ENGINEERING PHYSICS I & II

DIPLOMA COURSE IN ENGINEERING FIRST AND SECOND

SEMESTER

A Publication under
Government of Tamilnadu
Distribution of Free Textbook Programme
(NOT FOR SALE)

Untouchability is a sin
Untouchability is a crime
Untouchability is a inhuman

DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION GOVERNMENT OF

TAMILNADU
Government of Tamilnadu
First Edition – 2015

THIRU. PRAVEEN KUMAR I.A.S

Principal Secretary / Commissioner of Technical Education Directorate of Technical Education
Guindy, Chennai- 600025

Dr. K.SUNDARAMOORTHY, M.E., Phd.,

Additional Director of Technical Education (Polytechnics)
Directorate of Technical Education
Guindy, Chennai- 600025

Co-ordinator
Er. R.SORNAKUMAR M.E., Principal
Dr. Dharmambal Government Polytechnic College for Women Tharamani, Chennai—113
Convener
THIRU. K.SELVARAJAN M.Sc., HOD (UG) / Physics
Institute of Chemical Technology Tharamani, Chennai—113

Reviewer
Dr.K.SIVAKUMAR, M.Sc., Phd.,
Professor of Physics and Dean, Regional office
Anna University, Madurai—7.

Authors
Dr.K.RAJESEKAR, M.Sc., Phd.,
Lecturer (UG)/ Physics
Government Polytechnic College
Nagercoil

THIRU.G.MOHANA SUNDARAM, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,M.Ed.,

THIRU S.NAGARAJAN, M.Sc., HOD(UG)/ Physics
Government Polytechnic College, Purasaiwakkam, Chennai –12

TMT.G.INDIRA, M.Sc.,M.Phil., Lecturer/Physics

Dr. Dharmambal Government Polytechnic College for Women Tharamani, Chennai—113
HOD(UG)/Physics
Central Polytechnic College
Taramani, Chennai-113.

THIRU.N.SARAVANAN, M.Sc.,M.Phil,M.Ed., HOD(UG)/Physics

Meenakshi Krishnan Polytechnic College Pammal, Chennai—75
This book has been prepared by the Directorate of Technical Education This
book has been printed on 60 G.S.M Paper

Through the Tamil Nadu Text book and Educational Services Corporation

ii

FOREWORD
With the concept of Global Village after liberalisation and globalisation, our country India has
become one of the most sought after destinations by many Multi National Companies for
investment. The rapid growth in various fields of Engineering and Technology like Information
technology, Automobile engineering, Infrastructure development, etc., demands much needed
Human Resources.

The growth of various Industries demand qualified Technicians at different categories. The
Diploma level education of Engineering and Technology offered by the various Polytechnic
Colleges cater these Technician needs of the Industries.

Every Polytechnic college is offering diploma programmes in many fields of Engineering like
Mechanical, Electrical, Civil, Electronics, Information Technology and special fields like
Aeronautics, Chemical, Printing , Leather and textile technology etc.,

For all branches of study, the first year curriculum is common. The syllabus provides the
necessary bridge between the school education and engineering education which the students
pursue from their second year of study. For successful completion of engineering diploma with
flying colours, a thorough knowledge of basics is very much essential.

The Content of this Engineering Physics I and Engineering Physics II provide necessary basic
ideas and concepts in a bright manner. Real life applications and practical examples are
included in this text wherever required. The experiments to be performed by the student in I and
II semester Engineering Physics practical are also included in this text for the benefit of
students.

The students should give due importance in understanding the various basic concepts with
which only they can shine in their career, rather than reading them by heart.

AUTHORS

iii
30013 ENGINEERING PHYSICS – I
DETAILED SYLLABUS
UNIT I: S I UNITS AND STATICS
1.1 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS:- 4Hrs Unit-Definition-Fundamental Quantities-Definition-Seven
fundamental quantities; their SI units and symbol for the units- Supplementary quantities-plane angle
and solid angle; their SI units and symbol for the units Derived physical quantities. Dimensional formula
for length, mass and time-derivation of dimensional formula for area, volume, density, velocity,
momentum, acceleration, force, impulse, work or energy and power. Uses of Dimensional formula.
Conventions followed in SI –Units Multiples & sub-multiples and prefixes of units.
1.2 STATICS:- 9 Hrs Scalar and vector quantities–Definitions and examples–Concurrent forces and
coplanar forces–Definition-Resolution of a vector into two perpendicular components -Resultant and
equilibrant–Definitions-Parallelogram law of forces - statement - Expressions for magnitude and
direction of the resultant of two forces acting at a point with an acute angle between them-Lami’s
theorem-Statement and explanation- Experimental verification of parallelogram law of forces and Lami’s
theorem. Simple problems based on expressions for magnitude and direction of resultant. Moment of a
force-Clockwise and anti-clockwise moments-Principle of moments- Couple–Torque acting due to a
Couple–Experimental determination of mass of the given body using principle of moments.
UNIT II: PROPERTIES OF MATTER
2.1 ELASTICITY:- 4 Hrs Elastic and plastic bodies–Definition-stress, strain-Definitions–Hooke’s law –
statement-three types of strain–Elastic and plastic limit–Young’s modulus, Bulk modulus, Rigidity
modulus and Poisson’s ratio–Definitions-Uniform and non-uniform bending of beams-Experimental
determination of the Young’s modulus of the material of a beam by uniform bending method. Simple
problems based on stress, strain and Young’s modulus.
2.2 VISCOSITY:- 5Hrs Viscosity–Definition-Coefficient of viscosity-Definition, SIunit and dimensional
formula -Stream line flow, turbulent flow-Explanation-Critical velocity–Definition-Reynolds
number-Experimental comparison of coefficient of viscosity of two low viscous liquids –Terminal
velocity–Definition-Experimental determination of coefficient of viscosity of a highly viscous liquid by
Stokes method–Practical applications of viscosity. 2.3 SURFACE TENSION:- 4Hrs Surface tension & angle
of contact-Definitions-Expression for surface tension of a liquid by capillary rise method-Experimental
determination of surface tension of water by capillary rise method–Practical applications of capillarity.
Simple problems based on expression for surface tension.
UNIT III: DYNAMICS–I
3.1.STRAIGHTLINE MOTION:- 2 Hrs Introduction-Newton’s Laws of motion-Fundamental Equations of
motion for objects - horizontal motion-falling freely-thrown vertically upwards.

iv
3.2 PROJECTILE MOTION:- 4Hrs. Projectile motion, angle of projection, trajectory, maximum height, time
of flight, and horizontal range–Definitions-Expressions for maximum height, time of flight and horizontal
range–Condition for getting the maximum range of the projectile-Derivation of the equation to show
that the trajectory of the projectile is a parabola. Simple problems based on expressions for maximum
height, time of flight and horizontal range. 3.3 CIRCULAR MOTION:- 7Hrs. Circular motion, angular
velocity, period and frequency of revolutions–Definitions– Relation between linear velocity and angular
velocity–Relation between angular velocity, period and frequency–Normal acceleration, centripetal
force and centrifugal force–Definitions–Expressions for normal acceleration and centripetal force.
Banking of curved paths–Angle of banking–Definition–Expression for the angle of banking of a 2/ (r g)
}Simple problems based on the expressions for centripetal
curved path. { tanθ= v
force and angle of banking.Simple harmonic motion, amplitude, frequency and period - Definitions.
UNIT IV: DYNAMICS–II
4.1 ROTATIONAL MOTION OF RIGID BODIES:- 6Hrs Rigid body–Definition-Moment of inertia of a particle
about an axis, moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis–expressions–Radius of
gyration–Definition– Expression for the kinetic energy of a rotating rigid body about an axis–Angular
momentum–Definition –Expression for the angular momentum of a rotating rigid body about an
axis–Law of conservation of angular momentum–Examples.
4.2 GRAVITATION:- 3Hrs Newton’s laws of gravitation–Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of
earth– Expression for variation of acceleration due to gravity with altitude 4.3 SATELLITES:- 4Hrs
Satellites–Natural and artificial–Escape velocity and orbital velocity–Definitions– Expression for escape
velocity–Expression for orbital velocity –Uses of artificial satellites. Simple problems based on the
expressions for escape velocity and orbital velocity. UNIT V: SOUND AND MAGNETISM
5.1 SOUND:- 8Hrs Wave motion–Introduction and definition–Audiable range-Infrasonic-Ultrasonics-
Progressive waves, longitudinal and transverse waves–Examples- Amplitude, wave length, period and
frequency of a wave–Definitions-Relation between wave length, frequency and velocity of a
wave-Stationary or standing waves. Vibrations-Free & forced vibrations and resonance–definitions and
examples–Laws of transverse vibrations of a stretched string–Sonometer–Experimental determination of
frequency of a tuning fork.Acoustics of buildings–Echo-Reverberation, reverberation time, Sabine’s
formula for reverberation time (no derivation) –Coefficient of absorption of sound energy–Noise
pollution.Simple problems based on expression for frequency of vibration. 5.2 MAGNETISM:- 5Hrs Pole
strength –Definitions–Magnetic moment, intensity of magnetisation, magnetising field intensity,
magnetic induction, permeability, hysteresis, saturation, retentivity and coercivity – Definitions - Method
of drawing hysteresis loop of a specimen using a solenoid–Uses of Hysteresis loop simple problem based
on intensity of magnetization.

