Dr. D.Y.

Patil Institute of Technology,

Pimpri 411 018
LAB FILE
OF

FLUID MECHANICS
(202049)

SE Mechanical
(2019 Course)
Department of Mechanical
Engineering
 Department of Mechanical
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual
Engineering

Vision of the Institute

Empowerment through Knowledge

Mission of the Institute

Developing human potential to serve the
Nation by:
• Dedicated efforts for quality education
• Yearning to promote research and
development
• Persistent Endeavour to imbibe moral and
professional ethics
• Inculcating the concept of emotional
intelligence
• Emphasizing extension work to reach out to
the society
• Treading the path to meet the future
challenges

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 Department of Mechanical
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual
Engineering

Vision of the Department

To be a premier department where the best of
teaching-learning and research synergize

Mission of the Department

• Imparting quality education blended with
enduring core values
• Fostering the passion of life-long learning and
research
• Creating effective interface with industries
and Society

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 Department of Mechanical
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual
Engineering

Program Educational Objectives

PEO1: To develop successful professionals in
mechanical engineering with sound
fundamental knowledge in mathematics,
science and engineering.

PEO2: To inculcate in the students thrust for

higher studies and research.

PEO3: To equip the students with ability to

adopt modern tools, technology and
advanced software’s leading to lifelong
learning.

PEO4: To instill in the students leadership skills

with ethics.

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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual
Engineering

Graduate Attributes and Program Outcomes

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design & Development of Solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern Tools Usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant
to the professional engineering practice
7. Environment & Sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual & Team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
receive clear instructions.
11. Project management & Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Lifelong Learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

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 Department of Mechanical
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual
Engineering

Course Syllabus: -
Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune
Second Year of Mechanical (2019 Course)
Subject: -Fluid Mechanics (202049)
Theory: 03 Hours / Week In-Sem Exam: 30 Marks
Practical: 02 Hours / Week End-Sem Exam: 70 Marks Oral: 25 Marks
Credits for Theory: 03 Credits for Oral: 01
3

Course Objectives: -
1. To understand basic properties of fluids.
2. To learn fluid statics and dynamics
3. To study basics of flow visualization
4. To understand Bernoulli's theorem and its applications.
5. To understand losses in flow, drag and lift forces
6. To learn to establish relation between flow parameters.

Course Outcomes: -

CO-1 DETERMINE various properties of fluid

CO-2 APPLY the laws of fluid statics and concepts of buoyancy
CO-3 IDENTIFY types of fluid flow and terms associated in fluid kinematics
CO-4 APPLY principles of fluid dynamics to laminar flow
ESTIMATE friction and minor losses in internal flows and DETERMINE boundary
CO-5 layer formation over an external surface
CONSTRUCT mathematical correlation considering dimensionless parameters, also
CO-6 ABLE to predict the performance of prototype using model laws

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 Department of Mechanical
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual
Engineering

Laboratory Details

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 Department of Mechanical
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual
Engineering

Laboratory Plan
Exp.
Title of Experiment PG. No
No.

1. Determination of pressure using manometers (minimum two) 10

Determination of fluid viscosity and its variation with

2. 17
temperature.

3. Determination of Metacentric height of floating object. 24

Determination of Reynolds number and flow visualization of

4. 33
laminar and turbulent flow using Reynolds apparatus.

5. Verification of modified Bernoulli’s equation. 41

6. Calibration of Orifice meter/ Venturimeter/Notch. 49

Determination of minor/major losses through metal/non-metal

7. 54
pipes.
Mini project/Industrial visit/Simulation of fluid
8. 61
flow/Programming using any suitable software
Assignments using Virtual Laboratory
9. Any Two Virtual Lab experiments from experiments 1,2,6,7, 62
mentioned above

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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual
Engineering

Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology, Pimpri, Pune – 411 018

Department of Mechanical Engineering
SUBJECT: Fluid Mechanics
Academic Year: 2024-25 Sem II

CONTENTS
Pr. Date of Page Signatur
Name of The Experiment Remark
No Performance No. e teacher
Determination of pressure using manometers
1
(minimum two)
Determination of fluid viscosity and its
2
variation with temperature.
Determination of Metacentric height of
3
floating object.
Determination of Reynolds number and flow
4 visualization of laminar and turbulent flow
using Reynolds apparatus.
5 Verification of modified Bernoulli’s equation.

Calibration of Orifice meter/

6
Venturimeter/Notch.
Determination of minor/major losses through
7
metal/non-metal pipes.
Mini project/Industrial visit/Simulation of
fluid flow/Programming using any suitable
8
software
Assignments using Virtual Laboratory
9 Any Two Virtual Lab experiments from
experiment # 1,2,6,7, mentioned above

*Absent/Attended/Late/Partially Completed/Completed
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr./Miss/Mrs.______________________________________________
Roll No.:_______Exam. Seat No.:_______________of SE/TE/BE Mechanical has carried out
above practical /term work within DIT, Pimpri as prescribed by Savitribai Pule Pune University,
Pune during the academic year 2024-25. His/Her performance is satisfactory and attendance
is_______%.

Date: Faculty I/C HOD Principal

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 Department of Mechanical
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual
Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO: 1

Aim: Determination of pressure using manometers (minimum two)

Objectives:
1. To study different types of manometer.
2. To determine pressure using different types manometer.

