Principles of Diagnosis

Systemic Evaluation
EXAMINATION OF THE GENITAL SYSTEM

1. General considerations c) Uterus

2. Male reproductive system 1) Uterine disorders
a) Anatomical considerations d) Cervix
b) Examination for disorders 1) Cervical disorders
1) Scrotum e) Vulva and vagina
2) Testes 1) Disorders of vagina and vulva
3) Seminal vesicles 4. Abortion
4) Bulbourethral glands 5. Sexual urge
5) Prostate glands 6. Mammary gland
6) Penis and prepuce a) Acute/subacute mastitis
c) Libido b) Chronic mastitis
d) Collection of semen 7. Pregnancy diagnosis
3. Female reproductive organs a) Cow
a) Ovary b) Mares
1) Disorders of ovary c) Sows
b) Oviduct/Fallopian tube d) Ewes
1) Disorders of oviduct/Fallopian tube e) Bitch

1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The genital system includes male reproductive and female reproductive organs, which differ
anatomically and physiologically from species to species. The main function of this system is to
reproduce new individuals. The life begins when female reproductive cell (ovum) is fertilized by
male reproductive cell (sperm). The examination of genital system is performed in order to find out
the malady which prohibit its basic function of producing new individuals. The male and female
reproductive organs are discussed in relation to their anatomy, physiology and pathological
alterations separately. The mammary gland is also described under female genital system as it is
related with reproduction and feeding of new ones.

2. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

a) Anatomical Considerations
The male reproductive system includes scrotum, testes, epididymis, seminal vesicle, penis
and prepuce. The scrotum of bulls is a diverticulum of abdomen and situated in the prepubic
region. The scrotum is long, pendulus and divided vertically in two parts by a external lining on
skin. Scrotum contains testicles, which are oval and elongated vertically. The epididymis covers
the dorsal pole of the testicles. The penis is a round tubular structure, forms ‘S’ shaped sigmoid
flexure just behind the scrotum. In bulls, the glans penis is about 6-10 cm long and twisted
anteriorly. The external orifice of urethra opens in a groove of glans penis. Prepuce is the skin
fold which becomes narrow and is situated just posterior to the umbilicus and surrounded by the
long hairs.
In horses, the scrotum is located in the prepubic region and contains two testicles which
are oval, and compressed. The long axis of the testicles is vertical and epididymis is situated at
the dorsal pole of the testicle. The left testicle is larger than right which gives asymmetrical
balance to the scrotum. The penis starts from ischial arch compressed laterally and it is made
up of erectile tissue. The diameter of penis is much larger than bulls. The penis is covered with
50 cm long prepuce, which increases its length during erection. The glans penis is convex and
has urethral opening in a deep depression. The prepuce consists of skin folds which covers the
penis from scrotum to umbilicus; at umbilicus it forms an orifice.
In rams, the genital organs are like the bulls except the terminal part of urethra which
forms a twisted process urethra 3 cm apart from glans penis. The scrotum of boar is situated at
the ventral side of anus. The testicles are comparatively larger in size having the tail of
epididymis at the dorsal end. The sigmoid flexure is found in prescrotal region. The glans penis
is absent and the anterior end of the penis is spirally twisted and have slit like urethral opening

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in ventro-lateral position. The prepuce is long and its orifice is surrounded by long hairs. In
dogs, the scrotum is situated between the anus and inguinal region. The testes are obliquely
situated, vertically with little backward ventral end. In larger breeds, the free position of penis
covering os penis is about 10 cm long. Comparatively the glans penis is very long with a pointed
anterior end; just behind the anterior end, the rounded bulbus glandis is present which swells
during erection. The prepuce covers the entire free portion of penis.

b) Examination for Disorders

1) Scrotum
Enlarged scrotum is seen in the inflammatory conditions of testes and epididymis. The
enlarged scrotum, on palpation, is hot and painful indicating an acute orchitis. The
accumulation of water or serus fluid in scrotal sac gives rise to the condition hydrocele. The
inflammation of scrotum is known as scrotitis, in which the thickness of wall of the scrotum
increases significantly.
Hematocele is a condition in which the blood is accumulated in tunica vaginalis layers
and causes enlargement of scrotum; it has been observed in leptospirosis, infectious canine
hepatitis and trauma. The enlargement of scrotum may also occur due to deposition of fat.
The inflammation of scrotum may occur due to trauma, and/or infection leading to orchitis
and epididymitis. Inguinal hernia may also contribute to enlargement of scrotum, which is
manifested by hot, painful, unilateral swelling of scrotum. In percussion, it may give the
tympanic sounds indicating the presence of gas along the intestinal loop. Palpation may
reveal the presence of intestinal loop in the scrotum; however, it is sometimes difficult to
determine the presence of intestinal folds in scrotum due to occurrence of inflammatory
exudate and adhesions.