v
30024 ENGINEERING PHYSICS – II
DETAILED SYLLABUS
UNIT I: HEAT
1.1 TRANSFER OF HEAT 4Hrs Concept of Heat and Temperature - Centigrade, Fahrenheit and Kelvin
scales of temperature measurement- Conduction,convection and radiation - Definitions and
explanations-Coefficient of thermal conductivity-Definition and SI unit- good and poor conductors-
Examples-Properties of thermal radiation.
1.2 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES 5Hrs Postulates –Mean square velocity and Root Mean
Square(RMS)velocity of molecules - Definitions and expressions –Expression for the pressure of a gas on
the basis of postulates of kinetic theory of gases - Relation between pressure and kinetic energy,
pressure and absolute temperature of the gas–Simple problems based on the expression for the
pressure of a gas.
1.3 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY 4Hrs Specific heat capacity of a substance (solids and liquids) –Definition –
Specific heat capacity of a gas at constant volume – Specific heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure–
Ratio of specific heat capacities – Explanation for Cp is greater than Cv –
Derivation of Mayer’s relation – calculation of Universal gas constant R from the gas equation PV= RT.
Simple problems based on Mayer’s relation.
UNIT II: THERMODYNAMICS, LIQUEFACTION OF GASES - AND NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY
2.1 THERMODYNAMICS 5Hrs First law of thermodynamics – Statement—Isothermal and Adiabatic
changes - Explanation – Equations for isothermal and adiabatic changes (No derivation) Simple problems
based on equations P1V1 = P2V2 and P1V1γ= P2V2γ Second law of thermodynamics – Clausius statement
and Kelvin’s statement – Working of Carnot’s reversible engine with indicator diagram and its efficiency.
2.2 LIQUEFACTION OF GASES 5Hrs Critical temperature, critical pressure and critical volume –
Definitions – Principle used in cascade process – Cascade process of liquefaction of oxygen –
Disadvantages of cascade process - Joule Thomson effect – Temperature of inversion – Liquefaction of
air by Linde’s process
2.3 NON – CONVENTIONAL ENERGY 3Hrs Introduction – Non-renewable and Renewable (Alternate)
energy sources – Examples – Solar energy, wind energy, – Advantages and disadvantages of renewable
energy. LIGHT AND REMOTE SENSING
3.1 OPTICS 5Hrs Refraction – Laws of refraction – Refractive index of a medium – Definition –
Spectrometer –Derivation of refractive index of glass prism using minimum deviation - Experimental
determination of refractive index using spectrometer - Fiber optics – Introduction –Phenomenon of total
internal reflection –problems using the refractive index .

vi
3.2 LASER 4Hrs LASER – Characteristics of LASER – principle of LASER – Spontaneous emission –
Stimulated emission – population inversion – Ruby laser-Construction and working- Uses of LASER.
3.3 REMOTE SENSING 4Hrs Remote sensing – Introduction – Active and passive remote sensing –
Explanation and examples – Components of remote sensing – Data acquisition, data analysis and refer
ence data – RADAR – principle and working with block diagram.
UNIT IV: ELECRICITY
4.1 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS 4Hrs Ohm’s law – Laws of resistances – Resistivity, Conductivity,Super
conductivity and Meissner effect- Definitions – Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws – Condition for
balancing the Wheatstone’s bridge .Simple problems based on expression for resistivity. 4.2 EFFECTS OF
CURRENT 4Hrs Joule’s law of heating – Experimental determination of specific heat capacity of a liquid
using Joule’s calorimeter –Faraday’s laws on electrolysis – Electro chemical equivalent (e.c.e) of an
element – Definition – Experimental determination of e.c.e. of copper- Capacitance of a capacitor –
Definition – ‘ farad ’– Definition– expressions for effective capacitance when capacitors are connected in
series and in parallel –Simple problems based on expressions for e.c.e., effective capacitance for series
and parallel connections of capacitors.
4.3 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 5Hrs Expression for the force acting on a current carrying straight
conductor placed in a uniform magnetic field – Fleming’s Left Hand rule – Expression for the torque
experi enced by a rectangular current carrying coil placed inside a uniform magnetic field – Working of a
moving coil galvanometer andits merits – Conversion of galvanometer into an Ammeter and Voltmeter.
Simple problems based on conversion of galvanometer into ammeter and voltmeter.
UNIT V: ELECTRONICS
5.1 SEMI CONDUCTORS 4Hrs Semi conductors – Energy bands in solids – Energy band diagram of good
conductors, insulators and semi conductors– Concept of Fermi level - Intrinsic semiconductors - Concept
of holes - Doping – Extrinsic semiconductors – P type and N type semiconduc tors.
5.2 DIODES AND TRANSISTORS 5Hrs P-N junction diode – Forward bias and reverse bias –Rectification
action of diode – Working of full wave rectifier using P N junction diodes -PNP and NPN transistors –
Three different configurations –Advantages of common emitter configuration – Working of NPN
transistor as an amplifier in common emitter configuration.
5.3 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 4Hrs Digital electronics – Introduction – Logic levels – Basic logic gates: OR,
AND , NOT gates – Universal logic gates:NAND and NOR gates – Symbolic representation, Boolean expres
sion and Truth table for all above logic gates – Integrated circuits– Levels of integration – SSI, MSI, LSI
and VLSI-Advantages of ICs.

vii
viii
ENGINEERING PHYSICS—I
FIRST SEMESTER
UNIT CONTENTS PAGE
NO.

UNIT I: SI UNITS AND STATICS

1.1 UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 1

1.2 STATICS 6

UNIT II: PROPERTIES OF MATTER

2.1 ELASTICITY 14

2.2 VISCOSITY 18
2.3 SURFACE TENSION 23

UNIT III: DYNAMICS—I

3.1 STRAIGHT LINE MOTION 32

3.2 PROJECTILE MOTION 33

3.3 CIRCULAR MOTION 38

UNIT IV: DYNAMICS—II

4.1 ROTATIONAL MOTION OF RIGID BODIES 49

4.2 GRAVITATION 54

4.3 SATELLITES 56

UNIT V: SOUND AND MAGNETISM

5.1 SOUND 60

5.2 MAGNETISM 67

FIRST SEMESTER PRACTICAL-I

1 MICROMETER (SCREW GAUGE) 75

2 VERNIER CALIPERS 78

3 CONCURRENT FORCES 81

4 COMPARISON OF VISCOSITIES OF LIQUIDS BY 84

CAPILLARY FLOWMETHOD

5 COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY OF HIGH VISCOUS 86

LIQUID—STOKES’METHOD

6 SURFACE TENSION 89

7 SONAMETER 92

8 DEFLECTION MEGNETOMETER (TAN A—POSITION) 95

COMPARISONOF MAGNETIC MOMENTS
ix
ENGINEERING PHYSICS—II
SECOND SEMESTER
UNIT CONTENTS PAGE NO.

UNIT I: HEAT

1.1 TRANSFER OF HEAT 1

1.2 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES 4

1.3 SPECIFIC HEAT OF CAPACITY 8

UNIT II: THERMODYNAMICS, LIQUEFACTION OF GASES & NON CONVENTIONAL

ENERGY

2.1 THERMODYNAMICS 14

2.2 LIQUEFACTION OF GASES 18

2.3 NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY 20

UNIT III: LIGHT AND REMOTE SENSING

3.1 OPTICS 25

3.2 LASER 33

3.3 REMOTE SENSING 36

UNIT IV: ELECTRICITY

4.1 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS 42

4.2 EFFECTS OF CURRENT 47

4.3 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 57

UNIT V: ELECTRONICS

5.1 SEMICONDUCTORS 65

5.2 DIODES AND TRANSISTORS 69

5.3 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 74

SECOND SEMESTER PRACTICAL

1 REFRACTIVE INDEX 83

2 SOAR CEL 85

3 SPECTROMETER 87

4 OHM’S LAW 90

5 JOULE’S CALORIMETER 93

6 COPPER VOLTAMETER 96

7 CHARACTERISTICS OF P-N JUNCTION DIODE 98

8 LOGIC GATES 100

x
SI Units and Statics � 1

UNIT

1 SI UNITS AND STATICS

1.1 UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

Introduction:
The word physics comes from the Greek word meaning “nature”. Today physics is treated as the
most fundamental branch of science and finds numerous applications of life. Physics deals with matter
in relation to energy and the accurate measurement of the same. Thus physics is inherently a science of
measurement. The fundamentals of physics form the basis for the study and the development of
engineering and technology.
 Measurement consists of the comparison of an unknown quantity with a known fixed quantity. The
quantity used as the standard of measurement is called ‘unit’. For example, a vegetable vendor weighs
the vegetables in terms of units like kilogram.
Fundamental physical quantities
Fundamental quantities are the quantities which cannot be expressed in terms of any other physical
quantity.
(eg) length, mass and time.
Derived quantities
Quantities that can be expressed in terms of fundamental quantities are called derived
quantities. (eg) area, volume, density.
Unit
Unit of a physical quantity is defined as the accepted standard used for comparison of given
physical quantity.
The unit in which the fundamental quantities are measured are called fundamental unit and the
units used to measure derived quantities are called derived units.
SI Units
SI unit is the abbreviation for System International de units and is the modern form of metric
system finally agreed upon at the eleventh International conference of weights and measures, 1960.
This system of units is now being adopted throughout the world and will remain the primary system of
units of measurement. SI system possesses features that make it logically superior to any other system.
There are seven fundamental units (base units) and two supplementary units.
SI system of units
Physical quantity Unit Symbol