Apparatus: U-tube Differential Manometer and Simple U-tube manometer.

Theory:
Manometers are devices used for measuring the pressure at a point by balancing the column of
fluid or another column. There are 2 types of manometers
1) Simple Manometer
2) Differential Manometer
3) Inverted U-Tube Manometer

Simple Manometer - A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends
connected to the point, where pressure is to be measured and other end is open to the atmosphere.
TYPES OF SIMPLE MANOMETER
a. Simple U-tube Manometer
b. Piezometer
c. Single Column Manometer
P+h1×S1= h2×S2
𝐻 = ℎ2 𝑆2 − ℎ1 𝑆1

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Fig.: Simple U-tube Manometer.

Differential Manometer – for measuring the difference of pressure between any two points in a
pipeline or in two pipes or containers, a differential manometer is employed.
TYPES OF DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
a. U-tube Differential Manometer
b. Two-Piezometer Manometer
c. Inverted U-tube Manometer
d. Micro-manometer
𝐻1 − 𝐻2 = ℎ2 𝑆2 − ℎ1 𝑆1

Fig.: U-tube Differential Manometer

Inverted U-Tube Manometer

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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual
Engineering

Fig: Inverted U-Tube Manometer

An inverted U-tube is employed for the measurement of difference of pressure between two
points/sections of a pipeline carrying liquid (say water). The connections are made as shown in
Fig. 2 .The upper part of inverted U-tube contains air. The water enters into the two limbs of the
tube through the two sections of the pipe. The height of the water column in the tube may be
adjusted by letting the air through the valve at the top. As air (trapped in upper part) exerts equal
pressure in the both the limbs the difference of pressure head is equal to the difference in the
height of the two water columns.

Procedure:
1. Connect the one end of Simple U-tube manometer to a pipe where we need to measure
pressure.
2. Set flow rate and note down the difference in height of mercury in the Simple U-tube
manometer and time required to rise 10cm height of water.
3. Vary the flow rate and again note down the difference in height of mercury in the Simple
U-tube manometer and time required to rise 10cm height of water.
4. Now connect the two ends of differential manometer to a pipe where we need to measure
pressure.
5. Set flow rate and note down the difference in height of mercury in the Differential U-tube
manometer and time required to rise 10cm height of water.
6. Vary the flow rate and again note down the difference in height of mercury in the
Differential manometer and time required to rise 10cm height of water.

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Observation Table:
Sr. Difference
Pressure measuring Devices X1 mm X2 mm
No. (h mm)
Mechanical Gauges
1 Pressure Gauge (P1)
Vacuum Gauge (P2)
2 U-tube Manometer
3 Inverted Tube Manometer
4 Single Limb Manometer
5 Inclined Manometer

Calculations:
Pressure Gauge (P1): ____________kg/cm2
=P1*105. N/m2
= _________ N/m2
Vacuum Gauge (P2): ____________mm of Hg
=P2*0.00133. N/m2
= __________N/m2
U-tube Manometer
P=ρ×g×h
Density of the mercury= 16000 kg/m3
P= _____________ N/m2
Inverted Tube Manometer
P=ρ×g×h
Density of the water = 1000 kg/m3
P= _____________ N/m2
Single Limb Manometer
Red Oil is used as manometric fluid
Specific gravity of the red oil = 0.83
Density of red oil = Specific gravity * density of water
= ________________ kg/m3
P=ρ×g×h
P= _____________ N/m2

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Inclined Limb Manometer

Red Oil is used as manometric fluid
Specific gravity of the red oil = 0.83
Density of red oil = Specific gravity * density of water
= ________________ kg/m3
α= 20 degree
h= l*sinα = ___________ mm
P=ρ×g×h
P= _____________ N/m2

volume of water collected in the measuring tank

1. Discharge Q = Time required collecting water in the tank up to the height of 10 cm

Result Table:
Sr.
Pressure measuring Devices Pressure (N/m2)
No.
Mechanical Gauges
1 Pressure Gauge (P1)
Vacuum Gauge (P2)
2 U-tube Manometer
3 Inverted Tube Manometer
4 Single Limb Manometer
5 Inclined Manometer

Conclusion:
Thus, westudied how to measure pressure using Simple U-tube manometerand U-tube
Differential manometer.

Precautions:

1. Make sure that the rubber/plastic leads are properly connected to pet-cocks.
2. While taking readings, the pet-cock leavers should be put to “off” position
simultaneously, so that water columns do not fluctuate and thus remain steady.

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QUESTION

1. Explain practical relevance/significance/importance of experiment.

2. What is mean by absolute pressure?
3. What are the applications of Pascal’s Law?
4. Why we used Differential manometer to measure pressure difference?
5. What is the difference between U tube Manometer and Differential manometer?
6. What is the difference between the real (absolute) pressure and the gauge pressure
7. Explain three techniques to measure pressure.
8. What is the difference between U tube Differential manometer and Inverted U-Tube
Differential Manometer?

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Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO: 2

Aim: Determination of fluid viscosity and its variation with temperature.

Objectives:
1. To determine kinematic viscosity of the given sample of oil.
2. To see the effects of temperature on viscosity of sample oil.

Apparatus:
Redwood Viscometer with its accessories such as flask, ball valve, heating arrangement,
thermometer along with thermometer clip, stopwatch, oil, oil measuring flask, etc.

