Tessema et al.

Environmental Systems Research

Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-024-00353-8

RESEARCH Open Access

Performance evaluation of integrated

Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket reactor
with trickling filter used for municipal
wastewater treatment and effluent reuse
potential for agriculture
Rahel Sintayehu Tessema1*, Mekonnen Maschal Tarekegn2, Mitiku Adisu Worku2, Agizew Nigussie Engida3 and
Ann Van Griensven4

Abstract
Effluent reuse is a rapidly growing field of research where assessing the quality of effluent is one of the focus areas.
This research examines the viability of using wastewater in agriculture by testing an integrated Upflow Anaero-
bic Sludge Blanket (UASB) reactor with a trickling filter (TF) system during the dry season. Compliance monitoring
was conducted for 30 days from May 11 to June 9 of 2021. Samples were collected, handled, and analyzed follow-
ing standard wastewater analysis procedures for biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD),
total suspended solids (TSS), volatile suspended solids (VSS), cations, anions, heavy metals, E. coli, and helminth egg.
The UASB-TF system in Kality wastewater treatment performed well in removing COD, B ­ OD5, and TSS with average
removal rates of 80.5%, 82.9%, and 80.9%, respectively, compared well with similar treatment configurations. The efflu-
ent quality satisfied the national inland discharge limit with a residual concentration of 125.1 mg/L for COD, 61.7 mg/L
for ­BOD5 and 85.8 mg/L for TSS. On the other hand, high concentrations of chromium, nitrate-nitrogen, and helminth
egg count restricted effluent reuse for agricultural purposes due to high health risks and environmental contami-
nation. We found out that discharging industrial sewage into the domestic sewer network could inhibit microbial
growth and affect the biological treatment processes. Furthermore, adopting integrated treatment systems in devel-
oping countries might face operational challenges and monitoring nitrate, helminth egg, and heavy metals would
help provide timely operational feedback. An appropriate tertiary treatment unit—constructed wetlands or polishing
ponds—is therefore needed to be introduced to ensure effluent reuse for agricultural purposes.
Keywords Effluent reuse, UASB, Trickling filter, Removal efficiency, BOD5, COD

*Correspondence:
Rahel Sintayehu Tessema
[email protected]; [email protected]
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

© The Author(s) 2024. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if
you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or
parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To
view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
Tessema et al. Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39 Page 2 of 16

Introduction (TWW) for irrigation. Exposure to pathogens in humans,

Agriculture is the biggest user of water and is facing scar- effects on soil and the accumulation of heavy metals in
city due to the rising population and the effect of climate our food chain are some of the concerns (Becerra-Cas-
change. According to FAO (2019), agriculture consumes tro et al. 2014; Elgallal et al. 2016; Jaramillo and Restrepo
70% of freshwater withdrawals, with low-income nations 2017; Khan et al. 2022; Zafar et al. 2019). Heavy metals
accounting for 90% of the total. Population expansion tend to accumulate on the soil surface due to their lim-
and climate change have increased food consumption, ited solubility and absorption by plants. The presence of
limiting freshwater supply and prompting the search heavy metals in plants depends on the type of plant, soil
of alternative water sources for agriculture in arid and characteristics, temperature, pH, humidity, and organic
semi-arid regions (Pastor et al. 2019). Water reuse— matter content (Kim et al. 2015; Dickin et al. 2016; Kid-
also known as water recycling or water reclamation—is wai et al. 2022). A study by Qureshi et al. (2016) showed
becoming a strategic alternative and involves reclaiming that heavy metal uptake is lower in food crops and roots,
water from different sources, treating it, and reusing it but higher in leafy vegetables. Arsenic (As) is one of the
for beneficial purposes such as agriculture, irrigation, toxic and carcinogenic heavy metals where inhalation
potable water supplies, groundwater replenishment, and/or ingestion can pose cancer risks. Locally available
industrial processes, and environmental restoration. natural absorbents are considered economical and envi-
Wastewater reuse is becoming a strategic alternative for ronmentally friendly options for treating arsenic in water
irrigation water supply, however only around 25% of the (Asere et al. 2019; Neisan et al. 2023). The occurrence of
present wastewater production is treated (Jones et al. soil-transmitted helminth eggs in TWW used for crop
2021). This study estimates global wastewater production irrigation has become a public health concern in most
at 359.4 × 109 ­m3/yr, of which 63% (225.6 × 109 ­m3/yr) is developing countries, including Ghana, Morocco, Tuni-
collected and 52% (188.1 × 109 ­m3/yr) is treated. sia, and South Africa (Amoah et al. 2016, 2018; Faouzi
The United Nations (UN) has been committed to et al. 2023; Ayed et al. 2009). Mitigating the health risks
implementing wastewater reuse worldwide to meet associated with helminth eggs involves wastewater appli-
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030 cation techniques, restricting crops, post-harvest han-
(United Nations 2016). Advances in wastewater treat- dling practices, and food preparation methods (Keraita
ment and the increasing number of wastewater treat- et al. 2014; Scheierling et al. 2011).
ment plants producing large amounts of treated effluent High-rate anaerobic reactors, such as Upflow Anaero-
have increased the potential for water reuse, particularly bic Sludge Blanket (UASB) reactors and their modified
in urban areas. The global reuse of treated wastewa- versions, have been widely used in developing countries
ter (TWW) for agriculture varies from 1.5 to 20% (Sato like India, Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Mexico, Egypt,
et al. 2013; Ungureanu et al. 2018; Jones et al. 2021). The and Ghana for treating municipal wastewater (Cher-
reuse of TWW is a viable strategy in regions with water nicharo et al. 2015; von Sperling and Cherinicharo 2005;
scarcity, such as China, Israel, Tunisia, and Chile (Yi Amaral et al. 2019; Nada et al. 2011; Arthur et al. 2022).
et al. 2014; Bedbabis et al. 2014; Reznik et al. 2017; Vera- The anaerobic wastewater treatment approach is popu-
Puerto et al. 2022). The use of wastewater for irrigation lar due to its unique characteristics, including economic
provides essential macro- and micronutrients in the form feasibility, compactness, low electricity demand, low
of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), iron (Fe), sludge production, and reduced installation, operation,
zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and manganese (Mn), thus sig- and maintenance costs (Moussavi et al. 2010; Singh et al.
nificantly improving soil nutrient content (Morgan and 2015; Capodaglio et al. 2017). In developing countries,
Connolly 2013; Hao et al. 2022; Zidan et al. 2024). The a cost-effective and straightforward option for treating
morphological development of plants is a clear indication domestic wastewater is using UASB reactors combined
of the value of the nutrients that treated sewage provides. with trickling filter systems. In Africa, two studies have
Long-term experience from Israel demonstrated that evaluated the performance of full-scale UASB reactors
over 87% of TWW generated is reused for agricultural with trickling filters for treating domestic wastewater.
irrigation (Marin et al. 2017), promoting extensive use of According to Nada et al. (2011), the scheme achieved
this untapped resource in water-scarce regions. However, satisfactory removal efficiencies for COD (83%), BOD
the quality of the effluent remains a challenge for most (90%), and TSS (87%) with corresponding residual values
wastewater treatment plants in low-income countries, of 127 mg/L, 28 mg/L and 35 mg/L for COD, ­BOD5 and
hindering the reuse of TWW (Lazarova 2013; Gashaye TSS, in Egypt. Similar WWTP configurations provided
2020). higher removal efficiencies in Ghana for COD (93%),
There is growing concern about the health and envi- ­BOD5 (98%), and TSS (93%) but with higher residual val-
ronmental risks associated with using treated wastewater ues of 152 mg/L, 33 mg/L and 72 mg/L for COD, B ­ OD5
Tessema et al. Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39 Page 3 of 16

