● For instance, the negation of the
p q 𝐩→q
statement, A vaccine is already
available is “It is not true that a T T T
vaccine is already available” or “The
T F F
vaccine is not yet available”, and in
symbol: ~𝑉. F T T

The rule for negation is given by the following F F T

truth table:
● The table shows that if the ● “If you graduated with honors, then I
proposition P is true then its negation will give you expensive jewelries”
is false and if P is false then its
negation is true. a) You graduated with honors and then I give
you expensive jewelries.
b)You graduated with honors but then I didn’t
p ~ p
give you expensive jewelries.
F T c) You didn’t graduate with honors but then I
give you expensive jewelries just the same.
T F
d) You didn’t graduate with honors and then I
didn’t give you expensive jewelries.
Material Implication (Conditional) (𝐩 → 𝒒)
● The proposition p implies q denoted by Material Equivalence (Biconditional) (𝐩 <-> 𝒒)
p→𝑞 is called an implication or a ● The proposition p if and only if q or
conditional statement. sometimes written as “p iff q”
● p is called the antecedent, premise denoted by 𝐩 <-> 𝒒 is called the
or hypothesis whereas q is called the material equivalence or biconditional
conclusion or consequent. of two propositions p and q.

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 ● This can also be expressed as p is
equivalent to q, p is necessary and
sufficient condition for q.
● Note that the biconditional statement
puts together the implications 𝐩→𝐪
and 𝐪→𝐩 in one statement 𝐩 <-> 𝒒.
Thus the material equivalence can also
be written in propositional form
(𝐩→𝐪)⋀(𝐩→𝐪).

The rule for equivalence is given by:

● The material equivalence or
biconditional of two propositions is
TRUE when these two propositions
are TRUE or both FALSE.

Propositions Converse, Inverse, and

p q p <-> q
Contrapositive of a Conditional Statement
T T T ● Implications or conditional statement
or propositions can be converted to
T F F
either converse, inverse, or
F T F contrapositive propositions.

F F T
Converse of a Conditional Statement
● The conditional statement 𝐩 → 𝒒, we
TRUTH TABLE can write the converse statement by
● The truth value of a propositional interchanging or swapping the roles of
form can be shown through a truth the hypothesis and conclusion of the
table. original conditional statement.
● If a propositional form has n Therefore, the converse of the
propositional variables as components, implication 𝐩 → 𝒒 is 𝐪 → 𝒑.
then its corresponding truth has 2^𝑛
number of rows. Inverse of a Conditional Statement
● This is true since one propositional ● Given a conditional statement 𝐩 → 𝒒,
variable has only two possible truth the inverse statement is created by
values. Thus n propositional variables negating both the hypothesis and
has 2 (2)(2)(2)… = 2 𝑛 possible conclusion of the original conditional
combinations of truth values. statement. Thus, the inverse of the
implication 𝐩 → 𝒒 is ~𝐩 → ~q.

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Contrapositive of a Conditional Statement TAUTOLOGY or
● Given 𝐩 → 𝒒, we compose the TAUTOLOGOUS PROPOSITION
contrapositive statement by ● has a logical form that is always true
interchanging the hypothesis and and cannot be false, no matter what
conclusion of the inverse of the same truth values are assigned to the
conditional statement. sentence letters.
● To find the contrapositive, we first
find the inverse of the given CONTRADICTION or
conditional statement then swap the SELF-CONTRADICTORY PROPOSITION
roles of the hypothesis and ● has a logical form that is always false
conclusion. Therefore, the and cannot be true no matter what
contrapositive of the conditional truth values are assigned to the
statement 𝐩 → 𝒒 is ~𝐪 → ~p. sentence letters.

CONTINGENCY or
CONTINGENCY PROPOSITION
● has a logical form that can be either
true or false (depending on what truth
values are assigned to the sentence
letters).

● If the proposition is true in every row

of the table, it’s a tautology.
● If it is false in every row, it’s a
contradiction.
● And if the proposition is neither a
tautology nor a contradiction—that
is, if there is at least one row where
Here are some of the important findings it’s true and at least one row where
regarding the table above: it’s false—then the proposition is a
contingency.
● The conditional statement is NOT
logically equivalent to its converse and
inverse.
● The conditional statement is logically
equivalent to its contrapositive.
● The converse is logically equivalent to
the inverse of the original conditional
statement.

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