Theory:
Newton’s law of viscosity

It states that, “shear stress on a fluid layer is directly proportional to the velocity gradient.

τ = µ(du/dy)
τ = Shear stress in N/m2
µ= Dynamic viscosity in N-s/ m2

du/dy = Velocity gradient in per second

Viscosity is that property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to the movement of
one layer of fluid over an adjacent layer. It is also defined as the shear stress required to produce
unit rate of shear strain

Dynamic Viscosity:
The property of fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to deformation under the action
of a shear force is called dynamic viscosity.
shear stress
μ = shear strain Unit is (N.s/m2)

Kinematic viscosity:
It is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density of fluid.
dynamic viscosity
ν= Unit is (m2/sec)
density

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CGS unit is cm2/sec or stoke

In case of redwood viscometer, the kinematic viscosity(ν) of the oil is calculated by the
correlation,

ν =0.0026t – 1.115/t

Where,

ν = kinematic viscosity in cm2/sec or stoke

t= time in seconds to collect 50 ml of oil

Viscosity Index (VI):

VI is a petroleum industry term. It is a lubricating oil quality indicator, an arbitrary measure for
the change of kinematic viscosity with temperature. The viscosity of liquids decreases as
temperature increases. The viscosity of a lubricant is closely related to its ability to reduce friction.
A high VI indicates small change in viscosity with temperature and a low VI indicates more
change in viscosity with temperature. Therefore a fluid that has high VI can be expected to
undergo very little change in viscosity with temperature extremes and is considered to have a
stable viscosity. A fluid with a low VI can be expected to undergo a significant change in viscosity
as the temperature fluctuates.

Effect of temperature on viscosity:

1. In liquid cohesive forces predominates molecular momentum transfer with increase in

temperature. Cohesive forces decreases, hence viscosity decreases.

2. In gases cohesive forces are small and molecular momentum transfer is dominant, hence with
increase in temperature viscosity increases.

Experimental set up:

This apparatus is used for determining the viscosity of oil, expressed in terms of time taken by oil
to flow through specified hole made in a metallic cup at specified temperatures.
The redwood apparatus measures viscosity in empirical units and not in absolute units such as
centistokes (CS). This method is primarily used for viscosity determination of oil which flows in
a Newtonian manner.

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Viscosity measurement with the help of redwood viscometer is a very simple process and can be
easily acclimatize. Also precision set of readings can be easily taken.
Diagram:

Fig. Schematic diagram of Experimental Setup

Procedure:
1. Connect the power plug to an electric board.
2. Instrument is leveled with help of leveling screw on the tripod.
3. Keep the brass ball in position to seal the orifice.
4. Pour the oil under test carefully into the oil cup up to the tip of indicator.
5. Fill the water bath with water up to the height corresponding to the oil level in the oil cup
(i.e. up to level that heater is dipped fully) (Ensure closing of water outlet).
6. Place the 50ml flask in position exactly below the orifice.
7. Heat the water a few degrees above the test temperature
8. Switch off the electrical supply after reaching desired temperature. Note the temperature.
9. The oil and water are kept well stirred to get equal temperature of oil.
10. As soon as the oil temperature reaches the test temperature, lift the ball & allow the oil to
flow in the flask.
11. Simultaneously a stopwatch is started.

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12. When the level of oil dropping into the flask just reaches to 50ml mark, the stopwatch
stopped, and the time is noted in seconds. The ball is replaced in the original position to
prevent flow of oil.
13. Note down the readings as per observation table.
14. Repeat the same procedure at different temperatures.
15. At the end of the experiment Switch off the electrical connections.
16. Calculate the results as per the calculation procedure.

Dimensional Specifications for Oil Cylinders:

• Diameter of the oil cylinder = 45.5mm
• Length of oil cylinder = 86mm
• Diameter of orifice = 1.7mm
• Length of orifice = 12mm
Observation Table:
1. Type of oil:
Sr. No. Temperature of oil (0C) Time for 50 cc of oil (sec)
1
2
3
4

Calculations:
Kinematic viscosity ν = (C1 × t) – (C2/t)
Where C1 = 0.0026 (Constant of the viscometer)
C2 = 1.175 (Correction factor)
t = time required for collecting 50 cc oil seconds
mass of oil
Density =
volume of oil
Dynamic viscosity = Kinematic viscosity × Density
Graph = Viscosity Vs Temperature

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Result Table:
Sr. No. Temperature (0C) Kinematic Viscosity
1
2
3
4
Conclusion: From graph plotted between temperature and kinematic viscosity it is observed that
kinematic viscosity decreases as the temperature increases.
Precautions:
1. Ensure on and off of stopwatch on time.
2. Continuous sterling of water in the water bath.
3. Operate the equipment under the supervision of laboratory technical staff.
4. In case of emergency, contact the laboratory technical staff.
QUESTION

1. Explain practical relevance/significance/importance of experiment.

2. What is viscosity? State and explain Newton’s Law of Viscosity.
3. Define Dynamic Viscosity, Kinematic Viscosity.
4. What is the drawback of viscosity measured by Redwood viscometer?
5. Explain the importance of variation of viscosity with temperature?
6. Explain the procedure of obtaining viscosity using Redwood viscometer.
7. How viscosity of fluid affects the fluid flow?