and TSS respectively (Arthur et al. 2022). Other post- with TF in the presence of sludge recirculation from a
treatment technologies showed promising results after secondary clarifier.
UASB reactor for wastewater reclamation and reuse in In the present study, we evaluated the performance of
arid and semi-arid regions, such as sequential batch reac- Kality domestic wastewater treatment plant that have
tor (Moawad et al. 2009), subsurface flow wetland (El- combined UASB-TF system. In addition, the study exam-
Khateeb and El-Gohary 2003). ined the concentrations of heavy metals and pathogenic
In tropical conditions, the reactor has shown a BOD microorganisms and evaluated the reusability of effluent
reduction of 80–90% when treating domestic wastewa- for agriculture.
ter (Abdel-Halim et al. 2009). However, post-treatment
options are necessary to improve the quality of effluent Methods and materials
to meet irrigation standards. Conventional processes Study area and system configuration
such as maturation ponds, waste stabilization ponds, pol- The study was conducted at the Kality Wastewater Treat-
ishing ponds, constructed wetlands, rotating biological ment Plant (WWTP) in Addis Ababa, the capital city of
contactors, moving bed biofilm reactors, downflow hang- Ethiopia in East Africa. In 2018, a new configuration of a
ing sponges (DHS) (Tawfik et al. 2003), and advanced UASB reactor integrated with a trickling filter (TF) was
oxidative processes (Daud et al. 2018) are used for this constructed and commissioned to treat domestic waste-
purpose. water due to the low treatment capacity of the previous
A trickling filter is also a post-treatment option that waste stabilization pond. As the wastewater production
can use different materials as biofilm support media. has increased, the design capacity of the previous waste
For example, expanded polystyrene can be an alterna- stabilization pond was exceeded. The authority has cho-
tive material to be used in sewage treatment (Filho et al. sen an integrated UASB reactor with TF considering the
2023). The use of low-cost and readily available adsor- resource recovery option and the potential land availabil-
bent material could be an effective option for peri-urban ity. The average percentage removal of Kality wastewater
wastewater treatment in developing countries such as stabilization ponds was 83.6% of ­BOD5, 77.6% of COD,
using maize cob and date palm fiber as biofilm support and 66.5% of TSS with corresponding residual effluent
media in an integrated system of cascade cum trickling concentrations of 47.5 mg/L, 131.4 mg/L and 71 mg/L.
filter with multilayer adsorption (CCTF-MLA) showed In addition, the concentration of ­NH4+–N, ­NO3–N, and
steady removal of COD (83.4%), TN (80%) and TP (83%) TN in the effluent was 16.2, 0.3, 37.3, and 10.2 mg/L. The
(Kanwar et al 2019, 2021). A multilayer adsorption sys- total coliforms and fecal coliforms removal efficiency was
tem was constructed using recycled crushed brick + rice 99% (Belachew 2011).
husk + steel slags for effective removal of non-biodegrad- The Kality WWTP is the first UASB reactor with a
able contaminants. The removal efficiency of CCTF with trickling filter in Ethiopia. The plant was operating in
a conventional trickling filter showed that the CCTF with steady state condition during the monitoring period; the
maize cob media was the most efficient, with 91.8% BOD raw sewage inflow to the plant ranged from 61,080 to
removal efficiency and the capacity to treat high BOD 70,872 ­m3/d, with an average flow of 65,245 ± 2729 ­m3/d.
loads (Kanwar et al. 2021). Another study evaluated the The plant’s treatment processes include a preliminary
removal efficiency of the locally designed trickling filter treatment unit operation consisting of screening, de-grit-
using maize cop (TF1) and date palm fiber (TF2) as bio- ting, and degreasing units followed by a biological treat-
film support media, the removal efficiency of TF1 was ment unit process including UASB reactors and trickling
observed to be 8–15% higher than that of TF2 for remov- filters with a secondary clarifier (TF/SC) as shown in
ing BOD, COD, TDS, TSS, EC, TN, TP, sulfates and path- Fig. 1. The UASB unit contains a total of 20 UASB reac-
ogen indicators (Kanwar et al. 2021). tor cells grouped in four lines. The disinfection process
Little attention has been given to evaluating reuse after the secondary clarifier involves chlorination and
potential of effluent from the UASB reactor combined dichlorination. Excess sludge from the TF/SC system is
with a trickling filter for agriculture. Many studies have returned to the UASB reactor. The sludge recirculation
been conducted on UASB reactors, but there is a lack rate varies from 1080 to 1416 ­m3/day with an average rate
of research on the potential of reusing effluent for agri- of 1250.6 ­m3//day. The plant also has a sludge treatment
culture. In addition, previous studies on evaluating the line. Biogas generated in the UASBs is collected in the
performance of full-scale UASB reactors combined with gas hoods and channelled to a biogas flaring unit. During
trickling filters have also been limited in Africa. Consid- the study period, a total of 15 UASBs of the 1st, 2nd, and
ering additional parameters such as nitrate, helminth egg 3rd units have been put into operation. Table 1 presents
and heavy metals in the operation guiding parameters is the design influent and effluent characteristics of Kality
a new insight while adopting an integrated UASB reactor WWTP.
Tessema et al. Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39 Page 4 of 16

Fig. 1 Flow Chart of UASB reactor with trickling filter at kality WTP and sampling locations

Table 1 Influent and effluent design. Source: AAWSA (2017), our study, we have obtained the value of BOD: COD ratio
unpublished official report ranging between 0.52 and 0.7. As reported by Kumar
Parameter Units Influent Effluent et al. (2010) and Wei et al. (2023), the BOD:COD ratio
characteristics characteristics higher than 0.5 is considered readily biodegradable.
The UASB reactor’s hydraulic retention time (HRT) is
Maximum flow, ­Qmax m3/d 100,000 –
directly linked to the speed of the anaerobic digestion
Average design flow, m3/d 75,000 –
­Qavg process, which depends on the reactor’s size.
Minimum flow, ­Qmin m3/d 40,000 – The UASB reactor at Kality has an HRT of 12.2 h, with
BOD mg/L 470 35
an average daily sewage flow of 75,000 ­m3/day and an
COD* mg/L 940 100
organic loading rate of 2.29 kg COD/m3 d. The Upflow
NH3 mg/L 45 –
Liquid Velocity of the reactor is 0.4 m/h. The plant has 20
TSS mg/L 600 35
UASB reactors divided into 4 blocks, each with a cross-
Temperature °C 20 20
sectional area of ­400m2 and a height of 4.9 m. The plant’s
Helminth eggs #eggs/L 1
designed removal efficiencies for ­BOD5, COD, and TSS
E. coli E. coli/100 mL 1 × ­102
are 55%, 55%, and 70%, respectively. During the study
period, 15 UASBs from the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd blocks were
put into operation. The operational conditions of UASB
reactor and TF of Kality WWTP presented in Table 2.
The raw sewage characteristics of the Kality WWTP The influent flow to the trickling filters comes from
with design consideration to fulfil the expected efflu- the UASB treatment stage by gravity and also includes
ent quality are presented in Table 1. The (BOD:COD assumed 30% returning flow from the sludge stream.
ratio = 470/940 = 0.5) has considered the baseline BOD The trickling filter (TF) with the secondary clarifier has a
and COD concentration of raw domestic wastewater for BOD loading rate of 0.86 kg/m3 d and a hydraulic appli-
Addis Ababa as a design consideration. In addition, in cation rate of 0.63 ­m3/m2 h without recirculation and

Table 2 Operational conditions of UASB reactor and trickling filter

UASB reactor Trickling filter

qh UV Hydraulic loading Organic loading PM height Wetting rate Temperature

(h) (m/h) (m3/m3 d) (kgCOD/m3/d) (m) m3/m2/h °C

12.2 0.41 1.97 2.29 4.88 0.82 20

qh average hydrauic detention time, UV average upflow velocity, PM packing medium
Tessema et al. Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39 Page 5 of 16