Fundamental quantities

1.Length metre m

2.Mass kilogram kg

3.Time second s

4.Electric current ampere A

2 � Engineering Physics-I

5.Temperature kelvin K

6.Luminous Intensity candela cd

7.Amount of substance mole mol

Supplementary quantities

1. Plane angle radian rad

2. Solid angle steradian sr

 Derived quantities and their units
Sl.No Physical quantity Formula Unit Symbol

1 Area of the square side × side metre2 or square metre m2

2 Volume of the side × side × side metre3 or cubic metre m3

cube

3 Density Mass / volume kilogram metre–3 kgm–3

4 Velocity Displacement / time metre second–1 ms–1

5 Acceleration velocity/ time metre second–2 ms–2

6 Momentum mass × velocity Kilogram metre second–1 kgms–1

7 Force mass × acceleration newton N

8 Impulse force × time newton second Ns

9 Work (or) Energy force × displacement newton metre or joule J

10 Power Work / time joule second–1 or watt W

Dimensions
The fundamental physical quantities namely length, mass and time are symbolically represented by
the capital letters L, M and T respectively.
Dimensional formula is the formula in which the given physical quantity is expressed in terms of
the fundamental quantities raised to suitable powers.
Dimensional formula for derived physical quantities.
1. Area of the square = side × side
Applying dimensions
Area of the square = L × L = L2
Dimensional formula for Area = [ L2 ]
2. Volume of the cube = side × side × side
Applying dimensions
Volume of the cube = L × L × L = L3
Dimensional formula for Volume = [L3]
3. Density is the mass per unit Volume.
mass Density
volume =
Applying dimensions
M Density ML
L==
–3
3
 Dimensional formula for Density = [ML–3]
SI Units and Statics � 3

4. Velocity is the rate of change of displacement

displacement Velocity
time =
Applying dimensions,
–1 Velocity LT
L T==
Dimensional formula for Velocity = [LT–1]
5. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity
velocity Acceleration
time
=

displacement 1
=⋅
time time

Applying dimensions
LL
LT
–2
= ==
TT T ⋅
2

Dimensional formula for Acceleration = [LT–2]

6. Momentum is the product of mass and velocity.
Momentum = mass × velocity
displacement mass
time
=⋅

Applying dimensions
–1
L Momentum M MLT
= ⋅=
T
Dimensional formula for Momentum = [MLT–1]
7. Force is the product of mass and acceleration.
Force = mass × acceleration
velocity mass
time
=⋅

mass displacement
=⋅
time time

Applying dimensions,
 Force = M L
⋅
= MLT -2
TT
Dimensional formula for force = [MLT -2]
8. Impulse is the product of force and
time Impulse = force × time

= mass × acceleration × time = mass ×

velocity

time time
= mass × velocity
= mass × (Displacement/time)
4 � Engineering Physics-I

Applying dimensions,

Impulse = M L
⋅
= MLT -1
T
Dimensional formula for Impulse= [MLT-1]
9. Work (or) Energy is the product of force and
displacement Work or Energy = force × displacement
= mass × acceleration × displacement velocity
= mass ×

time × displacement

= mass displacement
⋅ × displacement
time time
Applying dimensions

Work or energy = M × L L
⋅ = ML2 T-2
TT
Dimensional formula for Work or Energy = [ML2
T-2] 10. Power is the rate of doing work.
work
Power time
=

= force displacement
⋅
time
Applying dimensions,
 L
Power = MLT-2 , T = ML2 T-3
Dimensional formula for Power = [ML2 T-3]
Uses of Dimensional formula
• To check the dimensional correctness of a given equation. • To convert a
physical quantity from one system of unit to another. • To establish a relationship
between the physical quantity in an equation. CONVENTIONS TO BE
FOLLWED IN SI UNITS
1. When we write a unit in full, the first letter should not be in capital letter.
(eg) metre and not as Metre
kilogram and not as Kilogram
2. The symbols of unit in the name of scientist should be in upper case (capital) letter
(eg) N for newton, J for joule.
3. Only the singular form of the unit is to be used.
(eg) km and not as kms
Kg and not as kgs
4. There should be no full stop at the end of the abbreviations.
(eg) mm and not as mm.
kg and not as kg.
SI Units and Statics � 5

5. When temperature is expressed in Kelvin, the degree sign is omitted.

(eg ) 273K not as 2730K
6. Only accepted symbols should be used.
(eg) ampere is represented as 'A' and not 'amp'
second is represented as 's' and not 'sec'
7. Use of the solidus or slash is to be avoided, but when used, not more than one solidus be
employed.
(eg) J/k.mol or Jk.mol-1 but not J/k/mol
J kg-1 K-1 but not J/kg/K
8. One letter space is always to be left between the number and the symbol of the unit.
(eg) 2.3 m and not as 2.3m
Kg m s-2 and not kg ms-2
9. The numerical value of any physical quantity should be expressed as p= a × 10m. Here 'a' is a
number between 1 and 10 and 'm' is the appropriate power of 10.
(eg) velocity of light c = 2.997 × 108 m s-1
Multiples and Submultiples of units
In SI, some units are not of convenient size to measure certain quantities. Hence multiples and sub
multiples of the base units are used in measurements.
Multiplication factor Prefix Symbol

1 000 000 000 000 = 1012 Tera T

1 000 000 000=109 Giga G

 1 000 000=106 Mega M

1 000=103 Kilo K

100=102 hecto* h

10=101 deca* da

0.1=10-1 deci d

0.01=10-2 centi* c

0.001=10-3 milli m

0.000 001=10-6 micro μ

0.000 000 001=10-9 nano n

0.000 000 000 001=10-12 pico p

0.000 000 000 000 001=10-15 femto f

0.000 000 000 000 000 001=10-18 atto a

*These are not preferred ones. They are used where the other prefixes are inconvenient
6 � Engineering Physics-I

1.2 STATICS
Statics is the part of mechanics which deals with forces acting on bodies at rest. The weight of the
body, the tension of a string, the load and the reaction are the different names of forces that are used in
statics.
Any force can be represented in magnitude and direction by a straight line with an arrow head. The
beginning of the line represents the point of application of the force. The arrow head represents the
direction of the force. The magnitude of the force is given by the length of the line drawn to scale.
Scalar and Vector quantities
Physical quantities which have magnitude only are called scalar quantities.
(e.g) Mass, Volume, Speed
Physical quantities which have both magnitude and direction are called vector
quantities. (e.g) Velocity, Momentum, Force
Concurrent forces
Two or more than two forces acting at a point are called concurrent forces.
Coplanar forces
Two or more than two forces lie on same plane are called coplanar forces.
F1 F2 F3 F4

Resultant
 Resultant is that single force which produces the same effect as that produced by two or more
forces acting on the body.
Equilibrant
Equilibrant is the single force which acting along with the other forces keeps the body in
equilibrium.
Resolution of a vector into two perpendicular components
The process of splitting up a vector (force) into two perpendicular component parts is known as
resolution of a vector. As the two component forces are mutually perpendicular, they are called
rectangular components.
Y
θ

BC
S
θ R
n
i
90-θ
X
O R Cos θ A R

Let a force R act at a point O at an angle θ with x- axis. This force can be resolved into two
rectangular components along x and y axis. Two lines CA and CB are drawn perpendicular to x and y
axis as shown in the figure.
In the right angled triangle OAC,

Cos θ = OA
OC
OA = OC cosθ
= R cosθ
SI Units and Statics � 7

Therefore the horizontal component of the force R is R cosθ. In the right angled triangle

OBC, Cos(90 - θ) = OB
OC

Sin θ = OB
OC
OB = OC sin θ = R sin θ
The vertical component of the force R is R sin θ.
Parallelogram law of forces
If two forces acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides
of a parallelogram drawn from that point, their resultant is given in magnitude and direction by the
diagonal of the parallelogram drawn through that point.
Expressions for the magnitude and direction of the resultant of two forces acting at a point,
with an acute angle between them.
CB
R
Q
α
 O
PAD

Consider two forces P and Q acting at a point O with an angle θ between them as shown in the
figure. The forces P and Q are represented in magnitude and direction by the sides OA and OB of a
parallelogram OACB. The diagonal OC gives the resultant of two forces P and Q in magnitude and
direction. From C draw a perpendicular to meet OA extended at D.
In the right angled triangle OCD
OC2 = OD2 + CD2
= (OA + AD) 2 +CD2
OC2 = OA2 +AD2+2OA .AD +CD2 ...( 1) In the right angled triangle ACD

Cos θ = AD AD

AC Q =
AD = Q Cosθ

Sin θ = CD CD

AC Q =
CD = Q sinθ.
Substituting AD and CD values in eqn.(1)
R2 = P2 + Q2 cos2θ + 2PQcosθ +Q2sin2θ
R2 = P2 + Q2 (cos2θ + sin2θ) + 2PQcosθ
R2 = P2 + Q2 +2PQcosθ where cos2θ + sin2θ=1
Resultant, R = 2 2 P q 2PQcos ++ θ
This is the expression for the magnitude of the resultant.
Let α be the angle between the resultant R and the force P.

tan α = CD CD Q sin
θ==
+ +θ
OD OA AD P Qcos
8 � Engineering
Physics-I

θ
 +θ
Direction, α = tan-1 (Q sin )
(P Qcos )

In the right angled triangle COD,

This is the expression for the direction of the resultant.
Lami's theorem
If three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, then each force is directly of proportional to the
sine of the angle between the other two forces.
 Q
γPβα

Let P, Q and R be three forces acting at a point O. Under the action of three forces, the point is at
rest. Let α, β and γ be the angles opposite to the forces P, Q and R respectively. By Lami's theorem

P α sin α ⇒ P = K sin α ⇒P
sin α= K

Q α sin β ⇒ Q = K sin β ⇒Q
sin β = K

R α sin γ ⇒ R = K sin γ ⇒R
sin γ= K
P QR
==
sin sin sin αβγ = constant
Experimental verification of parallelogram law of forces
D
γ O
Pβ α
P B R
Q Q
O
A