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EXPERIMENT NO: 3

Aim: Determination of metacentric height of floating object.

Objectives: To find out metacentric height of a ship Model

Apparatus Used: model of a ship, Tank containing water, weights.

Theory:
Metacenter:

It is defined as the point where the vertical, through the new Centre of Buoyancy meets the original vertical
through the Centre of Gravity after a very small angle of rotation or heel.
It is point about which floating body oscillates for while after release.

G is the center of gravity, is the center of b buoyancy and the line is the original water surface.
After tilting O1, O1 is the new water line and the angle of Tilt is . remains in the same position relative
to the ship but the Centre of Buoyancy moves to B1, is called the METACENTRIC HEIGHT.

Stability of Ship:

Therefore for stable equilibrium for a floating partially Submerged Body the Meta centremust
be above the Centre of Gravity . If the Metacentric height is zero the Body will be in Neutral
equilibrium. In mathematical tone, GM must be positive (as in y direction conventional X-Y
plot)

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Design of Experiment:

Fig: Schematic of Model ship.

Let W be the weight of the Boat plus it's Load. A small load w is moved a distance and
causes a tilt of angle . The Boat is now in a new position of equilibrium with B1and G1lying
along the Vertical through .
Balancing appropriate moment of forces,

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w. . cosӨ = GM.W. sin Ө

𝒘.𝒙
GM= 𝑾.𝒕𝒂𝒏Ө

Fig: Schematic of Stable Model ship

An arrangement is made to load the ship as a War ship or Cargo ship.

PROCEDURE:

Sr.
For Cargo Ship For War Ship
No.
Place suitable symmetrical Place suitable symmetrical weights at the deck
1 weights at the bottom of the ship level of the ship and load it as a War Ship.
and load it as a Cargo Ship.
2 Float the ship on the water Float the ship on the water
Adjust the balancing weights on Adjust the balancing weights on both the sides
both the sides of the ship so that of the ship so that the Plumb indicates zero
3
the Plumb indicates zero reading reading on the graduated arc.
on the graduated arc.
Keep the Moving (Hanging) Keep the Moving (Hanging) Load/Weight at a
4 Load/Weight at a distance of 3.5 distance of 3.5 cm off the Centre on left side.
cm off the canter on left side
Note down the tilt of the ship in Note down the tilt of the ship in degrees.
5
degrees.

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Sr.
For Cargo Ship For War Ship
No.
Go on shifting the Hanging Load Go on shifting the Hanging Load towards left
towards left &note down the &note down the distance of the center, & tilt of
6
distance of the Centre, & tilt of the the ship.
ship.
Repeat the procedure by shifting Repeat the procedure by shifting the load on the
7 the load on the right hand side of right hand side of the center.
the center.

Experimental Setup:
The equipment comprises of main tank of rectangular in shape and is made of mile steel sheets
which has sufficient amount of water to take place of floating body inside it. The floating body is
a ship model made of M.S. sheets with different parts. It has two numbers of balancing weights
which can be adjusted by threading provided.
The ship can be tilted by moving small hanging weights at level of deck of ship. To note down
the tilt of a ship, a plum is provided which records the tilt on graduated arc of circle.
An arrangement is made to load cargo ship using circular shaped dead weights.
The center of gravity of assembly can be moved either at right side or at left side by moving
hanging weights. Mass of each weight is marked on the top surface.

Fig. Schematic diagram of Experimental Setup

1- Ship Model 5- Cargo Circular Weights

2- Graduated Arc 6- Hanging Weight
3- Balancing Weights 7- Drain Valve

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4- Plumb / Pointer

Fig. Photo of Experimental Setup

Test procedure:
1. Place suitable symmetrical weight at bottom of ship i.e. below the desk level- four loads.
2. Float the ship model on water.
3. Adjust the ship model on water such that ship is at horizontal level.
4. Keep the hanging weights at the distance at say x cm off the center on the right side.
5. Note down the tilt of ship in degree.
6. Go on shifting hanging weights towards the right side and note down the distance.
7. Repeat the same procedure by placing and shifting the loads on left hand of center.

Specifications:
1. Main tank size: 700x600x400 (mm) with a drain valve, material: MS
2. Ship model: M.S. sheet with balancing weights
3. Weights of the ship with balancing weights=w=5750 grams
4. Circular weights: M.S, 2Nos, mass of each unit= 250 gm, total wt=500 gms
5. Tilting weights: M.S. Quantity 2, having loads 150 gm and 250 gms

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Observation table:

Sr. Hanging weights Distance of weights Tilt of ship

Side
No. (grams) from Centre (cm) (degrees)
1 LHS
2
3 RHS
4

Calculations:
W1 .x
Metacentric height=
W.tanθ
Where W1 = Hanging weight =
W = Total weight of ship =
Metacentric height =

Result Table:
Metacentric
Sr. Distance of weights Tilt of ship
height
No. from Centre in degrees
(cm)
1
2
3
4

Graph = metacentric height Vs Angular Displacement

Conclusion:
The distance between the metacenter of a floating body and center of gravity of the body i.e.
metacentric height is easily understood after conducting this experiment than theory knowledge.

Precautions:
1. The reading taking carefully without parallax error.
2. Put the weight on the hanger one by one.

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3. Wait for pontoon to be stable before taking readings.