0.82 ­m3/m2 h with circulation. The final effluent BOD Voume of composite sample desired
concentration is expected to be below 30 mg/L, with Multiplier =
Average flow rate × number of portion
about 90% removal efficiency. The required total fil- (1)
ter area and the total packing volume are 5150 ­m2 and
The APHA (2012) sample handling techniques were
25,131 ­m3, respectively. Per trickling filter, the area is
applied to preserve the collected samples until they were
1288 ­m2, and the treatment volume is 6283 ­m3. Conse-
tested in the laboratory. The collected test and associated
quently, the filter diameter is sized to 40.5 m with pack-
composite samples were stored at 4 °C in an ice box. Each
ing media height of 4.88 m.
sample was marked with a date, location, and parameters
to be tested, and then submitted for laboratory analysis.
Research design The laboratory analysis of water and wastewater was
This study monitored compliance by following a special conducted using the Standard Method developed by the
sampling and analysis program that was more stringent American Public Health Association (APHA) (Greenberg
than the routine program. Heavy metals, such as Zinc, et al. 1992). Duplicate samples were tested. In-situ testing
Nickel, Lead, Chromium, Cadmium, Copper, and Iron, of pH, conductivity, TDS, and temperature of the waste-
and microbiological contaminants, including helminth water samples was performed using a handheld mul-
eggs and E. coli, were continuously monitored for 30 days tiparameter test instrument (Model 99720, Taiwan). The
(May 11–June 09), during the dry season in 2021 besides BOD of the samples was determined by the BODTrak
routine operational parameters. Wastewater samples II Respirometric Hach method (BODTrak II Appara-
were collected from six different locations as indicated tus ~ 473 mL/4 pcs, 5 days, 24 V, UL CSA). The TSS was
in Fig. 1, including raw sewage, injection point of recy- analyzed using APHA methods. The total hardness (TH)
cled excess sludge at the outlet of the preliminary treat- of the samples was tested using complexometric titration
ment unit, UASB rector outlet, TF outlet, secondary methods, with Eriochrom Black T used as a complexo-
clarifier outlet, effluent after disinfection. For each loca- metric indicator. For the testing of sulfate ­(SO42−), the
tion, a single composite sample was prepared and taken Hach approach of the Sulfaver 4 method was used with
for laboratory testing. The parameters analyzed included a spectrophotometer (Hach DR 6000, UV VIS (190–
Chemical oxygen demand (COD), Biological oxygen 1100 nm), Colorado, USA). The nitrogen (ammonia) was
demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), Volatile analyzed using the Phenate Spectrophotometric method,
suspended solids (VSS), total nitrogen, Nitrate ­(NO3–), whereas the nitrate (­NO3–) was analyzed using a phenol
Nitrite ­(NO2–), Ammonium–nitrogen (­NH4–N), total disulphonic acid (PDA) method and read by a UV–Vis
phosphorus, and Sulphate (­SO42+) and E. coli. In addi- Spectrophotometer (UV 2600 Shimadzu, Japan). To ana-
tion, the final effluent was examined for agricultural lyze the volatile suspended solids (VSS) in the samples,
reuse considering the concentration of heavy metals gravimetric analysis methods were used. The E. coli con-
including (Zinc (Zn), Nickel (Ni), Lead (Pb), Chromium tent of the samples was enumerated using a compact dry
(Cr), Cadmium (Cd), Copper (Cu) and Iron (Fe) and hel- plate method, and a Priya Moodley, Sedimentation and
minth eggs count. suspension/flotation method of microbial analysis was
adapted for Helminth Eggs examination in this study, as
Sampling and analytical procedures explained in (Jaromin-gleń et al. 2017). Lastly, the heavy
Samples were collected for 30 days from May 11, 2021 to metals content of the sampled wastewater was analyzed
June 9, 2021 May and analyzed during the dry-weather by atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS, Jenna, Ger-
period. There are 6 sampling locations and indicated in many). The Shapiro–Wilk test was conducted to identify
Fig. 1. A total of 150 composite samples were sent for lab- the distribution of raw sewage flow and three monitor-
oratory tests. In addition, a grab sample was taken daily ing wastewater parameters, namely ­ BOD5, COD, and
for microbial analysis at the outlet after the disinfection TSS. This is necessary to select the appropriate statistical
unit. A sampling method developed by Plosz et al. (2010) method for analysis (Mishra et al. 2019).
was used to represent the daily variation of wastewater’s
physio-chemical properties. Initially, individual samples Sample characteristics
were collected every 2 h from sample locations 2, 3, and The Shapiro–Wilk test has indicated that the raw sew-
4 due to the absence of an automatic sampler and stored age flow is normal (W = 0.94, p-value = 0.104). For B
­ OD5
in a refrigerator. Composite samples were then created and COD in five sampling locations, a visual examina-
by uniformly mixing the individual samples. The flow- tion of the histogram of X and the QQ plot confirmed
proportional composite samples were taken every 2 h for that the data were approximately normally distributed,
24 h. The grab portions of each sample required per unit and a parametric test was chosen for analysis. The mean
of wastewater flow were determined using Eq. 1. and standard deviation were used to summarize the
Tessema et al. Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39 Page 6 of 16

data. As the TSS samples at station 5 had a non-normal

distribution, a non-parametric test was used, and the
median with an interquartile range was used to summa-
rize the TSS. The Pearson product correlation of ­BOD5
and COD of raw sewage was found to be strongly posi-
tive and statistically significant (r = 0.886, p < 0.001). An
increase in B ­ OD5 would lead to a higher COD in the
sewage. Similarly, the linear relationship between COD
and TSS was found to be moderately positive and statisti-
cally significant (r = 0.593, p < 0.01). An increase in COD
would lead to a higher TSS value of sewage. The flow
of raw sewage was found to have a moderately negative
relationship with COD and TSS parameters. An increase
in flow would lead to a lesser COD and TSS parameter.
The increased flow from various sources of the uncon- Fig. 2 Variation of Raw Sewage Parameters
trolled sewer lines might result in dilution which causes a
reduced COD and TSS concentration.
In addition, the TSS parameter has shown a moder-
ately positive relationship with ­BOD5. An increase in the biodegradable, and can be effectively treated biologically.
TSS parameter of the raw sewage might lead to a higher As reported by Kumar et al. (2010) and Wei et al. (2023),
­BOD5 parameter. Lastly, the COD to VSS ratio of the the BOD:COD ratio higher than 0.5 is considered readily
sewage sample was found to decrease, which is consistent biodegradable.
with the COD to VSS ratio of 1.44 reported for domes- In Addis Ababa city, the sewer infrastructure man-
tic wastewater characteristics (Ahnert et al. 2021). In the agement is poor and there is a gap in legislation and its
dry season, the higher COD-containing effluent is associ- enforcement (Ali and Robele 2023). In addition, the
ated with the volatile suspended units accounted for by Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority reported
the TSS. The high inflow condition has created higher illegal connections from factories and industries affect-
turbulences that result in the pushing of the floatable ing the performance of WWTP. Similarly, a previous
solids into an effluent stream and reduces the sample study showed that industries in Addis Ababa discharge
TSS, which is not accounted for in the COD load. The their untreated wastewater to nearby drainage systems
volatile suspended solid contains a higher concentra- (Seyoum et al. 2017). Significant variations of B
­ OD5 and
tion of microbial organisms and associated organic mat- COD of domestic wastewater may result in effects such
ter, which can be accounted as a main cause of increased as shock loads and affect microbial activities of a given
­BOD5 (Abdulla et al. 2012). biological wastewater treatment (Metcalf & Eddy 2003;
Leitão 2004). Variations of sewage temperature and pH
were relatively small with fluctuations in the range of
Results and discussion 22 °C–24 °C and 7.0–7.5, respectively. These sewage tem-
Influent flow rate and wastewater characteristics perature and pH ranges are favorable for optimal reactor
The characteristics of raw sewage are vital in evaluating performance (Leitão et al. 2005; Kaviyarasan 2014).
the removal efficiency of any treatment technology. The
flow and physiochemical characteristics of raw sewage
were measured during the study. The average daily sewage Removal efficiency of UASB reactor
flow was 68,783.3 ± 0.04 ­m3/day, there was no significant The performance of the UASB reactor was computed
fluctuation in the volume that could affect the treatment based on influent and effluent sewage characteristics.
process in the facility. The B
­ OD5 and COD variation fol- The performance of the UASB reactors presented by
lows similar patterns (Fig. 2) with average concentrations COD, ­BOD5, and TSS percentage removal values is
of 350 ± 76 mg/L and 594 ± 117 mg/L, respectively, which depicted in Fig. 3A, B. During the monitoring period, the
compared well with medium-strength sewage (Gaur et al. OLR was 1.5 ± 0.3 kg COD/m3 d which is lower than the
2017). However, the sewage concentration was very low design value 2.29 kg COD/m3 d achieving 66% ± 10.6%,
compared to raw sewage of similar treatment configura- 73.4% ± 7.85% and 63.4% ± 11.8%, respectively for COD,
tions (Nada et al. 2011; Ahmed et al. 2018). In addition, BOD and TSS. The percentage removal of COD and
the raw sewage BOD:COD ratio was found to be between BOD in the UASB reactor is enhanced by the residual
0.52 and 0.71 with an average value of 0.59. According to organic substrates and nutrients from the recirculated
Bader et al. (2022) if BOD:COD > 0.6, the waste is fairly sludge from the secondary clarifier. The average nitrate
Tessema et al. Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39 Page 7 of 16