R C

A drawing board is fixed vertically on the wall. Two frictionless pulleys are fixed at the top corners
of the drawing board. A light and inextensible string is passed over these pulleys. Another short string
is tied to the first string at O. Weight hangers P, Q and R are tied at the ends of the strings as shown in
the figure. The weights P, Q and R are adjusted suitably such that the point O is at rest.
A white paper is held just behind the string without touching them. The point O and the directions
of the strings are marked on the paper. Then the paper is removed from the board. With suitable scale
the points A, B and C are marked. OA, OB and OC represent the forces P, Q and R respectively.
The parallelogram OADB is drawn. Then the diagonal OD is drawn. The length of the diagonal OD
and ∠COD are measured and tabulated.
SI Units and Statics � 9

Sl. No P Q R OA OB OC OD ∠COD
 The experiment is repeated for different values of P, Q and R. It is found that OC = OD and
∠COD = 180º. Thus the parallelogram law of forces is verified experimentally. Experimental
verification of Lami's theorem
P O
α
β
P B
Q R
γ
O A Q

R C

A drawing board is fixed vertically on the wall. Two frictionless pulleys are fixed at the top corners
of the drawing board. A light and inextensible string is passed over these pulleys. Another short string
is tied to the first string at O. Weight hangers P, Q and R are tied at the ends of the strings as shown in
the figure. The weights P, Q and R are adjusted suitably such that the point O is at rest.
A white paper is held just behind the string without touching them. The point O and the directions
of the forces P, Q and R are marked on the paper. Then the paper is removed from the board. Let α, β
and γ are the angles opposite to the forces P, Q and R respectively. The angles are measured with the
help of protractor and tabulated.
Sl. No P Q R α β γ P Q R
sin α sin β sin γ

The experiment is repeated for different values of P, Q and R. The ratios (P/ sin α), (Q / sin β) and
(R / sin γ) are calculated. For each set of readings, the ratios are found to be equal. Thus Lami's
theorem is verified experimentally.
Moment of a force

O
d

NF

Consider a body which is fixed at a point, about which it can rotate freely. Let a force F is acting on
the body. The effect of the force is to rotate the body about the fixed point, unless the line of action of
the force passes through that fixed point O. This rotating tendency or the turning effect of the force
about that point is called moment of force i.e. the turning effect of the force acting on a body about an
axis or point is called moment of force.
It is common experience that in opening or closing a door, the force we apply rotates the door about
its hinges. This rotating effect is known as the moment of force.
 Moment of force is also equal to the product of the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular
distance of the line of action of the force from the axis of rotation.
10 � Engineering Physics-I

Moment of force about the point O = Force × perpendicular distance of the force from the point
O = F × ON
The unit of moment of force is N m and the dimensional formula is ML2T-2.
Clockwise and anti-clockwise moments
If the moment of a force turns or rotates the body in clockwise direction, then it is called as clock
wise moment.
If the moment of a force turns or rotates the body in anti-clockwise direction, then it is called
anti-clockwise moment.
d1 d2
m1 m 2

Clockwise moment= m2 × d2

Anti-clockwise moment = m1 × d1
Principle of moments
The principle of moment states that if a body is in equilibrium under the action of a number of
parallel forces, the sum of the clockwise moments about any point must be equal to the sum of
anti-clockwise moments about the same point.
O
d4
d1
d2 d3

m2 m 3

m1
m4

According to the principle of moments,

Sum of anti-clockwise moments = sum of clockwise moments
From figure,
m1d1 + m2d2 =m3d3 + m4d4.
Couple:
Two equal and opposite parallel forces acting at different points in a body constitute a couple. A
body acted upon by the couple will rotate the body in clockwise direction or anti-clockwise direction.
Steering wheel and pedals of bicycles are the examples for couple, where the two forces are equal but
acting in opposite direction.
Torque acting due to couple (or) Moment of couple
Torque is calculated by the product of either of forces forming the couple and the arm of the
couple.
i.e.) Torque = one of the force × perpendicular distance between the forces.
F

O
B
A
 F

Consider two equal forces F and F acting on the arm AB. Let O be the mid point of the arm .The
forces F and F are acting in opposite direction as shown in the figure, they constitute a couple. Then
Moment of couple or torque = F × AB.
SI Units and Statics � 11

If the forces acting on the body have the same line of action then the moment becomes zero. The
torque is maximum when the forces are at right angles to the arm i.e.) θ=90º.
Determination of mass of the given body using principle of

moments. A D O C B d2 d1

m2 m 1

A meter scale AB is supported on a knife edge at its centre such that it remains in equilibrium state.
Let O be the centre of the scale. On the right side suspend the weight hanger of mass m1 and on the left
side suspend the given body m2 whose mass is to be calculated. Adjust the positions of m1 and m2 until
the scale comes to the exact equilibrium position. Let d1 (OC) and d2 (OD) be the distances of m1 and
m2.
According to the principle of moments
m2 × d2 = m1 × d1
The mass of the given body m2 = (m1 × d1 ) / d2
By changing the values of m1, the experiment is repeated and the readings are tabulated.
Sl.No m1 d1 d2 m2 = (m1 × d1) / d2
kg m m kg

Mean =
The average value of the last column gives the mass of the body.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Find the magnitude and direction of the two forces 20N and 25N acting at an angle 60º to each
other.
Given:
P = 20N Q = 25N θ = 60º
Resultant R = 2 2 P Q 2PQcos ++ θ

= 2 2 20 25 2 20 25cos60 + +⋅ ⋅

= 1525
R = 39.05N
 θ
 +θ
(Q sin )
Direction α = tan-1
⋅
(P Qcos )
0
25 sin
60

+
α = tan-1 20 25 cos 60
0

-1
α = tan (0.6661) α =
33º40'
12 � Engineering Physics-I

2. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of two forces 30N and 40N acting at right
angles to each other.
Given
P = 30N
Q = 40N θ = 90°
Resultant R = 2 2 P Q 2PQcos ++ θ
= 2 2 30 40 2 30 40 cos 90 + +⋅ ⋅ ⋅

= 2500
R = 50N
⋅
(40 sin 90)
Direction α = tan -1 cos 90)

  + (30 40

-1
= tan (1.333)
α = 53º7'
3. If the resultant of two equal force is
3 times a single force, find the angle between the forces.
Given
Two forces are equal
P=Q=P
R=3P
R2 = P2+Q2+2PQcosθ
(3P)2 = P2+P2+2.P.P.cosθ
3P2- 2P2 = 2P2cosθ
P2 = 2P2cosθ
cosθ = ½
∴ θ = 60º
 Angle between the forces is 60º
4. If the resultant of two equal forces inclined to each other at 60º is 8 3 N, find the component
forces.
Given
Two forces are equal.
P=Q=P
R=83N
θ = 60º
R = P +Q2+2PQcosθ
2 2

(8 3 )2 = P2+P2+2.P.Pcos60º
192 = 2P2+2P2.½
192 = 3P2
64 = P2
P = 8N
Component force is 8N
SI Units and Statics � 13

5. The sum of two forces is 8N and the magnitude of the resultant is at right angles to the smaller
force 4N. Find the forces and the inclination between them.
Given
Sum of the two forces = 8 N
Resultant of 2 forces = 4 N
Let the smaller force be P
Larger force Q = (8–P)
B
C
P = 3N
Therefore the larger force Q =
8–3 Q = 5N In triangle OCB,

tan α = BC P 3
Q=8 – P Q=8 – P
In the right angled triangle N

OAB, AB2 = OA2 + OB2

α
(8 – P)2 = P2+ 42
64–16P + P2 = P2+16 OPA
16P = 48
 ==
OB 4 4 = 0.75
α = tan-1(0.75)
α = 36º52'
Angle between the forces P and Q
90 + α = 90+ 36º52'
= 126º52’
QUESTIONS
Part A and Part B
1. What are the fundamental quantities?
2. What are the derived quantities?
3. What are the supplementary quantities and their SI units? 4. What
are the units for momentum , force,impulse and work? 5. What are
the units for energy and power,acceleration and density? 6. What are
the dimensional formula for impulse and momentum. 7. What are the
dimensional formula for work or energy. 8. What are the dimensional
formula for power.and force 9. Define scalar quantity.with example
14 � Engineering Physics-I

10. Define vector quantity with example.

11. What is resultant?
12. What is equilibrant?
13. Write the parallelogram law of forces.
14. Write the Lami's theorem.
15. Write any two conventions followed in SI unit.
16. Define concurrent forces.
17. Define coplanar forces.
18. Define moment of a force.
19. Write the principle of moments.
20. Define couple.
21. Define moment of a couple.
22. Define clockwise moment and anticlockwise moment.
23. Write any three uses of dimensional formula
24. Derive dimensional formula for impulse, work and power.
25. Write any three the rules and conventions followed while writing SI.
26. Explain how a vector can be resolved into two rectangular components. 27. Find the
magnitude of the two forces 3 N and 5 N acting at right angle to each other Part- C
1. Give the rules and conventions followed while writing SI units
2. Derive expressions for the magnitude and direction of the resultant of two forces acting at a point
with an acute angle between them.
3. Describe an experiment to verify the parallelogram law of forces.
4. Describe an experiment to verify Lami's theorem.
5. Describe an experiment to determine the mass of the given body using principle of moments.
Exercise Problems
1. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of two forces of 5N and 3N at an angle of 60º.
(Ans: R =7N, α =
21º47')
2. Two forces of magnitude 4N and 2.5N acting at a point inclined at an angle of 40º to each other. Find
their resultant.
(Ans: R= 6.149N, α =15º8')
3. Find the resultant of two forces 3N and 4N acting on a particle in direction inclined at 30º. (Ans: R=
6.767N, α =17º19')
4. Two forces of magnitude 4N and 3N respectively, act on a particle at right angles to each other. Find
the magnitude and direction of the resultant of two forces.
(Ans: R= 5N, α =36º52')
SI Units and Statics � 15