4. Strips should be placed at equal distance from the center.
5. Operate the equipment under the supervision of laboratory technical staff.
6. In case of emergency, contact the laboratory technical staff.

QUESTION

1. Explain the procedure of obtaining Metacentric height.

2. Explain the Stability of floating body whether cargo ship or war ship model is stable.
3. Define Buoyancy?
4. Define Metacenter?
5. Define Meta- centric height?
6. With respect to the position of metacenter, state the condition of equilibrium for a floating
body?

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EXPERIMENT NO: 04

Aim: Determination of Reynolds number and flow visualization of laminar and turbulent flow using
Reynolds apparatus.

Objectives:
1. To observe flow regimes and to find the type of flow.
2. To determine Reynolds’s number.
3. To verify the observed flow by comparing with its Reynolds’s number.

Instruments Required:
• Stopwatch
• Measuring tank
• Thermometer
• Reynolds’s Apparatus

Theory:

Reynolds’s Experiment:
Reynolds’s Experiment consisted essentially of a constant head tank filled with water a small
tank, containing dye, a horizontal glass tube provided with bell mouth entrance and a regulating
valve. The water was made to flow the tank through the tube in to the atmosphere and the velocity
of flow varied by adjusting the regulating valve a liquid dye having the some specific weight as
that of the water was introduced the floe at the bell –mouth thought a small tube.
On the basis of his experiment Reynolds’s discovered that the occurrence of a laminar and
turbulent flow was governed by the relative magnitudes of the inertia and the viscous forces it
was indicated by Reynolds’s predominant and there for the flow is largely viscous in character
.However, at height velocities of flow the inertial forces have predominance over the viscous
forces. Reynolds’s related the inertia to viscous forces and arrived at a dimensionless parameter.

inertia force Fi
Re= =
viscous force Fv
According to Newton’s law of motion the inertia force Fi is given by
Fi= mass x acceleration

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= density*volume* acceleration
= ρxL3 × (L/T2) =PL2T2
Similarly viscous force Fv is given by Newton’s law of viscosity as
Fv= T x area
= μ (du/dy) x L2 = μ V L
Therefore
Re= (p L2V2)/ μ V L/ μ
In the case of flow through pipes the characteristic linear dimension L is taken as the diameter D
of the pipe.This dimensionless parameter Re is called Reynolds number.

In case of flow through pipes the classification is

Laminar flow-Re < 2000
Transitional flow-2000 < Re < 4000
Turbulent flow-Re > 4000.

For open channel flow:

Laminar flow-Re < 500
Transitional flow-500 < Re S 2000
Turbulent flow-Re > 2000.

The velocity of flow at which the flow changes from one type of motion to another is
called critical velocity. To determine the critical velocity or to understand the flow type, the
Reynolds experiment is used.
Laminar flow, sometimes occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption
between the layers. It is also called, streamline flow. At low velocities the fluid tends to flow
without lateral mixing, and adjacent layers slide past one another like playing cards. There are no
flows normal to the direction of flow and no eddies or swirls of fluids. The motion of the particles
of fluid is very orderly with all particles moving in straight lines parallel to the pipe wall.
Turbulent flow is characterized by its chaotic nature, in which the fluid particles move in
random manner. The flow is strongly mixing. In turbulent flow, unsteady vortices appear on many
scales and interact with each other. There will be momentum transfer at large extent.

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For pipe flow, a Reynolds number above about 4000 will most likely correspond to
turbulent flow, while a Reynolds number below 2000 indicates the laminar flow. The region in
between (2000 < Re < 4000) is called the transition region.
Reynolds apparatus consists of a constant head tank from which fluid is allowed to flow
out into a transparent tube as shown in Figure a. The flow through the tube is controlled and
regulated by a valve provided at the free end. A liquid dye of specific weight same as that of fluid
is introduced into the flow. At the low flow rate, the dye filament remains straight and stable as
indicated in Figure (b) defining the laminar flow. As the flow rate is gradually increased, the dye
filament starts fluctuating and show irregularities [illustrated in Figure (c)]. This illustrates the
transitional flow. With further increase in flow, the dye starts diffusing into the flow from the
downstream end as shown in Figure (d) and, ultimately, the entire flow space gets colored. Figure
(e) shows the last stage of fully turbulent flow.

Fig: Experimental Set Up for Reynolds flow and (b) to (e) different flow stages

Procedure:

1. Fill up sufficient water in dye tank and put a small amount of potassium per magnet in to
water.

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2. Fill the water tank with sufficient amount of water and allow it to stand for some time so
that the water comes to rest.
3. Note the temperature of water which is filled in the tank.
4. Partially open the outlet valve of the glass tube and allow the water to flow at a very low
rate.
5. Allow the flow to stabilize then open the valve at the inlet of dye and allow the die injector
to move through the tube. Observe the nature of the filament.
6. Measure the discharge of water collected in the measuring tank which in graduated.
7. Repeat the same procedure for different rate of discharges.