Fig. 3 Removal efficiency of UASB reactor (A) BOD % removal and COD % removal with design percentage removal (B) TSS % removal and design
percentage removal

concentration of raw sewage was 6.3 mg/L which was sewage treatment using a UASB reactor without a pri-
injected by 81.3 mg/L through sludge recirculation from mary treatment unit resulted in poor removal of macro-
a secondary clarifier that enhanced the bacterial pro- nutrients and TSS, caused by the rapid rise in sludge bed
cesses of the reactor. height and frequent sludge removal. Hence, it increases
The fluctuation in OLRs may lead to operational issues the disturbance to microbial growth. This study has com-
such as pH fluctuations and accumulation of toxic inter- parable results though concentrations of the influent are
mediates. Similar performance was reported with a lower. COD, ­BOD5 and TSS removal was 51 ± 13, 56 ± 11
removal rate of 70% ± 11.2, 70.35 ± 13 and 85.56 ± 7.2 for and 54 ± 13%, respectively (Gaur et al. 2017).
COD, ­BOD5, and TSS, respectively, when the UASB reac- Temperature plays a key role in the anaerobic process
tor performed under a maximum OLR of 2.2 kg COD/ of microorganisms in the UASB reactor. In our study,
m3 d (Nada et al. 2011). The sludge recirculation helps the average operational temperature of the reactor was
maintain a healthy and active microbial population 22.3 ± 0.5 °C which is favorable for good reactor perfor-
within the reactor. It also helps stabilize treatment per- mance both in pilot scale and full-scale reactors with a
formance by providing a source of acclimated microor- removal rate ranging from 79–81% for COD and 77–83%
ganisms capable of handling fluctuations in organic load for ­BOD5 (Ahmed et al. 2018; Leitão et al. 2005; Lew et al.
and wastewater characteristics (Aslanzadeh et al. 2013). 2011; Kaviyarasan 2014; Rizvi et al. 2017; Zhang et al.
A higher removal efficiency as high as 90% for ­BOD5 with 2018). Apart from climatic conditions, wastewater man-
corresponding COD and TSS removal rates of 77% and agement practices and sewer infrastructure conditions
73%, respectively, reported when the reactor performed also affect the efficiency of the UASB reactor when used
with OLR ranging from 1.3 ± 0.79 kg COD/m3 d with as an end-pipe treatment system (Gaur et al. 2017). This
longer HRT of 45.77 ± 24 (Arthur et al. 2022). is a main concern in sub-tropical countries, including
UASB reactors found in similar climatic conditions Ethiopia, where sewer systems are not fully controlled,
might face operational problems as a result of OLRs maintained, and well-regulated (Kennedy-Walker et al.
fluctuations. Because rapid fluctuations or sustained 2020). Additionally, the Addis Ababa Water and Sewer-
high OLRs can disrupt the microbial community struc- age Authority has no regulation to control the sewage
ture and function, leading to decreased organic matter characteristics from various sources. This could explain
removal efficiency and instability in reactor performance. the probable operational challenges encountered by the
This study obtained a lower percentage removal of TSS UASB reactor and the associated removal efficiency.
than reported by similar literature which could be attrib- The reactor has achieved a maximum nitrate removal
uted to poor sludge blanket characteristics such as den- efficiency of 63% as depicted in Fig. 4. However, consider-
sity, settling velocity and biomass concentration (Rizvi able fluctuation was also observed which might be attrib-
et al. 2017). Kaviyarasan (2014) reported that domestic uted to poorly managed USAB reactor operation. The
Tessema et al. Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39 Page 8 of 16

for TSS removal efficiency. An increased concentra-

tion of BOD and TSS (negative removal efficiency) was
reported by a similar study while 4% COD removal effi-
ciency was achieved by the TF (Arthur et al. 2022). On
the other hand, a higher BOD removal efficiency of 47%
was achieved while COD removal efficiency was only 2%
(Ahmed et al. 2018). The TF in our study has good perfor-
mance compared to similar studies. The combined treat-
ment from TF and SC enhanced the percentage removal
of 40.8 ± 13.7, 34.4 ± 14.8 and 45.4 ± 15.7 for COD, ­BOD5,
and TSS, respectively. The results showed fluctuation
indicating unstable performance of the trickling filter
and secondary clarifier. The post-treatment performance
is satisfactory compared to similar post-treatment hav-
ing percentage removal ranging from 48 to 57 for COD
Fig. 4 Nitrate removal efficiency of UASB reactor and 59 to 68for BOD (Awuah and Abrokwa 2008; Ahmed
et al. 2018). A recent study in Ghana reported higher per-
formance of trickling filters with a final settling tank as
release of more nitrate from the reactor might indicate post-treatment activities after the UASB reactor—69.3%
the introduction of aerobic or semi-aerobic conditions for COD, 72.5% for B ­ OD5, and 72.5% for TSS (Arthur
in the UASB reactor. Similar studies reported an average et al. 2022). The study also obtained higher performance
removal rate as high as 80% of nitrate (Ahmed et al. 2018) in nutrient removal in the UASB reactor.
and as low as 0.1% removal efficiency (Arthur et al. 2022). Figure 6B shows the incomplete nitrification process
that affects the Nitrite concentration of the effluent at
the secondary clarifier, which might cause variable and
Removal efficiency of trickling filter (TF)
smaller ­NH4–N removal efficiency. The sudden drop in
The COD and B ­ OD5 removal efficiencies of the trickling
filter with and without secondary clarifier are presented TSS was related to sludge discharging. The trickling fil-
in Figs. 5A, B and 6A. Most studies reported the com- ter achieved N ­ H4–N removal efficiency with higher vari-
bined performance of the trickling filter with a secondary ability, ranging from 6.20 to 79.10%. The Nitrite (­ NO2–N)
clarifier. However, our study evaluated the performance levels exceeding 0.8 mg/L (design value) in the second-
of TF and TF with SC separately to assess the removal ary clarifier indicate excessive biomass growth or solids
efficiency of each unit. Post-treatment with TF achieved accumulation in the filter, causing higher TSS values of
an average of 23.3% for BOD, 28.9% for COD, and 31.9% the effluent. A similar study reported that the operation

Fig. 5 Removal efficiency of TF and SC (A) BOD % removal of TF and TF with SC (B) COD % removal of TF and TF with SC
Tessema et al. Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39 Page 9 of 16

Fig. 6 Removal efficiency of TF and TF with SC (A) TSS % removal of TF and TF with SC (B) concentration of TSS, nitrite and its design value at SC
outlet

of secondary clarifiers could affect the trickling filter per- study (Arthur et al. 2022). The considerable fluctuation
formance through nitrite production and algal biomass in the ­NH3–N removal efficiency of the TF and the com-
growth, which tends to increase the TSS value of the bined TF with SC requires careful monitoring of influ-
trickling filter (Arthur et al. 2022). ent characteristics, operational parameters, and system
The nutrient removal efficiency of the TN, TP and performance to optimize treatment efficiency and ensure
­NH3– observed at the post-treatment unit presented in consistent ­NH4–N removal in TF and TF-SC systems.
Fig. 7A, B. The TF achieved an average of 24.3%, 11.8%,
and 46% removal efficiency of TN, TP and ­ NH3–N Overall efficiency of Kality WWTP
respectively. Higher performance was observed for COD, BOD and TSS removal efficiency
­NH3–N with 60.9% removal of TF and 87% removal of The performance of Kality WWTP was computed based
TF with a sedimentation tank (Ahmed et al. 2018). In our on raw sewage and final effluent concentration after dis-
study, the TF with SC improved the N ­ H3–N removal effi- infection. The total COD and ­BOD5 removal efficiency of
ciency to an average of 62.5%. On the contrary, a lower the plant and the corresponding effluent quality are illus-
removal efficiency of 27.4% was reported in a similar trated in Fig. 8A, B. The WWTP achieved a percentage

Fig. 7 Performance efficiency of TF and SC (A) percentage removal of TN and TP of TF (B) percentage removal of NH3–N of TF and TF with SC
Tessema et al. Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39 Page 10 of 16