5. If the resultant of two equal forces is 2 times the single force, find the angle between them. (Ans: θ
= 90º)
6. If the resultant of two equal forces inclined to each other at 60º is 8.660 N, find the component
force.
(Ans:5N)
7. If the resultant of two forces 6N and 8N is 12N, find the angle between them. (Ans: 62º43')
8. The sum of two forces inclined to each other at an angle is 18N and their resultant which is
perpendicular to the smaller force is 12N. Find the forces and angle between them.
(Ans: P= 5N,Q=13N,θ =112º36')
14 � Engineering Physics-II

UNIT
 2 PROPERTIES OF MATTER

2.1 ELASTICITY

Introduction:
When an external force is applied on a body, which is not free to move, the shape and size of the
body change. The force applied is called deforming force. When the deforming forces are removed,
the body tends to regain its original shape and size due to a force developed within the body. The force
developed within the body, which is equal and opposite to deforming force is called restoring force.
Bodies, which completely regain their original size and shape after the removal of the deforming
force, are called elastic bodies. Bodies which change the shape and size on the application of force and
which do not regain their original condition on removal of the deforming forces are said to be plastic
bodies. Bodies which do not change their shape and size on application of force are called rigid bodies.
The property by virtue of which a body tends to regain its original shape and size after removal of
the deforming force is known as elasticity.
Stress :
When an external force is acting on an elastic body, it causes deformation (change in shape or in
size or both). At the same time, due to elastic property, a force is developed within the material, which
is equal and opposite to the applied force, to bring the body to its original shape and size. This force is
‘restoring force’.

Stress = Force F

Area A=
The stress is defined as the restoring force acting on unit area.
Since the applied force and the restoring force are equal in magnitude, the ‘stress’ is measured as
the applied force acting per unit area.
The unit for stress is newton metre-2 with symbol N m-2 or 'pascal' with symbol 'Pa'. When the
applied force tends to compress the body, the stress is compressive. When it tends to increase the
length in the direction of the force, it is tensile and when it acts parallel to the surface of a body, the
stress is tangential stress.
Hooke's law:
Within the elastic limits, the strain produced in a body is directly proportional to the stress which
causes it.
i.e., strain ∝ stress
or stress ∝ strain

∴stress
= a constant
strain
This constant is called 'modulus of elasticity'.
Types of strains:
Strain: Change in dimensions to original dimensions is known as Strain.
Properties of Matter � 15

(1) Linear Strain:

 When a wire or bar is subjected to two equal and opposite forces, namely pulls, at its ends, there is
an increase in the length. If the forces are tensile, the body is elongated. If the forces are compressive,
the length is shortened in the direction of the forces. This is called the 'linear strain'.
The linear strain is defined as the ratio of change in length to the original length. If the change
(increase or decrease) in length is ' l ' in a wire or bar of original length L,
As the linear strain is ratio of lengths, it has no unit.

linear strain = Change in length

original length L = l
(2) Bulk (or) Volume Strain:
When a force is applied uniformly and normally to the entire surface of the body, there is a change
in volume of the body, without any change in its shape. This strain is called 'bulk or volume strain'.
Volume strain is defined as the ratio of change in volume to the original volume. It has also no unit. If
'v' is the change in volume produced in a body of original volume ‘V’,

bulk or volume strain = Change in volume v

original volume V=
(3) Shearing (or) Rigidity strain:
When a force is applied parallel to one face of a body, the opposite side being fixed, there is a
change in shape but not in size of the body. This strain is called the shearing strain.
Solids alone can have a shearing strain. It is measured by the angle of the shear 'θ' in
radian. Three modulii of elasticity
There are three types of modulii depending upon the three kinds of strain.
(a) Young's modulus (E):
It is defined as the ratio of linear stress to linear strain.
Let a wire of initial length L and cross-sectional area ' A', undergo an extension l, when a stretching
force 'F', is applied in the direction of its length.
The modulus of elasticity, in this case, is called Young's modulus and is given

by i.e., Young's modulus ( E ) = Linear stress

Linear strain
F
Then, longitudinal or linear stress =
A
A
L
l I
and longitudinal strain = L E = Linear
== F
stress F / A F.L Linear strain / L A. ll

The unit for Young’s modulus is newton metre-2 with symbol N m-2. The single term unit which is
widely used for Young's modulus is 'pascal' with symbol 'Pa'.
(b) Bulk (or) Volume modulus (k):
It is defined as the ratio of bulk stress to bulk strain.
16 � Engineering Physics-II

When a body is subjected to a uniform compressive force, its volume decreases and the strain
produced is a bulk or volume strain.
If 'v' is the change in volume and V is the original volume, then
If F is the total compressive force acting on a total area A, then bulk stress = F/A =
P Bulk stress
Bulk modulus Bulk strain
(k) =

If P is the stress applied i.e. (force/unit area) then,

v
bulk strain = V

bulk modulus k = P P.V

v/V v =
The unit for bulk modulus is 'newton metre-2' with symbol N m-2. The single term unit which is
widely used for bulk modulus is 'pascal' with symbol 'Pa'.
(c) Shearing (or) Rigidity modulus 'n':
The ratio of the shearing stress applied to the body to the shearing strain produced is called the
rigidity modulus and denoted by the letter 'n'.
If T is the tangential force/unit area and if θ is the angle of shear measured in radian,
TF =
then rigidity modulus n = A θθ

The unit for rigidity modulus is 'newton metre-2 radian-1' with symbol N m-2 rad-1. The other unit
which is widely used for rigidity modulus is 'pascal radian-1' with symbol 'Pa rad-1'. Poisson's ratio: σ
When a tensile stress is applied to a wire, the wire undergoes not only an extension of length in the
direction of the force but also a contraction in its thickness. The ratio of decrease in thickness to the
original thickness in lateral direction is known as lateral contraction.
The ratio of lateral contraction to linear elongation is called Poisson's ratio.

Poisson ' s ratio σ = Lateral contraction

Linear elongation
Bending of beams:
A beam is a body having uniform cross section, the length of which is very large compared to its
thickness. When such a beam is fixed at one end and loaded at the other end, it is called a cantilever. A
beam is supported symmetrically on two knife edges A and B at the same level. It is loaded
symmetrically with two equal weights W, W, beyond the knife edges, at C and D, so that AC=BD=a.
Now the beam is elevated at the centre. This type of bending is called uniform bending of beam. A
beam is supported symmetrically on two knife edges A and B near its ends in a horizontal level. A
weight hanger W is suspended by means of a loop of thread from a point which is exactly midway
between the two knife edges. Now the beam is depressed at the centre. This type of bending is called
non-uniform bending of beam.
Properties of Matter � 17

Experiment to determine the Young's modulus of the material of a beam by uniform

bending method:
MgMg
aa

lCD
AB
Mg
Mg

The given bar is supported symmetrically on two knife edges in a horizontal level, so that a quarter
of the bar projects beyond each knife edge. Two weight hangers are suspended from two loops of string
tightly attached at distances about 5 cm from each end so that their distances from the knife edges are
equal. A pin is fixed vertically at the midpoint of the bar. A traveling microscope is focused on the pin
such that the horizontal crosswire coincides with the tip of the pin. The reading in the vertical scale of
the microscope is noted. Weights are added in steps of M kg and the corresponding readings of the
image of the pin in the microscope are noted. Similarly readings are taken while unloading and
tabulated.
The mean elevation y is found for a load of M kg. The distance 'I' between the knife edges is
measured. The distance 'a' between the point of suspension of the weight and the nearest knife edge is
also measured. The breadth 'b' of the bar found accurately with the vernier calipers and its thickness d
is found with a screw gauge. Young's modulus is calculated using the formula.
2
3Mgal
E=
–2
2bd y Nm 3

Load in Microscope reading Elevation y

Kg For M kg
Load Load Mean
increasing decreasing

x+M

x+2M

x+3M

Worked examples
1. A load of 5 kg is attached to the free end of a wire of length 2 m and diameter 0.6 mm. If the
extension of the wire is 0.2 mm, calculate the Young's modulus of the material of the wire. (g =
 9.8 ms-2)
Length of the wire L = 2 m
Extension of the wire I = 0.2 mm = 0.2 × 10-3 m
Force acting of the wire F = 5kgf = 5 × 9.8 N
Diameter of the wire d = 0. 6 mm = 0.6 × 10-3 m
Radius of the wire =0.3 × 10-3 m
Area of cross section of the wire a = π r2 = π (3 × 10-4)2 m2
Young's modulus = Linear stress/Linear strain
F 5 9.8
⋅= 8 -2
π ⋅ = 1.734 × 10 Nm
Linear stress 4 2
A (3 10 ) −
18 � Engineering Physics-II

l 2 10 4
Linear 10–4
strain L2
−⋅
==1×
1.734 10 ⋅
8

=
12 –2
⋅ = 1.734 × 10 Nm
− 4
1 10

2. A copper wire of 3 m length and 1 mm diameter is subjected to a tension of 5 kg wt. Calculate the
elongation produced in the wire, if Young's modulus of elasticity of copper is 120 G Pa.

Young' s modulus E = F/A

l/L

E = FL
Al
⋅⋅= –3
Elongation produced l = π⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = 1.562 × 10 m MgL 5 9.8 3
FL
AE
= 2 32 9
r E 3.14 (0.5 10 ) 120 10 −
3. What is the force required to a steel wire to double its length when its area of cross-section is one
sq. cm and Young's modulus is 200 G Pa. As the length of the wire is doubled, the change in
length is equal to its original length.