2) Testes
The skin of scrotum is freely movable over testes, one can easily palpate the testicles
and epididymis. Usually, the palpation of testes is resisted by the animal which can be
avoided by proper restraining of the animal. A thorough palpation reveals the size, shape,
consistency, position and sensitivity of testes. The absence of testes in the scrotum should
be noted, as it occurs in cryptorchidism. The cryptorchidism may be unilateral or bilateral.
The testes are situated in sublumbar region in fetal life, but in later stage of gestation,
these come down into scrotum normally. Sometimes, it does not happen and the condition
of cryptorchidism occurs. If cryptorchidism is bilateral, the animal becomes sterile because
of high temperature of body cavity which arrests the spermatogenesis. The cryptorchid
stallion may develop increased sexual urge which is termed as satyriasis. In certain breeds
of dogs it occurs as hereditary predisposition.
The inflammation of testes is known as orchitis which occurs due to trauma, or as a
result of systemic infection. In horses, strangles may result in orchitis. Brucella abortus
causes orchitis, epididymitis or seminal vesiculitis in bulls while Brucella ovis causes
infectious epididymitis in rams, which can be palpated as enlarged and firm due to
inflammation.
The enlargement of spermatic cord with edema of epididymis and orchitis may occur
due to bovine herpes virus infection. The size of both testes may also vary in same animal
which may be due to unilateral orchitis or epididymitis, hypoplasia, atrophy of testes and
tumors. The tumors of testes are common in dogs which occurs in old age; cryptorchidism
is the main predisposing factor of testicular neoplasms. Most of the neoplasms of testes are
benign including interstitial cell tumor, seminoma and sertoli cell tumor. The interstitial cell
tumor is most common in dogs and bulls but it is difficult to detect it clinically. Seminoma is
manifested by pain, crouching posture, lameness and abnormal gait. The sertoli cell tumor
gives the femine characters to animal such as alopecia, reduced libido, sexual attractions
for other male dogs, enlargement of prepuce, atrophy of testicle and increased deposition of
melanin on scrotal and abdominal skin.

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 Principles of Diagnosis

3) Seminal Vesicles
There are two pear shaped elongated blind sacs of about 10 cm length and 5 cm in
diameter present at the dorsal surface of the urinary bladder towards its neck. Each of the
seminal vesicle is located at medial to the prostate gland. The inflammation of seminal
vesicle is known as vesiculitis. This can be palpated through rectal examinations. In horses,
the vesiculitis is not observed frequently. However, it may occur as a sequelae to strangles.
In bulls the vesiculitis is caused by Corynebacterium pyogenes, Streptoccoci, Brucella
abortus; which may be unilateral or bilateral and manifested by fever, abdominal pain, and
constipation. On rectal examination, the affected animal feels pain, as one touches the
seminal vesicles. Chronic vesiculitis is characterized by firmness due to fibrosis. The
affected animal is impotent and unable to ejaculate. The semen of such animal contains
large number of neutrophils, due to streptococcal infection.

4) Bulbourethral Glands
These glands are located at the both side of pelvic urethra near ischial arch. These
glands are of 5-6 cm length and 2 cm in diameter. In rams, well marked melanosis has
been observed in bulbourethral glands which are also known as Cowper’s gland. This does
not have much clinical importance. But at times due to trauma it may show edema. The
infections of brucellosis, vibriosis or trichomoniasis may rest in these glands being their
complicated structure and poor drainage.

5) Prostate Glands
The prostate glands are situated at the anterior part of the pelvic urethra, which is about
4 cm long and 1-2 cm wide across the neck of urinary bladder and origin of urethra. In dogs,
the prostate gland is comparatively large and divided into 2 lobes. Normally, it is very
difficult to palpate the prostate glands. However, in case of prostate hyperplasia in older
dogs it can be palpated through rectal examination. The inflammation of prostate is
prostatitis, caused by ascending pyogenic infection and characterized by pain and arched
back condition. The pain reaction is severe on rectal palpation. The neoplasms of prostate
rarely occurs in animals. The neoplasms in prostate gland is manifested by pain, strain
during and after defecation. On palpation, the prostate is firm and irregular in shape due to
presence of tumors which may also cause dysuria and dribbling of urine.