Observations:

1. Temperature of the water=____0C

2. Kinematic viscosity of water at ____0C=
3. Diameter of glass tube=____ cm
4. Tank dimension = Length=____m, breath=____m

Observation Table:

Sr. Time required to collect water to raise the level in the

Type of flow
No. tank up to 10cm in sec.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Calculations:
1. Discharge Q= (volume of water collected in the tank up to 10cm of height )/(time)
Q=
Q= _________________ kg/m3
2. Area of the glass tube= (3.14/4) *d2 m2
Area= ______________ m2

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3. Velocity V = (discharge)/area m3/sec

V =m3/sec
4. Reynold’s number = (Vxd) / (kinematic viscosity)
Re=___________________

Result Table:
Discharge Reynold’s
Sr. No. Velocity m/sec Observed flow
m3/sec Number
1
2
3
4
5

Conclusion:
Sr. Reynolds no. by Type of flow
No. calculation From Calculation By observation
01
02
03
04
05

Precautions:
1. Properly select the injection rate of dye.
2. Ensure the proper opening of the gate valve.
3. Check the leakages in the set-up.
4. Increase the flow rate gradually.
5. Operate the equipment under the supervision of laboratory technical staff.
6. In case of emergency, contact the laboratory technical staff.

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QUESTION:

1. Reynolds number importance?

2. Describe the Reynolds number experiments to demonstrate the two type of flow?
3. Define laminar flow, transition flow and turbulent flow?

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EXPERIMENT NO: 05

Aim: Verification of modified Bernoulli’s Theorem

Objectives: To find the total head of the fluid at various cross-sections

Instruments required: Stop watch, Bernoulli’s apparatus

Theory:

Bernoulli’s equation states that in a steady, Irrotational flow of an incompressible fluid the total
energy at any point is constant. In other words, if the Bernoulli’s equation is applied between any
two points in a steady Irrotational flow of an incompressible fluid then, we get

(P1/w) + (V1/2g) + Z1 = (P2/w) + (V2/2g) + Z2

Where the different terms with subscripts 1 and 2 correspond to the two points considered.

The sum of the pressure head and the potential head i.e., ((P1/w) + Z1) is also termed as
piezometric head.

It is observed from equation that if V2 is greater than V1 then the piezometric head ((P2/w) + Z2)
must be less than the piezometric head ((P1/w) + Z1). However, if the two points considered lie
along the same horizontal plane Z1=Z2, in which case the changes in velocity cause corresponding
change in the pressure.

Further, equation (P1/w) + (V1/2g) + Z1 = (P2/w) + (V2/2g) + Z2 has been derived for an ideal fluid
which is non- viscous and hence there is no loss of energy. However, for the flow of real fluids
since there is always some energy of the flowing fluid converted into heat due to the viscous and
turbulent shear and consequently there is a certain amount of energy loss. Hence for the flow of
real fluids,

Equation (P1/w) + (V1/2g) + Z1 = (P2/w) + (V2/2g) + Z2 modified as

(P1/w) + (V1/2g) + Z1 = (P2/w) + (V2/2g) + Z2+hf……………..modified Bernoulli’s equation.

Where hf is the loss of energy (or head) between the points under consideration

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Above equation can be applied, between any sections of pipe or a channel or any other passage
through which a real fluid is flowing, by considering the average values of the pressure intensity
and the velocity of flow at each of these sections.

Description of Equipment Set-Up

Hydraulics Bench, Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Apparatus, Stop watch Figure:

Installation drawing for Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Apparatus The test section (5), is an
accurately machined Perspex duct of varying circular cross section provided with pressure tapers
whereby the static pressure may be measured simultaneously at each 6 sections. The test section
incorporates unions (2, at either end to facilitate reversal for convergent or divergent testing. A
hypodermic (7), is provided which may be positioned to read the total head at any section of the
duct. The probe may be moved after slackening the gland nut (6); this nut should be water-
tightened by hand. To prevent damage, the probe should be fully inserted during transport/storage.
An additional tapping (13), is provided to facilitate setting up. All eight pressure taper are
connected to a bank of pressurized manometer tubes (3). Pressurisation of the manometers is
facilitated by removing the hand pump, (10) from its storage location at the rear of the manometer
board and connecting its flexible coupling to the inlet valve (4) on the manometer manifold.

Fig: Schematic diagram of Bernoulli’s Apparatus

Procedure:

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By using the adjustable feet, the apparatus is levelled on the Hydraulics Bench. After
injecting a small amount of wetting agent into the test section, the apparatus is connected to the
bench, ensuring that the test section has the 14o tapered duct converging in the direction of flow.
To reverse the test section, the total head probe must be withdrawn before releasing the couplings.
Carefully fill the apparatus manometer tubes with water to discharge all pockets of air from the
system and ensure all connecting pipes are free from air. By adjusment of feed water and the flow
control valve, the levels can be raised or lowered as required. For finite lowering of the levels, the
hand pump is used at the air inlet to raise the air pressure above the liquid columns. Carefully
adjust the inlet feed and the flow control valves to provide the combination of flow rate and system
pressure which will give the largest convenient difference between the highest and lowest
manometer levels. Note the scale reading of each manometer level. Take at least three sets of
readings of volume and time to find the flow
rate using the volumetric tank. Insert the probe to the end of the parallel position of the duct, then
move it into the tapered portions a ~f. For each position, record the scale reading of its manometer
level.