The young' s modulus E = FL

AI

F = EAI
L
= EAL
L
If L is the original length, then l= L
F = EA
= 200 × 109 × 10-4
= 2 × 107 N
2.2 VISCOSITY
Let us consider a liquid flowing over a horizontal surface. The layer in contact with the surface is at
rest. The top most layer have the maximum velocity. The intermediate layers have intermediate
velocity. To maintain this relative motion of the layers, an external force must be acting on the liquid.
Otherwise the liquid will come to rest due to internal frictional forces acting between the layers of the
liquid. These internal frictional forces that bring the liquid to rest are known as viscous force and this
property is known as viscosity.
The property by virtue of which the relative motion between the layers of a liquid is maintained is
called viscosity. We can also say viscosity is the resistance to flow.
Coefficient of viscosity of a liquid
Let F be the viscous force acting between two layers of a liquid separated by a distance dx. Let dv
be the difference in velocity between the two layers. Let A be the area of the layers. The velocity
gradient dv/dx acts perpendicular to direction of flow of the liquid.
Properties of Matter � 19

The viscous force F is found to be directly proportional to

i. the area of the layers 'A’
dv
ii. the velocity gradient dx

F αAdv
dx

F = Adv
η
dx
dv
If A = 1and dx =1, then F = η
Where η is constant, called Coefficient of viscosity of the liquid
Coefficient of viscosity of a liquid is defined as the viscous force acting between two layers of a
liquid having unit area of layers and unit velocity gradient normal to the direction of flow of the liquid.
A
dx F

V+dv V

SI unit of η: η =F
 A dv / dx Substituting the respective units of the quantities
on the R.H.S,

N
The unit of coefficient of viscosity η = 2 1 m .ms / m
−

= Nsm-2 Dimensional formula of η:

F
η= formula of the quantities on the R.H.S,

A dv / dx Substituting the respective dimentional

dimensional viscosity η = 2
formula of MLT 2 1 −
The
coefficient of −
L .LT / L
= ML-1T-1
Stream line flow (laminar flow) and turbulent flow:
To maintain the flow of a liquid through a tube, some pressure should be given at one end of the
tube to overcome the viscous drag. For a given external pressure, the velocity of flow depends on the
coefficient of viscosity. At low pressure the velocity is less than a certain velocity called the critical
velocity and the liquid flows in an orderly manner and the flow is called steady flow or streamline
flow.
In stream line flow,
1. The liquid particles flow in an orderly manner. i.e., the liquid particles flow along straight lines,
each line is called the line of flow.
2. The lines of flow are parallel to the axis of the tube.
20 � Engineering Physics-II

3. The velocity of all particles in a line of flow is a constant.

4. The velocity of flow is always less than the critical velocity.
5. Stream line flow will happen only when the driving pressure is small.
6. The flow of water through a capillary tube at the rate of 5 to 6 drops per minute is an example for
stream line flow.
When the external pressure causing the flow of the liquid is high, the flow of the liquid is said to be
turbulent.
In turbulent flow,
1. There is no orderliness in the flow of liquid.
2. The liquid particles will not flow along straight lines, but will flow in curved paths in a zig-zag
manner.
3. The different particles of the liquid will flow in different directions with different velocities.
4. The velocity of flow is always greater than the critical velocity.
5. Turbulent flow will happen when the driving pressure is high.
 6. The flow of water from a tap is an example for turbulent flow.
Distinction between streamline motion and turbulent motion
Critical velocity:
When the external pressure driving the flow of liquid increases slowly, the velocity of flow of
liquid will also increase gradually. At a particular velocity the flow of liquid will change from laminar
flow to turbulent flow. This velocity is called critical velocity. In other word the critical velocity is
defined as the velocity at which the streamline flow ceases out and the turbulent flow sets in.
Sl. Stream line motion Turbulent motion
No.

1 Flow of liquid is orderly. Flow of liquid is zigzag and random.

2 At any point along a straight line paral Velocity varies along the straight line
lel to the axis of the tube, velocity is parallel to the ais of the tube.
con stant

3. Velocity is proportional to the pressure. Velocity is proportional to the square

root of pressure

4. Velocity will always be less than Velocity will always be greater than
critical velocity critical velocity.

Reynolds number:
Reynolds number is a pure number, which determines the type of flow of a liquid, whether a
streamline flow or a turbulent flow through a cylindrical pipe. It has no units and dimensions. It is
given by the expression
where V is velocity of the liquid, ρ is the density of the liquid, η is the coefficient of viscosity of
the liquid and D is the diameter of the pipe. This equation is applicable only for liquids flowing
through cylindrical pipe.
V Dρ
R= η
Experiments show that the flow of a viscous liquid is laminar or streamlined, if Reynolds number is
less than 2000. The flow of a viscous liquid is turbulent if Reynolds number is more than 2800.
Between 2000 and 2800 there is a transition region in which the flow may change from streamline to
turbulent.
Narrow tubes and highly viscous liquids tend to promote streamline motion, while wider tubes and
liquids of low viscosity leads to turbulence.
Properties of Matter � 21

Experiment to determine comparison of coefficient of viscosity of two liquid- Capillary

flow method.
Aim:
To compare the coefficient of viscosity of two given liquids by capillary flow
method,. Formula:
The comparion of coefficient of viscosity
η =ρ /ρ ×t /t
1/ η 2 1 2 1 2
 η
1 = coefficient of viscosity of first liquid
η
2 = coefficient of viscosity of second liquid
ρ
1 = Density of the first liquid
ρ
2 = Density of the second liquid

0
5
10
15
20
E
25
T

T
30
E

35 Capillary Tube
R

Description:

The graduated burette without stopper is mounted vertically in the stand. A rubber tube is
connected to the bottom of the burette. To the other end of the tube, a capillary tube is inserted and
placed in a perfectly horizontal position.
Procedure:
The burette is cleaned and filled with one of the liquids using a funnel. Adjust the tube till the
liquid through the tube comes out drop by drop. . A stop clock is started when the liquid level reaches
0 c c and time taken for every 5 c c from 5,10, 15,20..till 50 c c, is noted .The burette and the tube are
cleaned,rinsed and filled with the second liquid The time taken to cross the every consecutive 5 ml is
noted. The reading are tabulated .The time taken for the t1 and t2 are noted. The mean value of t1 / t2 is
calculated
Burette reading Time (S) t1 / t2
(cc)
Iquid-I(t1) Iquid-II (t2)

0-5
5-10
-
-
-
45-50.

Mean
22 � Engineering Physics-II
Terminal velocity
When a small metallic sphere is gently placed on the surface of a highly viscous liquid it descends
down with an acceleration. As its velocity increases, the viscous force opposing the motion of the
sphere also increases.
At some stage the apparent weight of the sphere becomes equal to the force due to viscous drag.
So the resultant force on the sphere is zero. Therefore the sphere moves down with a constant velocity
known as terminal velocity.
Terminal velocity is that velocity at which the apparent weight of the sphere is equal to the viscous
force acting on the sphere moving in a high viscous liquid.
Experimental determination of the coefficient of viscosity of a high viscous liquid by
Stokes' method:
Aim:
To determine the coefficient of viscosity of highly viscous liquid
(Castor oil) by Stokes' method.
Formula:
The coefficient of viscosity of the highly viscous liquid
2
2 ( ) g (r t)
η = where 9h
ρ−σ
marks B and C
ρ = the density of the material of
the solid sphere (glass beads)
Description:
σ = the density of the liquid
(castor oil) C
t = the time taken by the solid
sphere to travel the marked
A distance h, inside the high
g = the acceleration due to
gravity

B
r = the radius of the glass beads D
viscous liquid.
h = the distance between the 3h

The pure, transparent, highly viscous liquid (castor oil) is taken in the tall glass jar. On the outer
surface of the jar, two markings B and C or C and D are made at a distance of say 50 cm. The marking
B should be well below the free surface of the liquid. Then only the sphere can attain terminal velocity
when travelling from B to C or C to D.
Procedure:
First the least count, zero error and zero correction of screw gauge are determined. Then using the
screw gauge, the diameters of the given glass beads are measured. The radii of the beads are calculated.
Values of r and s are taken from standard tables.
The sphere is placed gently on the surface of the highly viscous liquid and dropped. When it
crosses the marking B, a stop clock is started and when it crosses the marking C, the clock is stopped.
The time taken (t) to travel by the sphere from B to C is recorded in the tabular column. The distance
between B and C is noted as 'h'. The same procedure is repeated for all the given spheres. Then the
coefficient of viscosity of highly viscous liquid (castor oil) is calculated, using the formula.
Properties of Matter � 23

Tabular column:
To find r2t
Glass beads Radius (r) Radius2 (r2) Time taken (t) r2t