6) Penis and Prepuce

Penis can be examined through palpation, but the animal resists the examination of
genital organs. It is, therefore, advisable to administer any sedative/tranquillizer before
examination and restrain the animal properly. In horses, the penis is examined by inserting
hand into prepucial cavity and pulling the penis by capturing it at glans penis. In bulls, the
use of teaser cow is recommended for the examination of penis. The pudendal nerve is
blocked using anesthesia, to extend out the whole penis for examination. Dogs are
examined at dorsal or lateral recumbency and their penis can be exposed by pushing the
prepuce. The veterinarian should examine the prepucial cavity for adhesions, fibroplasia,
abscess, sebaceous concretions, hematomas and neoplasms. Sebaceous concretions may
occur in horses and bullocks causing obstruction in urination and interferes with protrusion
of penis. In pudic nerve paralysis, the penis is permanently protruded; such penis is swollen
due to increased hydrostatic pressure. Prolapse of mucous membrane of prepuce may
occur due to lesions like papule, vesicles and ulcers. In phimosis, the penis cannot be
extended from prepuce due to inflammatory swelling while in contrast to this, in
paraphimosis, the extended penis cannot be withdrawn into prepuce. Pustules may occur
on glans penis due to bovine herpes virus. Fibropapillomatosis observed on glans penis are
caused by papilloma virus in bulls and are responsible for paraphimosis or phimosis. In
rams, ulcers are present on prepucial orifice due to inflammation of prepuce also known as
posthitis. Suppurative balanitis, inflammation of penis, is common in dogs in which purulent
discharge oozes out from prepucial orifice. Balanoposthitis is responsible for ulceration on
skin surrounding prepucial orifice and is manifested by pain, purulent discharge and difficult
and painful urination. For confirmatory diagnosis, prepucial secretions should be examined

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which can be obtained by inserting a pipette in prepucial cavity or by flushing the cavity by
sterile normal saline solution. The prepucial washings or secretions should be examined for
Trichomonas fetus and Campylobacter fetus through microscopic and cultural
examinations.

c) Libido
Libido is the sexual impulse which may be increased or decreased due to diseases of the
genital system or systemic disorders. The libido is characterized by frequent erections,
mounting other animals of same species and masturbations. In young animals in which sexual
maturity is developing, the libido is increased but it should be differentiated from frequent
erections of penis due to inflammatory conditions. The increased sexual urge of the male animal
is known as satyriasis.
The decreased libido is manifested by unwillingness to copulate, altered manner of
mounting and loss of vigor for sex drive. It may also occur in painful conditions of legs, vertebral
column, abdominal cavity and arthritis. The reduced libido generally reflects the abnormality in
gonads. In bulls, it can be tested by allowing the bull to mating the partner from behind; the best
partner is cow in estrus or if it is not available a phantom or any cow or heifer can be used. The
mating partner should be in the special stall or service stock. The libido is tested by assessing
the time taken by bull from first contact with mating partner and first attempt to mount. Normally,
in healthy bulls, it is upto 10 minutes, in other conditions it should be classified as in Table 12.1.

Table 12.1: Assessment of libido

Sr.No. Time in minutes Assessment
1. Less than 30 sec Excellent libido
2. 30 sec to 5 min Good libido
3. 5 min to 10 min Adequate libido
4. 10 min to 30 min Weak libido
(Partial lack of libido)
5. More than 30 min No libido
(complete lack of libido)
d) Collection of Semen
The entire ejaculate must be collected for examination of semen. For this the bull is allowed
to mate on cow or phantom and the semen is collected in artificial vagina. After collection it
should be immediately transferred to laboratory.

3. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system includes ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina and
vulva. The mammary gland is also included in this system due to its physiological relationship.

a) Ovary
Ovaries are about 3 cm long and 2 cm wide and are situated anterior to external iliac artery
near the lateral margin of pelvic inlet in cows. In mares, the ovaries are bean shaped and 7-8
cm long and 2-3 cm wide. The location of ovaries is in the sublumbar region, ventral to the
fourth or fifth lumbar vertebrae. In sows, the ovaries are situated in ovarian bursae near the
lateral margin of pelvic inlet. The ovaries in bitch are in ovarian bursae situated 1-2 cm posterior
to the kidneys, opposite to the 3rd and 4th lumbar vertebrae.

1) Disorders of Ovary
Aplasia or agenesis occurs as a congenital defect in sheep and sows, in which the
ovaries are absent. The hypoplasia of ovary is failure to develop a mature ovary due to
hereditary predisposition. Such ovaries are small and rudimentary in the form of a thin band
with rough and wrinkled surface. Oophoritis is the inflammation of ovary, which is very rare
in animals. Sometimes abscess may present in ovaries due to extension of infection from
peritonitis. Cystic ovaries is an important disease condition which can also be characterized
clinically; six types of cysts are present in ovary.