Fig. 8 Overall removal efficiency of kality WWTP (A) Overall ­BOD5% removal (B) overall COD % removal

removal efficiency of N ­ H4–N. TSS interfered with the

biomass’s settling process and reduced the treatment’s
overall effectiveness.
The average COD concentration of the efflu-
ent achieved a 125 mg/L value ranging from 75.5 to
201.5 mg/L which is higher than the discharge limit of
100 mg/L for unrestricted reuse. The statistical analy-
sis revealed that the concentration of both B ­ OD5 and
COD in the effluent were significantly higher than the
design value (t (29) = 10.244, p < 0.01) and (t (29) = 4.445,
p < 0.01), respectively. The Kality WWTP operates at an
ambient temperature of 22 to 24 °C, which is highly suit-
able for microbial activities. As summarised in Table 3,
the overall efficiencies of the UASB/TF at Kality for COD
Fig. 9 TSS Removal performance of kality WWTP (80.5%), ­BOD5 (82.9%), and TSS (80.9%) are slightly lower
than the efficiencies reported by other studies done on
full scale UASB-TFreactors (Arthur et al. 2022: Nada
et al. 2011; Ahmed et al. 2018; Awuah and Abrokwa
removal of 80.5 ± 5.3 for COD and 82.9 ± 5.6 for B ­ OD5. 2008).
Figure 9 presents the TSS removal efficiency and the cor- Overall, based on the observed concentrations,
responding effluent quality of the scheme with an aver- the effluent quality from Kality WWTP exceeds the
age percentage removal rate of 80.9 ± 6.4. Various studies requirements set for unrestricted agricultural reuse but
on UASB-TF reported a higher percentage removal effi- meets the national limits for discharging into inland
ciencies ranging from 83–94, 90–98.8 and 87–92, respec- waterbodies.
tively, for COD, ­ BOD5 and TSS (Ahmed et al. 2018;
Arthur et al. 2022; Nada et al. 2011; Awuah and Abrokwa
2008). The decreased performance of the scheme at Kality Nitrite and nitrate nitrogen and sulphate removal efficiency
is potentially related to unstable processes in the UASB The nutrient removal efficiency of the plant was evalu-
reactor, trickling filter, and secondary clarifier. During ated by comparing the concentration of nitrite, nitrate,
the monitoring period, the ­BOD5, and TSS concentra- and ammonium in the form of nitrogen in the raw
tion of the effluent exceeded the design value of 35 mg/L sewage with the effluent. ­N O3–N in irrigation water
(for agriculture reuse) with an average value of 61.7 mg/L enables crops to meet their N requirements and mini-
for ­BOD5 ranging from 27.5 to 80.7 and 85.8 mg/L for mize their dependence on the costly commercial fer-
TSS ranging from 40 to 240 mg/L. The higher TSS value tilizer. In this study, the concentration of ­N O2–N and
at the outlet of the secondary clarifier indicated a lower ­N O3–N increased in the effluent with 90.9% and 92.2%,
Tessema et al. Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39 Page 11 of 16

Table 3 Domestic wastewater treatment experiences of the UASB reactors

Types of technology and its HRT Temperature (°C) Efficient, %, effluent EPA Ethiopia References
condition concentration mg/L discharge
limit

UASB 12.2 h 22–24 TSS, RE: 63 ± 11.8 This study

BOD5, RE: 73 ± 7.8
COD, RE: 66 ± 10.6
TF 12.2 h 22–24 TSS, RE: 31.9 ± 15 This study
BOD5, RE: 23.3 ± 13.6
COD, RE: 28.9 ± 13.5
TF with clarifier 12.2 h 22–24 TSS, RE:45.4 ± 15.7 This study
BOD5, RE: 34.4 ± 14.8
COD, RE: 40.8 ± 13.7
12.2 h 22–24 TSS, RE: 80.9 ± 6.4, EQ:85.8 100 This study
UASB/TF with clarifier BOD5, RE: 82.9 ± 5.6, EQ:61.7 80
COD, RE:80.5 ± 5.3, EQ:125.1 250
UASB/TF with Final Settling Tank 45.8 ± 24.9 h 26.2 ± 1.8 TSS, RE:92.6, EQ:92.6 (Arthur et al. 2022)
BOD5, RE:97.6, EQ:97.6
COD, RE:92.8, EQ:92.8
UASB/TF with Final Settling Tank 9–15 h 27–30 BOD5, RE:97.6, EQ:98.1 (Awuah and Abrokwa 2008)
COD, RE:92.8, EQ:94.4
UASB/TF with Final Settling Tank 11–15 h 23–26 BOD5, RE:97.6,EQ:98.8 (Ahmed et al. 2018)
COD, RE:92.8,EQ:91.2
UASB/TF with clarifier 14–20 h 15–29 TSS, RE:87.4, EQ:87.4 (Nada et al. 2011)
BOD5, RE:90.3,EQ:90.3
COD, RE:83.4,EQ:83.1
RE removal efficiency in % and EQ effluent concentration in mg/L
EPA discharge limit—Environmental Protection Authority, Ethiopia effluent discharges to inland water (Environmental Protection Authority and United Nations
Industry Development Organization 2003)

respectively (Fig. 10A, B), which might be due to nutri- recirculating sludge from the secondary clarifier back
ent overloading. The average concentration of N ­ O3–N to the UASB reactor needs to be optimized to improve
in the effluent was 81 mg/L which is > 30 mg/L and this the operational stability of the wastewater plant.
imposes a severe degree of restriction for reuse (FAO The average percentage removal of ­NH4–N and ­SO4−2
1989). This elevated level of nitrate poses a severe in the scheme was 93.9 and 37.9, respectively with cor-
restriction on the reuse of the effluent due to potential responding average residual concentrations of 0.05 mg/L
risks to human health and the environment. Nitrate and 245.6 mg/L (5.1 me/L). The result indicated that the
pollution in water bodies can lead to contamination concentration of ­NH4–N and ­SO4−2 fall within the usual
of drinking water sources, eutrophication, and adverse range in irrigation water as shown in Fig. 11A, B. Results
effects on aquatic ecosystems. Therefore, mitigation from similar configurations reported an efficiency of
measures such as improving wastewater treatment pro- − 37.7% (increased concentration in the effluent) and 43.7
cesses or implementing additional treatment steps are for ­NO3–N and ­SO4−2, respectively (Arthur et al. 2022).
necessary to reduce nitrate levels in the effluent to meet
safety standards for reuse or discharge. Microbiological removal efficiency
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Microbiological parameters i.e. Helminthes eggs and E.
Agency, consumption of water containing nitrate–N coli of the effluent were used to evaluate the performance
above 10 mg/L may cause illness. The higher concen- of the disinfection unit. The result indicates that the
tration of nitrate observed in our study could be linked effluent is free from E-coli but the Helminthes eggs count
to the operational instability of the UASB reactor, ranged from 5 to 11 which exceeds the limit set for irri-
trickling filter, and secondary clarifier. The amount of gation reuse, i.e. 1viable/L (WHO 2006; AAWSA 2017;
Tessema et al. Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39 Page 12 of 16

Fig. 10 Nitrite and nitrate removal performance of kality WWTP (A) nitrite % increase, influent and effluent concentration (B) nitrate % increase,
influent and effluent concentration

Fig. 11 Sulphate and ammonia nitrogen removal performance of kality WWTP (A) influent, effluent and percentage removal of sulphate (B)
influent, effluent and percentage removal of ammonia nitrogen

Jimenez et al. 2017). One-sample T-test analysis showed Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and other ions
that the Helminthes egg amount in the effluent was sig- The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is important for
nificantly higher than the design value (t (8) = 8.632, determining the suitability of irrigation water for use
p < 0.05). Helminth eggs can survive in water, soil and on land. It can be computed using sodium, calcium,
crops for several months as reported by (Calderon-Roca and magnesium concentrations in the irrigation water
2017) and difficult to inactivate in wastewater treatment or soil (Oster et al. 2016). The infiltration rate of water
plant (Jimenez et al. 2017). Moreover, empirical evidence into the soil is measured by the combined SAR and water
has found that crops irrigated with treated wastewater salinity (EC, electricity conductivity) of effluent. In our
contained high levels of helminth eggs (Hajjami et al. study, the observed average SAR value of < 1 mg/L and
2013). Therefore, the unrestricted use of effluent from EC = 0.98dS/m lead to slight to moderate restriction for
Kality WWTP for irrigation could be a threat to public irrigation reuse (FAO 1989). Higher electrical conduc-
health. tivity can negatively impact the availability of water to
Tessema et al. Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39 Page 13 of 16

Table 4 Treated wastewater quality mean value compared to FAO irrigation water quality standard
Cations/anions Unit Measured value Usual range in irrigation Potential irrigation problem
water, FAO 1989

Calcium ­(Ca++) me/L 1.15 0–20 None

Magnesium ­(Mg++) me/L 8.8 0–5 Soil salinity, higher soil PH
Sodium ­(Na+) me/L 0.48 0–40 None
Potassium(K+) mg/L 29.66 0–2 Soil salinity and higher soil PH
Sulphate ­(SO4−−) me/L 5.15 0–20 None
Nitrate–nitrogen ­(No3–N) mg/L 81.29 0–10 Toxicity
Ammonium–nitrogen ­(NH4–N) mg/L 0.049 0–5 None
Heavy metals Measured value Maximum concentration A potential problem with
irrigation use