Unit mm mm2 s mm2s

Bead 1

Bead 2

Bead 3

The average of r2t = mm2s = × 10-6 m2s

Applications of viscosity
To reduce friction between the two moving surfaces which are in contact, a drop or two of some oil
is introduced between the two contact surfaces. The oil enters into the depressions in the contact
surfaces and form a thin layer so that direct contact between the surfaces is prevented. Now, the
viscous force of the oil in between the surfaces (lubricant) reduces the friction between the two
moving surfaces because the fluid friction is always less than the friction between the solid surfaces.
However a good viscous lubricant can only reduce friction, but cannot completely eliminate the
friction.
Generally, for high speeds and low pressures, highly viscous oils such as Mobil oil, grease, etc. are
used. For low speeds, oils of lower viscosity are used. It may be interesting to note that air also acts as
a sort of lubricant in reducing friction. The friction between two metallic surfaces in vacuum is found
to be greater than that in air.
2.3 SURFACE TENSION
Introduction
The free surface of a liquid at rest behaves like a stretched elastic membrane with a tendency to
contract in area. The following simple experiments will illustrate this property. 1. When a camel
hairbrush is dipped into water, the hairs remain spread out. When the brush is taken out, the hairs cling
together on account of the films of water between them contracting. 2. A film of the soap solution is
formed in a wire ring. If a wetted loop of thread is gently placed on the film, the film is unaffected and
the thread remains in any form in which it is placed on the film. But if the film is pricked inside the
loop, the film outside contracts on all sides and hence the circular loop is formed. The area of the film
is reduced to a minimum.
The above examples show that a force acts on the surface of liquid to reduce the surface area to a
minimum. This force is known as surface tension.
A water drop takes the spherical shape because for a given volume, sphere has the minimum
surface area. This is due to surface tension.
Surface tension
Surface tension is the force acting on unit length of an imaginary line drawn on the free surface of a
liquid, the force acting normal to the line and parallel to the surface. The unit of surface tension is Nm-1
and its dimension is MT-2
Angle of contact
The angle of contact is the angle by which the tangent drawn to the liquid surface at the point of
contact with the solid, makes with the surface of the solid, the angle being measured within the liquid.
For liquids like water and kerosene which spread on glass, the angle of contact θ = 0°. In the case of
mercury and clean glass, the angle of contact θ = 137°. For ordinary water and glass, the angle of
contact θ = 8°.
24 � Engineering Physics-II

When a glass rod is dipped vertically in water, which wets the glass, the water is drawn up around
the glass rod at all points of contact. Here, the angle of contact is acute. When a glass rod is dipped
vertically in mercury, which does not wet the glass, the liquid is depressed around the glass rod at all
points of contact. Here, the angle of contact is obtuse.
Expression for the surface tension by capillary rise:
T Cosθ
T Cosθ
D
B θθ
R=T R=T

T Sinθ
T C
T T Sinθ

Let a capillary tube of uniform radius (r) be dipped vertically into a liquid of density ρ taken in a
beaker. Let the liquid rises through a height (h) in the capillary tube. Let θ be the angle of contact with
glass and T be the surface tension of the liquid. The surface tension is acting tangential to the liquid
surface. The reaction R=T, offered by the walls of tube acts at an angle θ to the verticals. This reaction
T along AB can be resolved vertically as Tcosθ and horizontally as Tsinθ. Similarly the reaction T
along CD can also be resolved along the horizontal and vertical directions. The horizontal components
along the circumference are equal and opposite in direction. So they get cancelled. So the total force
due to surface tension is only due to vertical components.
The total upward force acting through the length of the meniscus 2πr
= 2 π r. T cosθ
 This force balances the weight of the liquid column of height h and radius r.
The weight of the liquid column = π r2h ρ g
2πrTcosθ = πr²hρg

T = hr g
ρ
2cos θ
In the case of water θ = 0° and hence cosθ = 1
Hence for water, Surface tension

T = hr g
ρ
2
Experimental determination of the surface tension of water by capillary rise method.

h2

h1
Properties of Matter � 25

A capillary tube of uniform cross sectional area is first cleaned with dilute acid and washed with
distilled water and dried. It is then clamped vertically with one end inside the water taken in a beaker.
Due to surface tension, water rises to a definite height in the tube. A pointer is attached to the capillary
tube such that it just touches the surface of the water in the beaker.
Using a travelling microscope the reading in the vertical scale corresponding to the lower meniscus
of the water in the tube is taken. The beaker is removed and the microscope is brought down and the
reading corresponding to the tip of the pointer is taken. The difference between the two readings gives
the height of the capillary rise of water 'h' in the capillary tube. The diameter and hence the radius 'r' of
the capillary tube is also determined with the help of microscope. If ρ is the density of water and g, the
acceleration due to gravity, then surface tension of water,

T = hr g
ρ
2
Applications of capillarity:
1. Lubricating oil spread easily on all parts because of their low surface tension. 2. Cotton dresses
are preferred in summer because cotton dresses have fine pores which act as capillaries for sweat.
3. Dirt get removed when detergents are added while washing clothes because surface tension of
water is reduced.
4. The absorption of ink by a blotting paper is due to capillary action, as the blotting paper is
porous. When it is placed over the ink, the ink raises into the pores. Also rise of oil in the wick
of a lamp is due to capillary action.
5. If one end of a towel is dipped into a bucket of water and the other end hangs over the bucket,
the entire towel soon becomes wet due to capillary action.
6. The supply of water to the leaves at the top of even a tall tree is through capillary rise. 7. A
fabric can be waterproof, by adding suitable waterproofing materials to the fabric. This addition
 increases the angle of contact, thereby making the fabric waterproof.
Worked examples
1. A capillary tube of diameter 0.5 mm is dipped into a liquid vertically and the liquid rises to a
height of 6 cm. If the density of the liquid is 1000 kgm-3, calculate the value of surface tension
of the liquid. (g =9.81ms-2)
Diameter of the capillary tube 2r = 0.5 mm
Radius of the capillary tube r = 0.25 x 10-3 m
Rise of liquid in the tube h = 6 cm = 6 x 10-2 m
Density of the liquid ρ = 1000kg m-3
Liquid being water, angle of contact θ = 0°

Surface tension of the liquid T = h gr

ρ
2cos θ
23
6 10 1000 9.81 0.25 10 − − ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅

2cos θ

T = 72. 5 x 10-3 Nm-1

26 � Engineering Physics-II

2. Calculate the diameter of a capillary tube in which a liquid rises 2.34 × 10-2 m. Surface tension
of the liquid is 25 × 10-3 Nm-1. Relative density of the liquid is 0.79. Angle of contact = 11°12'.
(g = 9.81ms-2)
Relative density of the liquid = 0.79
Density of the liquid ρ = 0.79 × 103 kgm-3
Diameter of the tube = 2r = 5.41 × 10-4 m

We know T = h gr
ρ
2cos θ
ρ
r = 2Tcos −
θ 30

hg
= -4
⋅ ⋅ ⋅⋅ = 2.705 × 10 m
2 25 10 Cos11 12'
⋅⋅
− 23
2.34 10 0.79 10 9.81
3. A liquid of density 1000 kgm-3 is taken in a beaker. A capillary tube of diameter 1.0 mm is
dipped vertically in it. Calculate the rise of liquid in the tube. Surface tension of the liquid is
72 × 10-3Nm-1.
For water, angle of contact θ = 0°
Surface tension T =72 x 10-3 Nm-1
Diameter of the capillary tube 2r = 1 mm
Radius of the capillary tube r = 0.5 × 10-3 m
 h = 2.939 × 10-2 m

Rise of liquid in the tube h = 2Tcos

θ
rg
ρ
30
−

h= -2
⋅⋅ ⋅ = 2.939 × 10 m
2 72 10 Cos0
⋅⋅
− 3
0.5 10 1000 9.8
4. A capillary tube of internal diameter 0.5 mm is dipped into a liquid of density 1140 kgm-3. The
liquid rises to a height of 2.6 cm in the capillary tube. If the angle of contact of liquid with
glass is 55°, calculate the surface tension of the liquid.
Diameter of the capillary tube = 0.6 mm
Radius of the capillary tube r = 0.3 x 10-3 m
Density of the liquid, ρ = 1140 kg m-3
Height through which liquid rises h = 2.6 x 10-2 m
Angle of contact, θ = 55°

Surface tension of the liquid T = h gr

ρ
2cos θ
23
2.6 10 0.3 10 1140 9.8
T=
−−
⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅ ⋅
0
2 cos
55

T = 75.96 × 10-3 Nm-1

Properties of Matter � 27

QUESTIONS
Part -A and Part- B
1. Define stress
2. Define strain
3. Which is more elastic, rubber or steel and why?
4. What is elastic limit and plastic limit?
5. Define elastic body and plastic body.
6. What are the three modulii of elasticity?
7. Define (i) linear strain (ii) bulk strain and (iii) shearing strain.
8. Write the statement of Hooke's law.
9. Define Modulus of elasticity
10. Define (i) Young's modulus (ii) Bulk modulus and (iii) Rigidity modulus.
11. Define Poisson's ratio.
12. What is uniform bending of a beam?
13. What is non uniform bending of a beam?
14. Define coefficient of viscosity.
15. Derive the dimensional formula and the SI unit for the coefficient of
viscosity. 16. What is stream line motion?
17. What is turbulent motion?
18. What is Reynolds number?
19. What is critical velocity?
20. What is terminal velocity?
21. Write the application of viscosity.
22. Derive the S.I. unit and the dimensional formula of surface tension.
23. What is the effect of surface tension on the surface area of liquids?
24. The droplet of rain is spherical. Why?
25. How do insects run on the surface of water?
26. Define surface tension of a liquid.
27. Define angle of contact.
28. Write any two applications of capillarity.
29. What are uniform bending of beams.
30. What are non-uniform bending of beams
31. Explain young’s modulus
32. Explain Bulk modulus
33. Explain Rigidity modulus
34. Explain stream line motion
35. Explain turbulent motion
28 � Engineering Physics-II