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 Principles of Diagnosis

1. Follicular cyst: Follicular cysts are known to occur much frequently in cattle, pig and
dogs. These cysts arise from follicle that fails to ovulate. These cysts are difficult to
distinguish from normal graffian follicle; generally they do not have ovum. The main
cause of follicular cysts is excessive and continued secretion of FSH by pituitary gland
and lack of LH also leads to formation of follicular cysts. If the follicular cysts are one or
two, they do not have much significance but they secrete estrogen for prolonged time
which leads to infertility, continuous estrus, nymphomanic condition and cystic
hyperplasia and endometrium.
2. Lutein cyst: The lutein cysts are partial or complete lutenized follicles. These are difficult
to differentiate from corpus luteum. Due to abnormal pituitary functions, they secret
progesterone for a prolonged period which in turn may cause pyometra.
3. Endometrial cyst: Endometrial cysts are observed in ectopic endometrium, which is rare
in animals.
4. Inclusion cyst: Inclusion cysts are common in older animals. They develop from small
segment of ovarian surface epithelium.
5. Dermoid cyst: These are seen in ovaries. They contain hair.
6. Parovarian cyst: These are the hydatid cysts occur in mesoovarian or mesosalpinx
region.

b) Oviduct/Fallopian Tube
In animals the fallopian tube starts from the vicinity of ovaries and end in uterus. Generally, it
is difficult to palpate through rectal examination. It is a tubular structure which carries ovum from
ovaries and send it to uterus for implantations.
2) Disorders of Oviduct/Fallopian Tube
1. Agenesis: Agenesis of fallopian tube is characterized by its absence in body.
2. Hypoplasia: When the oviduct is under developed, it is called as hypoplasia. It has been
seen in hermaphrodite or bovine free martins.
3. Salpingitis: Salpingitis is the inflammation of the oviduct characterized by swelling,
congestion, and adhesion with adjoining organs/tissues. The inflammation of oviduct
leads to occlusion, lethal effect on ova and destruction of cilia resulted into infertility of
animal. The salpingitis is caused by Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Mycoplasma,
irritant medicines, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and Brucella sp. in animals and
Salmonella pullorum is considered main cause of salpingitis in poultry. The infection
gets entry through blood, peritonitis or endometritis.
4. Pyosalpinx: Pyosalpinx is characterized by the presence of pus in fallopian tube. The
affected oviduct is distended due to accumulation of pus. It is caused by Mycobacterium
tuberculosis and Trichomonas fetus. It leads to infertility.
5. Hydrosalpinx: The oviduct is distended due to accumulation of water/serus secretions.
Any obstruction or damage to the oviduct leads to infertility as it is not able to transport
ovum properly to the uterus for implantation. Fertilization is also affected due to oviduct
disorders as the inflammatory exudate is toxic or lethal to both sperms as well as ovum.

c) Uterus
Uterus is situated in the abdomen of adult cow. It is a hollow muscular organ consisting two
horns of about 40 cm in length and are in spiral coil. The body of uterus is measuring about 3-5
cm long. In mares the horns of uterus are about 25 cm in length. The body of uterus is situated
partly in pelvis and partly in abdomen with a length of about 20 cm and diameter of about 10
cm. In sows, the uterine horns are 120-150 cm long and freely movable due to long broad
ligament. The body of uterus is only 5 cm long. In bitch, the uterine horns are 12-15 cm long,
narrow and are situated in the abdomen. The body of uterus is about 2 cm in length.

1) Uterine Disorders
1. Aplasia or Agenesis: Agenesis is failure of uterus to develop. It is a developmental
defect in which the uterus is absent in animal.
2. Hemiuterus: In this conditions, only one horn of uterus is present.
3. White heifer disease: In this condition, the partial aplasia of uterus is seen.

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4. Uterus didelphys: In this condition, there is failure of müllerian duct to fuse at distal end
resulting in two uterine bodies and two cervix.
5. Rupture: Uterus may get rupture due to violent movements or obstetrical manipulations
of dystocia. The damaged mucosa may heal but all layers of uterine wall are damaged
and then it leads to hemorrhages, inflammatory reaction and entry of placenta into
abdominal cavity.
6. Uterine torsion: Uterine torsion is common in cows during its terminal stage of
pregnancy. It can be examined through rectal palpation and can be corrected by minor
twisting of animal. The untreated and undiagnosed torsion may lead to peritonitis,
sepsis and gangrene formation.
7. Hernia: Hernia is the displacement of uterus through diaphragm into thoracic cavity. It
may occur in canines due to accidents. Perineal and inguinal hernia are
also seen in bitches.
8. Prolapse: Due to strong uterine contractions for expelling the fetus, placenta or
exudate; forced traction during dystocia; hypocalcemia and retained placenta, prolapse
of uterus occurs in animals which is characterized by congestion, hemorrhages,
necrosis, gangrene and death of animal.
9. Inflammation of uterus: The inflammation of uterus is known as metritis. The
endometritis is termed for the inflammation of endometrium (the inner layer of uterus)
while perimetritis is used for inflammation of outer serus layer of uterus.