Repeat this to give high and low flow rates at both high and low static pressure for different
combinations of valve openings. Stop the inlet feed, drain off the apparatus, withdraw the probe
(full length), undo the couplings, reverse the test sections and replace the couplings. Repeat the
above procedure.
Specifications:
1. Dimensions of the measuring tank: 365*565 mm
2. Area of different cross sections:
Cross section Cross section
Section Section
area (m2) area (m2)
1 0.006 6 0.000313
2 0.000525 7 0.000375
3 0.000487 8 0.000390
4 0.000412 9 0.000413
5 0.000375 10 0.000435
11 0.000487
Observation Table:
Sr. No. Area of channel (m2) Head (mm) Head (m) Discharge (kg/m3)

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1 0.006
2 0.000525
3 0.000487
4 0.000412
5 0.000375
6 0.000313
7 0.000375
8 0.000390
9 0.000413
10 0.000435
11 0.000487

Result Table:
Area of channel Discharge Velocity Kinematic
Sr. No. Total Head
(m2) (kg/m3) (m/s) Head (m)
1 0.006
2 0.000525
3 0.000487
4 0.000412
5 0.000375
6 0.000313
7 0.000375
8 0.000390
9 0.000413
10 0.000435
11 0.000487

Precautions:
1. Ensure the proper opening of the gate valve.
2. Check the leakages in the set-up.
3. Increase the flow rate gradually.
4. Operate the equipment under the supervision of laboratory technical staff.
5. In case of emergency, contact the laboratory technical staff.

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QUESTION

1. List out the limitations of Bernoulli Equation.

2. Compare theoretical results with the current experiment results.
3. Why do you level the experiment section (tube)?
4. Draw graph for the positions of manometer Vs. EGL and HGL for three different flow
rates.
5. Describe the different slope obtained in the graph.
6. Discuss the result obtained by the manometer tube no. 6, 7, 1 and 8.
7. What is dynamic pressure and static pressure?
8. Write your comments if any in the experiment.
9. Briefly explain the various terms involved in Bernoulli’s equation?
10. Assumption made to get Bernoulli’s equation from Euler’s equation by made?
11. What is piezometer tube?

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EXPERIMENT NO: 6

Aim: Calibration of Orifice meter/ Venturimeter/Notch.

Objectives: To determine the coefficient of discharge of Venturimeter

Apparatus: Stopwatch, u- tube manometer, Venturimeter Apparatus

Theory: Venturimeter: it is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid flowing through
the pipelines. It is based on Bernoulli’s equation that the velocity head of a fluid flow increases,
as the cross sectional area reduces. Due to which pressure head reduces at that section.

Venturimeter consists of an inlet section followed by a convergent cone, a cylindrical throat and
a gradually divergent cone. The inlet section of the venture meter is of the same diameter which
tapers from the original size of the pipe to that throat of the Venturimeter. The throat of the
Venturimeter is a short parallel sided tube having its cross sectional area smaller than that of the
pipe. The divergent cone of the Venturimeter is a gradually diverging pipe with its cross-sectional
area increasing from that of the throat to the original size of the pipe. In general, the diameter of
the throat may vary from (1/3) to (3/4) of the pipe diameter and more commonly the diameter of
the throat is kept to ½ of the pipe diameter. Discharge through the Venturimeter is given by 𝑄 =

𝑎1 ×𝑎2 √2𝑔ℎ
𝐶𝑑 ( )
√𝑎12 −𝑎22

Fig: Schematic diagram of Experimental Setup

1- Venturimeter 4- Pump 7- Reservoir Tank
2- Manometer 5- Discharge Side 3. By pass line 6- Measuring tank

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Observations:

1. Inlet diameter of Venturimeter: d1= _________

2. Throat diameter of Venturimeter: d2= _________
3. Dimensions of measuring Tank: 0.41*0.33 m2

Observation Table:

Difference in manometer Readings

Sr. No. Time in Sec for 10mm rise
X1 in meters X2 in meters X=x2-x1
1.
2.
3.

Sample Calculations:

volume of water collected in the measuring tank

1. Actual Discharge Qact = Time required collecting water in the tank up to the height of 10 cm

Sm
2. Pressure Headh = X × [( ) − 1]
S

Sm= specific gravity of mercury= 13.6

S= specific gravity of water =1

3. Area of the inlet and throat Diameters

𝜋
a. 𝑎1 = 4 × 𝑑12
𝜋
b. 𝑎2 = 4 × 𝑑22

𝑎1 ×𝑎2 √2𝑔ℎ
4. Theoretical Discharge 𝑄𝑇ℎ = ( )
√𝑎12 −𝑎22

Qact
5. Coefficient of discharge 𝐶𝑑 = 𝑄𝑇ℎ

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Graph:

a. Qact Vs 𝑄𝑇ℎ
b. 𝐶𝑑 Vs 𝑄𝑇ℎ
Result Table:
Theoretical Discharge in Coefficient of
Sr.No. Actual Discharge in (m3/sec)
(m3/sec) Discharge 𝐶𝑑
1
2
3
4

Conclusion: Though the pressure head changed, coefficient of discharge remains constant and is
found to be nearly ___

Precautions:
1. Ensure the proper opening of the gate valve.
2. Check the leakages in the set-up.
3. Increase the flow rate gradually.
4. Operate the equipment under the supervision of laboratory technical staff.
5. In case of emergency, contact the laboratory technical staff.
QUESTION

1. Differentiate between :-
•Uniform and non-uniform flow
•Steady and unsteady flow
2. What is coefficient of discharge
3. Venturimeter are used for flow measuring. How?
4. Define co efficient of discharge?
5. Define parallax error?
6. Define converging area part?
7. Define throat? Define diverging part?