Zinc (Zn) mg/L 0.0994 2 None

Nickel (Ni) mg/L 0.2 0.2 None
Lead (Pb) mg/L 0.1 5 None
Chromium (Cr) mg/L 3 0.1 Toxic to several plants
at 0.5 mg/L to 1.0 mg/L
Cadmium (Cd) mg/L 0.003 0.01 None
Copper (Cu) mg/L 0.025 0.2 None
Iron (Fe) mg/L 4.245 5 None
dS/m = deciSiemon/meter in S.I. units (equivalent to 1 mmho/cm = 1 millimmho/centi-metre); mg/L = milligram per litre ≃ parts per million (ppm);
me/L = milliequivalent per litre (mg/L ÷ equivalent weight = me/L); in SI units, 1 me/L = 1 millimol/litre adjusted for electron charge

plants and reduce crop growth and yield. Table 4 shows 2018). It is, therefore, important to prevent discharges of
the measured mean values of effluent cations/anions and wastewaters that have heavy metals and other toxic sub-
heavy metals and the usual range in irrigation water. The stances into domestic sewerage system.
results indicate that the mean calcium, sodium, sulfate
and ammonium–nitrogen concentrations are within the Conclusion
usual range of irrigation water. However, the mean mag- The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of
nesium, potassium and nitrate–nitrogen levels are high an integrated/TF reactor and secondary clarifier in treat-
and may cause potential irrigation problems due to soil ing municipal wastewater. The study also looked into the
salinity, higher pH and toxicity. High levels of nitrate– agricultural reuse potential of the treated effluent. Our
nitrogen can reduce growth and interfere with the uptake study concluded that the effluent from the Kality WWTP
of nutrients like calcium, magnesium, and potassium. meets the local inland discharge standards. However,
In our study, it was found that all trace elements except direct reuse of the UASB/TF system effluent for crop
chromium were within the permissible limit. However, production has health risks associated with the above-
the concentration of chromium in the samples ranged limit concentrations of chromium, magnesium, nitrate,
from 1.9 to 4.44 mg/L, which exceeds the maximum potassium, and helminth eggs exceed the acceptable lim-
permissible limit. Additionally, empirical evidence has its. Use of appropriate tertiary treatment processes are
shown that the accumulation of chromium in soil, with required to ensure safe reuse of the treated effluent for
a mean value of 4.2 mg/L, results in the concentration of irrigation. We recommend regular monitoring of heavy
chromium in grain that exceeds the dietary limit (Has- metals, magnesium, potassium, nitrate, and helminth egg
sen et al. 2013). The indiscriminate disposal of wastewa- counts, especially in urban areas with poor sewerage sys-
ter in the sewer network might intrude heavy metals in tem management.
the raw sewage conveyed to Kality WWTP and adversely It is important to note that this study focused on the
affect its removal efficiencies. Studies have shown that dry weather performance of the treatment plant in treat-
elevated levels of Cr to 1.3 mg/L can hinder the biochem- ing municipal wastewater that comes from domestic and
ical reactions of anaerobic microorganisms, leading to a non-domestic sources. Its findings on the characteristics
significant decrease in the removal efficiency of total sus- of the sewage and treatment units’ performance effi-
pended solids (TSS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), ciencies can serve as a good source of information for
and biological oxygen demand (­ BOD5) (Abou-Elela et al. future wastewater related studies in areas having similar
Tessema et al. Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39 Page 14 of 16

operational contexts. Future research should cover a Ahmed I, Ofori-Amanfo D, Awuah E, Cobbold F (2018) Performance assessment
of the rehabilitated Mudor sewage treatment plant at James Town Accra-
larger sampling scope, spanning both dry and wet sea- Ghana. J Water Resour Protect. https://​doi.​org/​10.​4236/​jwarp.​2018.​108041
sons, for a better understanding of the UASB/TF system’s Ahnert M, Schalk T, Brückner H, Effenberger J, Kuehn V, Krebs P (2021) Organic
performance across varying conditions. The wastewater matter parameters in WWTP – A critical review and recommendations for
application in activated sludge modeling. Water Sci Technol 84(9):2093–
treatment needs to have further treatment facilities such 2112. https://​doi.​org/​10.​2166/​wst.​2021.​419
as constructed wetlands or polishing ponds. The break- Ali M, Robele S (2023) Major contributing factors to the lower level of connec-
even point of existing chlorination disinfection steps tion to the existing sewer network in Addis Ababa: the case of the Kality
catchment. Front Environ Eng 2:1158656. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3389/​fenve.​
should be kept seriously to protect the further generation 2023.​11586​56
of nitrate into the effluent emitted to the environment. Amaral SR, Santos LV, Lima LM, Vich DV, Queiroz LM (2019) A modified upflow
anaerobic sludge blanket reactor as an alternative for decentralized
Acknowledgements domestic wastewater treatment in developing countries. Water Pract
The authors express their gratitude to the Ethiopian Civil Service University for Technol. https://​doi.​org/​10.​2166/​wpt.​2019.​009
funding the research. They also extend their thanks to the Addis Ababa Insti- Amoah ID, Abubakari A, Stenstrom TA, Abaidoo RC, Seidu R (2016) Contribu-
tute of Technology laboratory and the Kality Wastewater Treatment Plant for tion of wastewater irrigation to soil Transmitted helminths infection
providing essential laboratory equipment. Additionally, the authors appreciate among vegetable farmers in Kumasi, Ghana. Negl Trop Dis 10(12). https://​
the reviewers and the editor-in-chief of the Journal of Environmental Systems doi.​org/​10.​1371/​journ​al.​pntd.​00051​61
Research for their contributions. Amoah ID, Reddy P, Seidu P, Stenstrom TA (2018) Removal of helminth eggs
by centralized and decentralized wastewater treatment plants in South
Author contributions Africa and Lesotho: health implications for direct and indirect exposure to
Rahel Sintayehu Tessema: Conceptualization, data analysis, wrote—original effluents. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25:12883–12895. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
draft. Mekonnen Maschal Tarekegn: Conceptualization, reviewing, and editing. s11356-​018-​1503-7
Mitiku Adisu Worku: Conceptualization, reviewing, and editing. Agizew Nigus- APHA-AWWA-WEF (American Public Health Association American Water Works
sie Engida: Conceptualization, reviewing and editing. Ann Van Griensven: Association Water Environment Federation (2012) Standard methods
Conceptualization, reviewing, and editing. All authors read and approved the for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health
final manuscript. Association, Washington DC
Arthur PMA, Konate Y, Boukary S, Sagoe G, Dwumfour-Asare B, Ahmed I, Wil-
Funding liams M (2022) Performance evaluation of a full-scale upflow anaerobic
This study was funded by the Ethiopian Civil Service University. sludge blanket reactor coupled with trickling filter for municipal waste-
water treatment in a developing country. Heliyon. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
Availability of data and materials 1016/j.​heliy​on.​2022.​e10129
The data sets used in this study are available from the corresponding author Asere TG, Stevens CV, Du Laing G (2019) Use of (modified) natural adsorbents
upon reasonable request. for arsicen remediation: a review. Sci Total Environ. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​scito​tenv.​2019.​04.​237
Aslanzadeh S, Rajendran K, Jeihanipour A, Taherzadeh MJ (2013) The effect of
Declarations effluent recirculation in a semi-continous two-stage anaerobic digestion
system. Energies 6(6):2966–2981. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​en606​2966
Competing interests
Awuah E, Abrokwa KA (2008) Performance evaluation of the UASB sewage
There are no conflicts of interest to declare.
treatment plant at James Town (Mudor), Accra. In: 33rd WEDC interna-
tional conference. Accra, Ghana. 7–11 April 2008, pp 20–26.
Author details
1 Ayed LB, Schijven J, Alouini Z, Jemil M, Sabbahi S (2009) Presence of parasitic
Department of Urban Engineering and Surveying, College of Urban Develop-
protozoa and helminth in sewage and efficiency of sewage treat-
ment and Engineering, Ethiopian Civil Service University, Addis Ababa, Ethio-
ment in Tunisia. Parasitol Res 105(2):393–406. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
pia. 2 Department of Environment and Climate Change Management, College
s00436-​009-​1396-y
of Urban Development and Engineering, Ethiopian Civil Service University,
Bader AC, Hussien HJ, Jabar MT (2022) BOD: COD ratio as indicator for waste-
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 3 School of Civil and Environment Engineering, Addis
water and industrial water pollution. Int J Sp Educ 37(3):2164–2171
Ababa Institute of Technology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
4 Becerra-Castro C, Lopes AR, Vaz-Moreira I, Silva EF, Manaia CM, Nunes OC
Department of Water and Climate Change, Faculty of Engineering, Vrije
(2014) Wastewater reuse in irrigation: a microbiological perspective on
Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
implications in soil fertility and human and environmental health. Environ
Int 75:117–135. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​envint.​2014.​11.​001
Received: 8 April 2024 Accepted: 7 June 2024
Bedbabis S, Rouina BB, Boukhris M, Ferrara G (2014) Effects of irrigation with
treated wastewater on root and fruit minimal elements of Chemlali olive
cultivar. Sci World J. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1155/​2014/​973638
Belachew MD (2011) Performance of Kality Wastewater Stabilization Ponds:
For the treatment of sewage, from the city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
References ISBN-10-3639354656
AAWSA—Water and Sanitation Development and Rehabilitation Project Office Calderón Roca B (2017) Application of iron-based nanostructures to contami-
(2017) Operation and Maintenance Manuals. Addis Ababa nant remediation (Doctoral dissertation). Universidad de Alicante. http://​
Abdel-Halim W, El-Sayed W, Halim HS (2009) Municipal wastewater treatment hdl.​handle.​net/​10045/​69809
in developing countries comparable alternative anaerobic cost-effective Capodaglio AG, Callegari A, Cecconet D, Molognoni D (2017) Sustainability of
systems. Housing and Building National Research Center HBNRC decentralized wastewater treatment technologies. Water Pract Technol
Abdulla HJ, Al-Quraeshi NKB, Al-Awadi FNJ (2012) Study of chemical oxygen 12(2):463–477. https://​doi.​org/​10.​2166/​wpt.​2017.​055
demand (COD) in relation to biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). J Chernicharo CAL, van Lier JB, Noyola A, Bressani Ribeiro T (2015) Anaerobic
Kerbala Univ 10(3):8–11 sewage treatment: state of the art, constraints and challenges. Environ Sci
Abou-Elela SI, Fawzy ME, El-Sorogy MM, Abo-El-Enein SA (2018) Bio-immo- Bio-Technol 14(4):649–679. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s11157-​015-​9377-3
bilization of Cr (VI) and its impact on the performance of a pilot scale Daud MK, Rizvi H, Akram MF, Ali S, Rizwan M, Nafees M, Jin ZS (2018) Review of
anaerobic sludge reactor treating municipal wastewater. Egypt J Chem upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor technology: Effect of different
61(4):629–637. https://​doi.​org/​10.​21608/​ejchem.​2018.​3849.​1333
Tessema et al. Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39 Page 15 of 16