Endometritis: Endometritis occurs after parturition and is caused by Trichomonas

fetus,Campylobacter fetus, Brucella sp., and Actinomyces pyogenes. The other causes
responsible for endometritis are Leptospira sp., Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella sp.,
Aspergillus sp., Absidia sp., Chlamydia and bovine herpes virus. Infection occurs during coitus
or artificial insemination, after parturition or manual handling of uterus during therapeutic
management. In mares the endometritis is caused by Corynebacterium equi, E. coli,
Pseudomonas pyocyanea, Salmonella abortus equi, Shigella equilaris, Streptococcus
equigenitalium and Haemophilus equigenitalium. The affected uterus becomes edematus and
congested. In cows, pus is accumulated in uterus giving rise to pyometra which comes out,
during compression of uterus, through vulval openings and soil the thigh muscles and tail. On
rectal examination, the uterine wall is thin, flaccid and atonic in pyometra while in pregnancy it is
thick, having tonicity and fetal movements. In cattle, endometritis is characterized by edematous
uterine horn, edema and redness of cervix and purulent discharge from vagina and vulva. In
chronic endometritis, the discharge may be non-purulent in nature.
Metritis occurs in sows following dystocia, and/or abortion and manifested by fever, edema,
hot swelling of mammary glands alongwith watery or yellowish or serosanguinous discharge
from vulva which has foul odour. In sheep the infection sets during mating or later stage of
pregnancy due to Brucella meletensis, Br. abortus, Br. ovis, Campylobacter fetus, Salmonella
sp., Listeria monocytogenes, Chlamydia and Toxoplasma gondii. In brucellosis the retention of
placenta occurs. In bitches, the metritis occurs following abortion, retention of placenta or fetus
and characterized by mucopurulent discharge from vulva. Pyometra occurs in bitches which is
manifested by enlargement of uterus, distention of abdomen leading to its pendulous form and
caused by E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The pus flakes discharges from vulva on
compression of uterus. In camels, the pyometra has been found to be associated with
Actinomyces pyogenes and characterized by discharge of pus flakes through vulva and vagina
which soil the tail and skin over thigh region.

d) Cervix
In cows the cervix is a tubular structure of about 10 cm long with a diameter of about 2 cm.
The lumen of cervix forms a spiral canal. The cervix of mare is about 5-7 cm long and 2 cm in
diameter. The posterior part of cervix opens into vagina while anteriorly it is connected with
body of uterus. In sows the cervix is about 10 cm long while in bitches it is very short.

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 Principles of Diagnosis

1) Cervical Disorders
1. Double external os: Double external os has been observed due to presence of a
dorsoventral adjustment to external cervical os. It may lead to dystocia. However, it
does not interfere with conception.
2. Double cervix: It may occur due to the persistence of the median wall of the müllerian
ducts, which lead to incomplete or complete duplication of cervix. It does not interfere in
conception. However, it is responsible for dystocia.
3. Hypoplasia of cervix: In this condition, a small cervix is present with a less number of
cervical rings. Smaller cervix may lead to uterine infection frequently.
4. Prolapse of cervix: The prolapse of cervix occurs due to repeated parturition and is
manifested by presence of prolapsed cervical rings in vagina, enlargement of cervical
rings, laceration, hemorrhages and formation of excess fibrous tissue.
5. Cervicitis: Cervicitis is the inflammation of cervix which may occur due to ascending
infection from vagina or descending infection from uterus. It may result into abortions or
premature birth, retained placenta and pneumovagina. Cervicitis is predisposed by
trauma during mating or parturition and due to phooka practices. The infection of uterus
and vagina is responsible for cervicitis which is manifested as enlargement and in
duration of cervix and redness of os when examined by using a vaginal speculum.

e) Vulva and Vagina

The vulva is about 10-12 cm long dorsally of which, the rectum and anus are situated and
the pelvic floor forms its ventral aspect. The labia of vulva are thick, muscular and both the
commissure forms antiangles in cows and ewes. In mares, the vulvular cleft forms a vertical slit
which is about 15 cm in length and lined by labia of the vulva. In the mares and cows, the
external urethral orifice is situated 10 cm from ventral commissure. In sows and bitches, the
vulva is projecting a pointed ventral commissure.
Vagina of cow is about 25-40 cm long, which may increase in size during pregnancy. In
mares, it is a tubular structure of 15-20 cm in length and 10-12 cm in diameter. The vagina of
ewe is about 10 cm long and posteriorly opens into vulva. In sows, the vagina is of about 10-12
cm long while the vagina of bitch is relatively long. In animals, the vagina starts from the cervix
or neck of uterus and extends to the vulva.