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EXPERIMENT NO: 7

Aim: Determination of minor losses due to pipe fittings.

Objectives:
1. Know the causes of minor losses in a pipe flow.
2. Calculate the minor losses.

Apparatus Used: Stop watch and measuring scale etc.

Theory: In most of the pipe flow problems, the flow is steady and uniform, and the loss of head
due to friction is predominant. In addition to the loss of head due to friction, the loss of head is
also occurs whenever there is change in the diameter or direction, or there is any obstruction in
the flow. These losses are called form losses or minor losses.
The form losses are usually small and insignificant in long pipes but for pipes of small length,
they are quit large compared to the friction loss. In some small length pipes, they may be even
more predominant than that due to friction.
The form losses are usually expressed as
𝑉2
𝐻𝐿 = 𝐾 [ ]
2𝑔
Where,
V is the mean velocity of flow,
K is the form loss factor, which depends upon the type of obstruction or change, the type of
flow and the velocity, etc.
The loss of head due to sudden expansion is usually determined by the Bordacarnot equation,
(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
𝐻𝐿 = 𝐾 [ ]
2𝑔
Where
V1 is the velocity in the smaller pipe and
V2 is the velocity in the larger pipe,
Eq (a) can be expressed as
𝑉1 2
𝐻𝐿 = 𝐾𝑒 [ ]
2𝑔

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Where,Ke is the coefficient for sudden expansion. The value of Ke depends upon d1/d2 ratio. For
gradual expansion (diffusers), the value of Ke depends upon d1/d2 ratio and the angle of
divergence.
The loss of head due to sudden contraction is usually expressed as
𝑉1 2
𝐻𝐿 = 𝐾𝑐 [ ]
2𝑔
Where, V is the velocity in small pipe.
The value of c K is usually about 0.3 to 0.5.
For gradual contractions, the loss of head is considerly small.
The loss of head at a bend can be expressed as
𝑉2
𝐻𝐿 = 𝐾𝑐 [ ]
2𝑔
The value of Kb depends upon the angle of bend, the ratio of the radius of curvature of the bend
to the diameter of the pipe (i. e. r D ratio), and the roughness of the pipe.
For a 900 bend, the value of Kb usually varies between 0.60 and 0.90.

Fig: Photo of Experimental Setup

Experimental Setup:
The set-up consists of a small diameter pipe which suddenly changes to a large diameter pipe.
After a certain a length, the large diameter reduces to a small diameter. The small diameter pipe

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has a bend. Suitable pressure tapping points are provided to measure the loss of head with an
inverted U-tube manometer. The loss of head can be determined by connecting the manometer
across the section where the changes occur in the flow. The pipe is connected to a constant-head
supply tank. The water is collected in measuring tank for the determination of the discharge.

Procedure:
1. Open the supply valve to allow the flow in the pipe line.
2. Close the gate values of pipe line so that only one pipe is in action.
3. Vent the cock of manometer to cock of elbow or bend or sudden
expansion or sudden contraction.
4. Note down the manometer readings.
5. Note the time taken (T) for “R” cm rise in collecting tank.
6. Repeat the experiment for different discharges.
7. Repeat the steps 1 to 6 for different pipes.

Calculations:
a) Loss of Energy due to sudden expansion
𝑉1 2
𝐻𝐿 = 𝐾𝑐 [ ]
2𝑔

b) Loss of Energy due to sudden contraction =

c) Loss of Energy due to Gate Valve =

d) Loss of Energy due to Needle Valve =

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e) Loss of Energy due to 1/2” Ball Valve =

f) Loss of Energy due to Short Elbow =

g) Loss of Energy due to Short Elbow =

Observation Table:
Sr. H1 H2 hf=
Test Piece H (m)
No (mm) (mm) H [(Sm/S)-1]
1 Sudden Expansion
2 Sudden Contraction
3 Gate Valve
4 Needle Valve
5 1/2” Ball Valve
6 Short Elbow
7 Long Bend

Result:
Head loss due to sudden expansion =
Head loss due to sudden contraction =
Head loss due to elbow & bends =
Conclusion:
Different losses observed in pipe line

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QUESTION

1. Define hydraulic gradient and total energy lines?

2. Define eddy loss?
3. Define sudden contraction?
4. Define sudden enlargement?

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Experiment No. 8
Title: Mini project/Industrial visit/Simulation of fluid flow/Programming using any suitable
software

Aim: To visit any pumping station, observe the various pumps. Submit the detailed report of the
visit.

Objective:

1. To study general layout of pumping station.

2. To study components of centrifugal pump.
Theory:

Following Main points must be covered in the industrial report

1) Name of plant

2) History of plant

3) Location and site selection

4) List of Plant equipment and auxiliaries.

5) Plant specification

6) Plant block diagram

7) Line layout

8) Working of plant

9) Observations

10) Conclusion.

Outcome:

1. Students will observe the layout of pumping station.

2. Students will study different types and their components.

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EXPERIMENT NO: 9
Title: Assignments using Virtual Laboratory

Aim: Any Two Virtual Lab experiments from experiment # 1,2,6,7, mentioned above

Objective:

1. To perform experiment on virtual lab

2. To learn virtual lab platform

Screenshots:

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