parameters and developments for domestic wastewater treatment. J Kaviyarasan K (2014) Application of UASB reactor in industrial wastewater
Chem. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1155/​2018/​15963​19 treatment—a review. Int J Sci Eng Res 5(1):584–589
Dickin SK, Schuster-Wallace CJ, Qadir M, Pizzacalla K (2016) A review of health Kennedy-Walker R, Mahta N, Thomas S, Gambrill M (2020) Connecting the
risks and pathways for exposure to wastewater use in agriculture. Environ unconnected: approaches for getting households to connect to sewer-
Health Perspect 124(7):900–909. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1289/​ehp.​15099​95 age networks. World Bank, Washington, DC
Elgallal M, Fletcher L, Evans B (2016) Assessment of potential risks associated Keraita B, Drechsel P, Klutse A, Cofie O (2014) Onfarm treatment options for
with chemicals in wastewater used for irrigation in arid and semiarid wastewater, greywater and fecal sludge with special reference to West
zones: a review. Agric Water Manag 177(1):419–431. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ Africa. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute
1016/j.​agwat.​2016.​08.​027 (IWMI). CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE).
El-Khateeb MA, El-Gohary FA (2003) Combining UASB technology and con- 32p. (Resource Recovery and Reuse Series 1).
structed wetland for domestic wastewater reclamation and reuse. Water Khan MM, Siddiqi SA, Farooque AA, Iqbal Q, Shahid SA, Akram MT, Rahman S,
Sci Technol Water Supply 3(4):201–208. https://​doi.​org/​10.​2166/​ws.​2003.​ Khan I (2022) Towards sustainable application of wastewater in agricul-
0063 ture: a review on reusability and risk assessment: a review. Agronomy.
Environmental Protection Authority and United Nations Industry Develop- https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​agron​omy12​061397
ment Organization (2003) Standard for industrial pollution control. Kidwai MK, Malik A, Dhull SB, Rose PK, Garg VK (2022) Bioremediation potential
Environmental Protection Authority and United Nations Industry Devel- of TRichoderma species for metal (loids)s. Bioremediation of toxic metal
opment Organization, Addis Ababa (loid)s. CRC Press, pp 137–152 (ISBN9781003229940)
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) Irrigation and Drainage Paper (1989) Kim HK, Jang TI, Kim SM, Park SW (2015) Impact of domestic wastewater irriga-
Irrigation Water Quality. Roma, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of tion on heavy metal contamination in soil and vegetables. Environ Earth
the United Nations. Water quality for agriculture (fao.org) Sci. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s12665-​014-​3581-2
Faouzi J, Bedoui I, Rezouki S, Moubchir T, Allali A, Eloutassl N, Lahkimi A (2023) Kumar A, Dhall P, Kumar R (2010) Redefining BOD:COD ratio of pulp mill
Vertical transfer of bacteriological and parasitological pollutants from industry wastewater in BOD analysis by formulating a specific microbial
irrigation water to soil and crops. Ecol Eng Environ Technol 24(1):93–103. seed. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 64(3):197–202. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
https://​doi.​org/​10.​12912/​27197​050/​154917 ibiod.​2010.​01.​005
Filho JL, Portela DJ, Silva CI, Oliveira GC, Tonetti AL (2023) Use of expanded Lazarova V (2013) Global milestones in water reuse: keys to success and trends
polystyrene (EPS) as a support media for trickling filters applied in development. Environ Sci. https://​doi.​org/​10.​2166/​97817​80400​716
to wastewater treatment. Appl Water Sci. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​ Leitão RC (2004) Robustness of UASB reactors treating sewage under tropical
s13201-​023-​01869-7 conditions. (Doctoral dissertation), Wageningen University
Gashaye D (2020) Wastewater-irrigated urban vegetable farming in Ethiopia: a Leitão RC, Silva-Filho JA, Sanders W, van Haandel AC, Zeeman G, Lettinga
review on their potential contamination and health effects. Cogent Food G (2005) The effect of operational conditions on the performance of
Agric 6(1):1–17. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​23311​932.​2020.​17726​29 UASB reactors for domestic wastewater treatment. Water Sci Technol
Gaur RZ, Khan AA, Lew B, Diamantis V, Kazmi AA (2017) Performance of 52(1–2):299–305. https://​doi.​org/​10.​2166/​wst.​2005.​0531
full-scale UASB reactors treating low or medium strength municipal Lew B, Lustig I, Beliavski M, Tarre S, Green M (2011) An integrated UASB-sludge
wastewater. Environ Process 4(1):137–146. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​ digester system for raw domestic wastewater treatment in temperate
s40710-​017-​0208-0 climates. Biores Technol 102(7):4921–4924. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​biort​
Greenberg AE, Clesceri LS, Eaton AD (1992) Standard methods for the exami- ech.​2011.​01.​030
nation of water and wastewater, vol 9, 6th edn. American Public Health Marin P, Tal S, Yeres J, Ringskog K (2017) Water management in Israel: key
Association, pp 45–53 innovations and lessons learned for water-scarce countries. World Bank,
Hajjami K, Ennaji MM, Fouad S, Oubrim N, Cohen N (2013) Wastewater reuse Washington DC
for irrigation in Morocco: helminth eggs contamination’s level of irrigated Metcalf L, Eddy H (2003) Wastewater engineering treatment and reuse, 4th
crops and sanitary risk (a case study of Settat and Soualem Regions). J edn. McGraw Hill, New York
Bacteriol Parasitol. https://​doi.​org/​10.​4172/​2155-​9597.​10001​63 Mishra P, Pandey CM, Singh U, Gupta A, Sahu C, Keshri A (2019) Descriptive sta-
Hao X, Shi X, Khan A, Li N, Shi F, Li J, Tian Y, Han P, Wang J, Luo H (2022) tistics and normality test for statistical data. Annu Card Anaesth 22:67–72.
Industrial organic wastewater through drip irrigation to reduce chemical https://​doi.​org/​10.​4103/​aca.​ACA_​157_​18
fertilizer input and increase use efficiency by promoting N and P absorp- Moawad A, Mahmouda UF, El-Khateeb MA, El-Molla E (2009) Coupling of
tion of cotton in arid areas. Agriculture. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​agric​ultur​ sequencing batch reactor and UASB reactor for domestic wastewater
e1212​2007 treatment. Desalination 242(2009):325–335. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
Hassan UN, Mahmood Q, Waseem A, Irshad M, Pervez A (2013) Assessment of desal.​2008.​05.​011
heavy metals in wheat plants irrigated with contaminated wastewater. Morgan JB, Connolly EL (2013) Plant-soil interactions: nutrient uptake. Nat
Pol J Environ Stud 22(1):115–123 Educ 4:2
Jaramillo MF, Restrepo I (2017) Wastewater reuse in agriculture: a review about Moussavi G, Kazembeigib F, Farzadkia M (2010) Performance of a pilot scale
its limitations and benefits. Sustainability 9(10):1734–1752. https://​doi.​ up-flow septic tank for on-site decentralized treatment of residential
org/​10.​3390/​su910​1734 wastewater. Process Saf Environ Prot 88:47–52. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
Jaromin-Gleń K, Kłapeć T, Łagód G, Karamon J, Malicki J, Skowrońska A, psep.​2009.​10.​001
Bieganowski A (2017) Division of methods for counting helminths’ eggs Nada T, Moawad A, El-Gohary F, Farid MA (2011) Full-scale municipal waste-
and the problem of efficiency of these methods. Ann Agric Environ Med water treatment by up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) in Egypt.
24(1):1–7. https://​doi.​org/​10.​5604/​12321​966.​12338​91 Desalin Water Treat. https://​doi.​org/​10.​5004/​dwt.​2011.​2577
Jiménez B, Maya C, Barrios JA, Navarro I (2017) Helminths and their role in envi- Neisan RS, Cata Saady NM, Bazan C, Zendehboudi S, Al-Nayili A, Abbasi B,
ronmental engineering. In human Helminthiasis. (pp 39–62). InTechOpen. Chatterjee P (2023) Arsenic removal by adsorbents from water from small
http://​www.​intec​hopen.​com/​books/​human-​helmi​nthia​sis communities decentralized system: performance, characterization, and
Jones ER, van Vliet M, Qadir M, Bierkens MF (2021) Country-level and grid- effective parameters. Clean Technol 5(1):352–402. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
ded estimates of wastewater production, collection, treatment and 3390/​clean​techn​ol501​0019
reuse. Earth Syst Sci Data 13(2):237–254. https://​doi.​org/​10.​5194/​ Oster JD, Sposito G, Smith CJ (2016) Accounting for potassium and magne-
essd-​13-​237-​2021 sium in irrigation water quality assessment. California Agric. https://​doi.​
Kanwar RM, Khan ZM, Farid HU (2019) Development and adoption of waste- org/​10.​3733/​ca.​v070n​02p71
water treatment system for peri-urban agriculture in Multan, Pakistan. Pastor AV, Plazzo A, Havlik P, Biemans H, Wada Y, Obsesteiner M, Kabat P,
Water Sci Technol. https://​doi.​org/​10.​2166/​wst.​2019.​403 Ludwig F (2019) The global nexus of food -trade -water sustaining envi-
Kanwar RM, Khan ZM, Farid HU (2021) Enhanced contaminant removal from ronmental flows by 2050. Nat Sustain 2:499–507. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1038/​
municipal wastewater using novel cascade cum trickling tilter and mul- s41893-​019-​0287-1
tilayer adsorption bioreactor. Int J Environ Sci Technol. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ Plosz B, Leknes H, Liltved H, Thomas KV (2010) Diurnal variations in the occur-
1007/​s13762-​021-​03201-9 rence and the fate of hormones and antibiotics in activated sludge
Tessema et al. Environmental Systems Research (2024) 13:39 Page 16 of 16