1) Disorders of Vagina and Vulva

The vulva and vagina can be examined by inspection and palpation. However, the
examination of the deeper parts of vagina are performed with the use of vaginal speculum.
The tail is raised upward for examination of vulva and vagina. Double vagina is seen in
cows due to a developmental defect. Persistent hymen is generally associated with
abnormal development of other genital organs and sometimes it may be confused with free
martinism. The free martinism is characterized by hypoplasia of vulva and vagina with
prominant clitoris and have a history of twins consisting one male and one female calf.
The prolapse of vagina may occur during late pregnancy of animals. Due to estrum,
vaginal hyperplasia occurs in bitches, which is sometimes confused with vaginal prolapse.
In this condition, the dome-shaped mass protruded out from floor of vagina between the lips
of vulva. The mucosa of vagina is examined for the presence of congestion, hemorrhages,
papules, vesicles, trauma or other inflammatory conditions. In mares due to coital
exanthemas, acute vaginitis and vulvitis may occur which is manifested by many small
vesicles on the mucous membrane which tends to form pustules and ulcers. Such animals
may raise the tail frequently and urinates. The buttocks and thigh are soiled with the
inflammatory discharge. The vaginitis and vulvitis may also occur due to trauma during
mating or parturition. Pneumovagina is the condition in which gas is filled in vagina. It has
been observed in older animals and occurs due to vices of crib biting; in mares inspiratory
efforts may direct the air into vagina causing ballooning of vagina. Alongwith air, urine and
dung also enters into vagina which is responsible for vaginitis, cervicitis and endometritis.
In cows, the infectious pustular vulvovaginitis may occur due to bovine herpes virus
infection which is characterized by the presence of smaller nodules of about 1-2 cm in
diameter and composed of lymphoid tissue beneath the mucous membrane of vagina and

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vulva. The mucous membrane is congested and discharges the mucopurulent exudate.
Vaginitis may also cause by Trichomonas fetus. Ulcerative dermatosis may lead to vaginitis
in sheep which is transmitted through coitus and is characterized by edema of vulva. In
sows, pyelonephritis may cause vaginitis due to the descending infection through urinary
tract. In bitches, the vaginitis and vulvitis is manifested by congestion with the presence of
small red elevated nodules and edema of vulva. The affected bitch becomes restless and
feels difficulty in urination.

4. ABORTION
Abortion is the expulsion of fetus from uterus of the dam prior to the full gestation period. It
occurs due to infection or intoxication in fetus, placenta or uterus, which causes death of fetus. The
dead fetus is recognized as foreign body and expelled out. The causes of abortion include Brucella
abortus in cattle, Brucella melensis in sheep and goat and Brucella suis in pigs. Other causes are
Campylobacter fetus, Trichomonas fetus, Listeria monocytogenes, Chlamydia, Mycoplasma,
Leptospira, Salmonella, Equinerhino-pneumonitis, equine viral arteritis, infectious bovine
rhinotracheitis, aspergillus, mucor, rhizopus and absidia. Besides the causative organisms of
metritis may also be found responsible for abortions in animals. The confirmatory diagnosis is made
by cultural examination from stomach contents of the fetus and serological investigations of dam.
Abortions result in retained placenta, blood mixed uterine discharge, repeat breeding and infertility
and thus are responsible for heavy economic losses.

5. SEXUAL URGE
In female animals both condition, sexual excitement and depression have been reported. The
sexual excitement is known as nymphomania, which reportedly occurs due to presence of follicular
cysts in the ovary and increased amount of estrogen hormone. The nymphomania is manifested by
cry out, switching of tail, back up against persons, kicking, frequent urination, restlessness,
excitement, bellowing, reduced milk production and attacking strangers. The taste of milk is altered
and becomes bad.
In depression of sexual urge leading to anestrus. It occurs due to presence of lutean cysts in the
ovaries. Besides, several other causes including nutritional deficiency are also found to be
associated with the anestrus. In this condition animal does not exhibit any sign of sexual urge or
heat.

6. MAMMARY GLAND
In cow, the mammary gland is known as udder and is divided in four quarters. This is situated in
prepubic region in between the hind legs. Each gland has a single lactiferous duct, which opens
with a narrow orifice surrounded by sphincter. In mares two mammary glands are present which
have one teat in each. The teat is of pyramidal shape in which two lactiferous duct orifice are
present. In sheep the mammary glands are two in number which is globular in shape. Sows are
having 10 to 14 mammary glands which are arranged in two rows situated from pectoral region to
prepubic region. Each gland has one teat which contains 2 lactiferous duct. In bitch the mammary
gland has same location as in case of sows, but the teats are short having 6-12 lactiferous duct
orifices at their tips.
Each teat must be examined separately for withdrawal of milk or other discharges, its
consistency presence of nodules, inflammatory changes and lactiferous openings. The
supramammary lymph nodes should be palpated; if any infection is suspected in mammary gland.
Inflammation of mammary gland is known as mastitis which is characterized by swelling, edema,
pain, hot and congested udder. In chronic mastitis, the atrophy of udder, fibrosis and reduced milk
yield has been observed. The skin of udder should be examined for the presence of eruptions,
alterations and traumatic injury. In older animals the dropped udder is seen due to increased size of
quarters and rupture of suspensory ligament; such udder is called as pendulous udder.
In mares the mastitis is not common. During pregnancy, at the time of termination of gestation,
the udder is affected from edema, firm and painful swelling, pitting edema on ventral abdomen due
to hypoproteinemia. The mammary gland edema is predisposed by presence of more amount of
mammary secretions due to not allowing foals to suck. The causes of edema and other alterations
in mammary glands of mares are Streptococcus equi, Streptococcus equigenitalium,

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Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli. Acute mastitis in mares is manifested by fever, increased pulse
and respiration rates, anorexia, depression and stiffness of gait.
In cows the udder should be examined carefully as high yielding animals are more prone to
suffer with mastitis. The palpation can be performed by holding the tail to one side, from posterior
end of the animal to look for hind quarter abnormality. Rest of the udder can be examined from
lateral side of animal by holding its hind legs. The udder should be examined for its size, symmetry,
level of teat, shape of udder and for the presence of edema/firmness/redness/
swelling/nodules/scar/induration/fibrosis. Mastitis in cattle occurs in acute, subacute and chronic
forms.

a) Acute/Subacute Mastitis
On palpation one can feel hot, painful swelling on udder and ventral abdomen. It is
manifested by fever, increased pulse and respiration, loss of appetite, depression, apathy,
recumbency and blood mixed milk come out from the teats. The milk clots along with blood or
pus followed by watery discharge and occlusion of teat canal has been observed. In summer
mastitis the subnormal temperature alongwith fetid odour secretions from teat has been
observed. The summer mastitis is caused by Actinomyces pyogenes in cattle, when it is in dry
period. There are number of causes which are associated with mastitis, some of them are
Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli. Streptococcus agalactiae, Str. dysgalactiae, Str. uberis,
Aerobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Nocardia asteroides, Mycoplasma sp.,
Cryptococcus neoformans, and Candida sp. Besides, many viruses including pox, FMD and
bovine herpes virus (IBR) are associated with mastitis. Acute gangrenous mastitis is manifested
by swollen, cold and bluish discoloured teat and its skin.

b) Chronic Mastitis
The chronic mastitis is characterized by induration in the vicinity of lactiferous sinus. There
is continuous or intermittent discharge of pus, clots, flakes or watery secretion from teat. The
chronic mastitis occurs as a sequelae to acute mastitis. Besides, it is caused by Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. In this nodular thickening has been observed around the lactiferous sinus and
induration of udder due to tubercle formation.
In sheep the mastitis is characterized by dark bluish discolouration of udder and most
commonly involvement of one side of udder. It is caused by Staphylococcus aureus and
Staphylococcus albus. Other causes are Pasteurella sp., Streptococci, Corynebacterium sp.
and E. coli.
In sows, the mastitis is most commonly caused by Actinomycosis which is manifested by
enlargement of gland, hard and painful swelling, pus containing secretions from teat. Various
tumors like adenoma and adenocarcinoma are present in the mammary gland of animals, which
is characterized by their presence as hard, nodular thickening, reduction of milk and
hemorrhages.

7. PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS
The diagnosis of pregnancy in animals, particularly in cattle, buffaloes and mares have special
significance as it is directly related to the production of animal and its related economy. Various
methods including apparent signs of pregnancy are given here for the benefit of the readers.

a) Cows
In cows, the estrus is ceased soon after animal conceived. The size of the abdomen
increases significantly during late stage, however, it can be observed at 4-5 months of gestation
in heifers. The relaxation of pelvic ligaments causing mark of sinking on croup can be observed
during last months of pregnancy. Fetal movements can be observed after 6 months of gestation
at abdominal wall which are more prominent in thin animals. The rectal palpation of the animal
reveals soft, pliable, relaxed uterus with tonicity in early pregnancy while it is complete flaccid
and atonic during anestrus period. The uterine horn becomes enlarged which contains placental
fluid at 30-90 days of pregnancy. At 30-50 days of gestation, amniotic vesicle is palpable
through rectum and at 40-90 days of gestation, there is slipping of fetal membranes and
presence of allantois chorion. At 3-5 months of pregnancy, ballotment of fetus can be observed

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in enlarged uterine horn which also contains fetal membranes and placental fluids. At 70 days of
pregnancy, placentomes are palpable while at 90 days, palpation of enlarged thin walled uterine
arteries can be done for confirmatory diagnosis. While making assessment of pregnancy
diagnosis, veterinarian should take care that merely enlargement thin walled uterus situated in
abdominal cavity along with presence of corpus luteum is not sufficient for diagnosis of
pregnancy as these changes may also occur during inflammatory conditions of uterus.
Therefore, these signs are not considered definite indications of pregnancy.