wastewater treatment in Oslo, Norway. Sci Total Environ 408(8):1915–

1924. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​scito​tenv.​2010.​01.​042
Qureshi AS, Hussain MI, Ismail S, Khan QMM (2016) Evaluating heavy metal
accumulation and potential health risks in vegetables irrigated with
treated wastewater. Chemosphere 163:54–61. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
chemo​sphere.​2016.​07.​073
Reznik A, Feinerman E, Finkelshtain I, Fisher F, Huber-Lee A, Yoyce B, Kann I
(2017) Economic implications of agricultural reuse of treated wastewater
in Israel: a state wide long-term perspective. Ecol Econ 135:222–233.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ecole​con.​2017.​01.​013
Rizvi H, Ali S, Yasar A, Ali M, Rizwan M (2017) Applicability of upflow anaerobic
sludge blanket (UASB) reactor for typical sewage of a small commu-
nity: its biomass reactivation after shutdown. Int J Environ Sci Technol
15(8):1745–1756. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s13762-​017-​1537-2
Sato T, Quadir M, Yamamoto S, Endo T, Ahmed Z (2013) Global, regional, and
country-level need for data on wastewater generation, treatment and
use. Agric Water Manag 130(1):1–13. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​agwat.​
2013.​08.​007
Scheierling SM, Bartone CR, Mara D, Drechsel P (2011) Towards an agenda for
improving wastewater use in agriculture. Water Int 36(4):420–440. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1080/​02508​060.​2011.​594527
Seyoum L et al (2017) Pollution and sanitation study for Addis Ababa rivers
and riversides development plan project. Center for Environmental Sci-
ence, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa
Singh NK, Kazmi AA, Starkl M (2015) A review on full-scale decentralized
wastewater treatment systems: techno-economical approach. Water
Pract Technol 71(4):468–478. https://​doi.​org/​10.​2166/​wst.​2014.​413
Tawfik A, Zeeman G, Klapwijk A, Sanders W, El-Gohary F, Lettinga G (2003)
Treatment of domestic sewage in a combined UASB/RBC system. Process
optimization for irrigation purposes. Water Sci Technol 48(1):131–138.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​2166/​wst.​2003.​0034
Ungureanu N, Vladut V, Dinca M, Zabava B (2018) Reuse of wastewater
for irrigation, a sustainable practice in arid and semi-arid regions. In:
Proceedings of the 7th international conference on thermal equipment,
renewable energy and rural development. Drobeta-Turnu Serverin,
Romania. pp 379–384
United Nations (2016) General assembly resolution 70/1: transforming our
world: the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development September 25th
Vera-Puerto I, Valdes H, Bueno M, Correa C, Olave J, Carrasco-Benavides M,
Schiappacasse F, Arias C (2022) Reclamation of treated wastewater for
irrigation in chile: perspectives of the current state and challenges. Water.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​w1404​0627
von Sperling M, Cherinicharo CAL (2005) Biological wastewater treatment in
warm climatic regions. IWA Publishing, London. https://​doi.​org/​10.​2166/​
97817​80402​703
Wei G, Wei T, Li Z, Wei C, Kong Q, Guan X, Qiu G, Hu Y, Wei C, Zhu S, Liu Y, Preis
S (2023) BOD/COD ratio as a probing index in the O/H/O process for
coking wastewater treatment. Chem Eng J. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​cej.​
2023.​143257
World Health Organization (2006) WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater,
excreta and greywater. Volume 1 policy and regulatory aspects. Volume 4
Yi L, Jiao W, Chen X, Chen W (2014) An overview of reclaimed water reuse in
China. J Environ Sci 23(10):1585–1593. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​S1001-​
0742(10)​60627-4
Zafar I, Iqbal S, Ahmed K, Ashfaq S, Bashir H, Dogan Y (2019) Assessment of
heavy metal content of wheat irrigated with wastewater in Sargodha,
Pakistan: Implications for human health. Trace Elem Electrolytes 36(2):82–
92. https://​doi.​org/​10.​5414/​TEX01​530
Zhang L, De Vrieze J, Hendrickx TLG, Wei W, Temmink H, Rjnaarts H, Zee-
man G (2018) Anaerobic treatment of raw domestic wastewater in a
UASB-digester at 10 °C and microbial community dynamics. Chem Eng J
334:2088–2097. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​cej.​2017.​11.​07
Zidan K, Mandi L, Hejjaj A, Ouazzani N, Assabbane A (2024) Soil fertility and
agro-physiological responses of maize (Zea mays) irrigated by treated
domestic wastewater by hybrid multi-soil-layering technology. J Environ
Manag. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jenvm​an.​2023.​119802

Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in pub-
lished maps and institutional affiliations.
 © The Author(s) 2024. This work is published under
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/(the “License”).
Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this
content in accordance with the terms of the License.