b) Mares
In mares the history of animal should also be taken into account while assessing the
pregnancy. The first sign is lack of estrus in animal. The visible enlargement of abdomen
appears at 5-6th month, when ventral abdomen looks like pear shaped. In last month,
mammary gland enlarges with distention of teat 3-4 days before the parturition. In last month,
one can observe the fetal movements on abdominal wall. The vulva becomes enlarged, flaccid,
edematus prior to parturition. In mares the early diagnosis of pregnancy can be done through
rectal examination. In non-pregnant mares the uterus is pliable, soft, flat, flaccid, 4-7 cm wide
and 2-5 cm thick on rectal examination. At 16-21 days of conception, the uterine wall increases
its thickness atleast 3-4 times with round and tubular uterine horn. At 20-30 days, the uterine
horn becomes enlarged with ventral bulging and at 40th day of pregnancy it also shows dorsal
bulging. At 60-70 days chorioallantoic vesicle is present while at 60-90 days, ovoid, tubular
sausage shaped outline of uterus can be felt. The uterus remains on the floor of pelvis upto 3-4
month of pregnancy, which moves forward in abdominal cavity at 5-6 month. At 90-120 days,
the uterus looks like a small, heavy, submerged floating object in abdominal cavity.
In mares the biological test is being done for early diagnosis of pregnancy, which is quite
safe and accurate like rectal examination. At 40-42 days of gestation, gonadotropin hormone
appears in the blood which remains upto 150 days with its peak values at 50-80 days
pregnancy. At this time, 10-20 ml blood is collected from the animal and serum is separated.
This serum is injected (2 ml, I/p) in immature female rats aged 22nd day or it can be given 5 ml
subcutaneously. Alternatively, the serum can be given 0.5 ml s/c daily for 2-4 days. The rats are
then killed 72 hours after the intraperitoneal injection or 96-120 hours after subcutaneous
injections and the ovaries and uterus are examined. In case of pregnant mares, hemorrhages
are observed at corpora hemorrhagica or ovaries, edema of uterine horn which is 2-4 times than
normal and the vaginal swab smear shows the presence of cornified epithelial cells. This test
can also be performed in mouse at 22 days of age by administration of 0.5 ml serum
subcutaneously and after 48 hours, these are examined with uterine congestion and distention
of uterus in positive cases. The presence of gonadotropins in serum can also be determined by
using latex agglutination test with accuracy over 90%. The biological test in rats is having 95%
accuracy when it is performed between 50-80 days of pregnancy.

c) Ewes
In ewes the first sign of pregnancy is cessation of estrus. The size of abdomen and udder
increases in later stage of pregnancy. The fetal movements observed on right side of abdomen
can be observed at 3.5 to 4 months of pregnancy. Since, it is not possible in ewes to examine
them through rectal examination, the confirmatory diagnosis of pregnancy is made through
radiological examination or fetal electrocadiography.

d) Sows
In sows the pregnancy can be determined at 26-30 days of conception, by measuring urine
progestrone level which is as high as 25.6 mg/100 ml of urine during 26-30 days and 75-90
days of pregnancy. At 31-90 days of gestation, the vaginal biopsy from anterior vagina reveals
the presence of thin layer of epithelium having 2-4 layers with a 12-15 micron thickness in
pregnant animals. In nonpregnant sows, it has 4-5 rows of epithelium with 20-24 micron
thickness during estrus. At 90 days, the middle uterine artery can be felt through rectal
examination in very large sows.

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e) Bitch
In bitches the size of abdomen increases at 35 days, while teats are enlarged at 35-45
days of pregnancy. At 50-55 days of gestation, mammary glands are enlarged. The pregnant
uterus can be palpated through abdominal wall because rectal examination is not possible. At
18-21 days of conception, the presence of chorioallantoic vesicle with enlarged uterine horn can
be felt. At 24-32 days, ball type swelling can be observed which is 2.5 to 4.0 cm in size. The
uterine horn becomes enlarged and increases in its size with elongation and loss of tenesmus is
felt; the size of uterine horn becomes 5-8 cm. The size of uterus increases at 45-55 days of
gestation which becomes readily recognizable at 55-68 days of pregnancy. The confirmatory
pregnancy diagnosis can be performed by radiography or ultrasonography in bitches.

References:

1. Dunn, J. (2000). Small Animal Medicine. Edinburg, UK. W.B. Saunders

2. Jackson, P.G.G. and Cockcroft, P.D. (2002). Clinical Examination of Farm Animals. Oxford, UK.
Blackwell Science Ltd.
3. Radostits, O.M., Gay, C.C., Hinchcliff, K.W., and Constable, P.D. (2006). Veterinary Medicine A
textbook of the diseases of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and horses. Edinburg, UK. W.B.
Saunders\
4. Textbook of Veterinary Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis

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