Part - C
1. Explain three types of modulus
2. Describe an experiment to determine the Young's modulus of the material of a bar by bending it
uniformly.
3. Distinguish between stream line and turbulent motion.
4. Describe an experiment to determine the comparission of coefficient of viscosity of two viscous
liquid by capillary flow method.
5. Describe Stokes' method of determining the coefficient of viscosity of a transparent, high viscous
liquid.
6. Derive an expression for the surface tension of a liquid in the case of the capillary rise. 7.
Describe an experiment to determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method. 8.
List the various applications of capillarity.
Exercise Problems
1. The length of a wire increases from 1.25 m to 1.2508 m when a load of 12 kg is suspended. The
radius of the wire is 0.5 mm. Find the stress, strain and young's modulus of material of the wire.
 Ans: (149.7 × 106 Nm-2, 6.4 x 10-4, 23.4 × 1010 Nm-2
2. What load in kilogram must be applied to a steel wire of length 1m and diameter 0.05 cm to produce
an extension of 1 cm. The Young's modulus of steel = 2 × 1011. Pa.
Ans: 40 kg
3. A wire 10m long of area of cross section 1.22cm2 elongates by 1.5 cm when 4.5 kg is suspended
from it. Find the (i) stress (ii) strain and (iii) young's modulus of the wire. (g = 9.8m s-2)
Ans: (i) 3.528 × 105Nm-2 (ii) 0.0015 (iii) 2.352 × 108 Nm-2
4. A body of mass 5kg is suspended by means of a steel wire of length 1 m and diameter 1mm. The
Young's modulus of steel is 21 × 1010 Nm-2, calculate the elongation of the wire.
Ans: l = 2.97 × 10-4 m
5. A uniform metal bar, one metre long, is placed symmetrically on two knife-edges separated by a
distance of 64.2 cm. When two equal weights of 0.5 kg each are suspended from points 5cm from
the two ends respectively, the mid-point of the bar is elevated by 0.76 mm. Calculate the Young's
modulus of the material of the bar if the width of the bar is 2.2 cm and its thickness 0.62 cm.
Ans: 9.81 × 1010 Nm-2
6. Calculate the surface tension of water if it rises to a height of 4.2cm in a capillary tube dipped verti
cally in it. Radius of the capillary tube is 3.5 × 10-4 m.
Ans: 72.03 × 10-3 Nm-1
7. A capillary tube of diameter 0.5 m is dipped into a liquid vertically and the liquid rises to a height of
4.4 cm. If the density of the liquid is 1000 kg m-3, calculate the value of the surface tension of the
liquid.
8. A capillary tube of bore 0.84 mm in dipped into a liquid of density 840 kgm-3 and surface tension
0.049 Nm-1. Find the rise of the liquid in the tube.
Properties of Matter � 29

Brain teasers
1. A wire of diameter 2.5 mm is stretched by force of 980 N. If the Young's modulus of the
material of the wire is 12.5 × 1010 Nm-2.Find the percentage increase in the length of the wire. 2.
Two wires are made of same material. The length of the first wire is half of the second wire and its
diameter is double that of the second wire. If equal loads are applied on both the wires find the
ratio of increase in their lengths.
3. The diameter of a brass rod is 4 mm. Calculate the stress and strain when it is stretched by 0.25%
of its length. Find the force exerted (E = 9.2 × 1010 Nm-2 for brass)

UNIT

3 DYNAMICS - I

3.1 STRAIGHT LINE MOTION

Introduction:
Dynamics is a branch of mechanics which deals with the motion of the bodies under the action of
forces.
 A body is said to be at rest if it does not change its place or position with respect to its
surroundings. No body in this earth is at absolute rest. Because, they are sharing the motion of the
earth. A body can be at rest with respect to another body.
A body is said to be in motion if it changes its place or position with respect to its surroundings.
For example, a person in the moving train feels the motion, seeing the passing objects through the
windows. Hence rest and motion are relative terms.
The motion of the body is characterised by two quantities, Force and Momentum. If a body is in
motion with acceleration, then the body is acted upon by a force (F=ma). If a body is in motion with
uniform velocity, there is no acceleration, then the motion of the body is only under momentum (mv).
Newton's Laws of motion: These laws are very important in dynamics.

I Law: Every body continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless
compelled by an external force.
II Law: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force acting on it
and it takes place in the direction of the force.
III Law: For every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
In this unit we shall study about the Projectile motion, Circular motion, its application and Simple
Harmonic Motion.
In this chapter we shall consider the motion of the objects projected in any direction from the earth
making the following assumptions.
1) The air resistance is negligible
2) The acceleration due to gravity remains constant.
When an object is projected vertically up from the earth, we regard the upward direction as the
positive direction. The force of gravity produces acceleration downwards on the object. Acceleration is
therefore taken as negative.
Equations of motion: Let u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, a = acceleration, t = time and s =
displacement.
Dynamics-I � 33

(I) For Objects in motion

(1) v = u + at
(2) s = ut +1/2 at2
(3) v2 = u2 + 2 as
(ii) For objects falling freely
Here initial velocity u = 0 and a =+g
(1) v = gt
1 2
(2) S = 2 gt
(3) v2 = 2 gs
(iii) For objects thrown vertically upwards
Here a = -g
 (1) v = u - gt
1 2
(2) s = ut - 2 gt
(3) v2 = u2 - 2gs

3.2 PROJECTILE MOTION

Projectile
Projectile is any object thrown obliquely into the space. The object which is given an initial
velocity and afterwards follows a path determined by the gravitational force acting on it is called
projectile. Its motion is called projectile motion.
A stone projected at an angle, a bomb released from an aeroplane, a shot fired from a gun, a shotput
or javelin thrown by the athlete are the various examples for the projectile.
Consider a body projected from a point 'O' with velocity 'u'. The point 'o' is called point of
projection and 'u' is called velocity of projection.
Y

u
A
D
I
α

s H
u

X
CB u cos α O

Velocity of Projection (u): The velocity with which the body projected is called velocity of
projection.
Angle of Projection (a): The angle between the direction of projection and the horizontal plane
passing through the point of projection is called angle of projection.
Trajectory (OAB): The path described by the projectile from the point of projection to the point
where the projectile reaches the horizontal plane passing through the point of projection is called
trajectory. The trajectory of the projectile is a parabola.
34 � Engineering Physics-I

Maximum height (H): The maximum vertical displacement of the projectile from the horizontal
plane passing through the point of projection is called maximum height.
Time of flight (T): The time taken by the projectile to travel from the instant of projection to the
instant when it reaches the horizontal plane passing through the point of projection is called time of
flight (or) The time taken by the projectile to describe the trajectory.
Range (R): The distance between the point of projection and the point where the projectile reaches
the horizontal plane passing through the point of projection is called the range of the projectile. Note:
The horizontal component of velocity ucosa is constant throughout the motion and the vertical
component of velocity usina goes on decreasing and becomes zero at the highest point A, because of
the constant retardation '-g' acting on the projectile.
 Expressions for maximum height, time of flight and horizontal range of a
projectile. Y

u
A
D
I
α

s H
u

X
B u cos α
O
C
R

Consider a body be projected upwards from the point of projection O with the velocity u. Let α be
the angle of projection. The velocity u can be resolved into two components. Let u sin a and u cos α are
the vertical and horizontal components of the velocity.
Maximum height reached by the projectile:
Let H be the maximum height reached by the projectile. At the highest point the vertical
component of velocity becomes zero.
Considering the vertical motion of the projectile,
Taking the equation of motion
v2 = u2 + 2as ...(1) Final velocity at A, v = 0
Initial velocity at O, along vertical direction u = u sin α
Acceleration a = -g
Vertical displacement AC, s= H
Substituting these values in equation (1)
0 = u2 sin2 α + 2(-g) H
0 = u2sin2 α - 2 gH
2gH = u2sin2 α
Maximum 2 2 u sin
∴ height, H = α
the Projectile:
Time of Flight of 2g

The time taken by the projectile to describe the path is called time of flight. i.e., It is the time taken
by the projectile to travel from 'O' to 'B', via A.
Let T be the time of flight. Here, the vertical displacement at B is zero.
Dynamics-I � 35

Considering the vertical motion, Taking the equation of motion

1 2
S = ut + 2 at (2) Vertical displacement S = 0
Initial velocity at O, along vertical direction u = u sin α
 1
Acceleration a = -g ; Time t = T; Substituting these values in equation (2) 0 = u sinα T + 2 (-
g)T2
1 2
0 = u sinα T - 2 g T
1 2
2 g T = u sinα T
2u sin
∴ Time of flight, T = gα
Horizontal Range of the Projectile :
The horizontal distance between the point of projection and the point where the projectile meets the
horizontal plane passing through the point of projection is called range of the projectile. Let R be the
range of the projectile.
Range R = Horizontal component of velocity × Time of flight
2u sin
R = u cos α × gα
2
u sin cos
=
ααg
= α
∴
2
u sin 2 g
Range, R
range (Rmax):
2
Condition for The expression u sin 2 g
α
maximum for Horizontal
Range,R =

For a given velocity of projection, range will be maximum only when sin 2 α is maximum. The
maximum value for sine function is 1.
i.e Sin 2 α = 1 but, Sin 900 = 1
∴ Sin 2 α = Sin 90° ∴ 2a = 90° ∴ α = 45°
For getting maximum range, the condition is the angle of projection should be
45°. 2 0 u sin (2 45 )
⋅
∴ Maximum range, Rmax =
g
=  0 2
Rmax = Rmax = gg ( sin 90 = 1) u
g
2 02
u sin 90 u
This is the expression for the maximum range of the projectile.
36 � Engineering Physics-I

Path of the projectile (the trajectory) is a

Parabola: Y
u
 A
α

s
P (x,y)
u

x
y BX u cos α
α

Consider a body be projected from the point of projection O with the velocity u as shown in the figure.
Let α be the angle of projection of the body. The velocity u can be resolved into two components. u sin
α and u cos α are the vertical and horizontal components of velocity u. Let P (x,y) Horizontal
displacement in t second, x = u cos α × t

t =x
u cosα
1 2
Taking the equation of motion S = ut + 2 at (1) be the position of the body after 't' second.
Vertical displacement in t second, S = y

Time taken to reach P, t = x

u cosα
Initial velocity at O along vertical direction, u = u sin α
Acceleration a = -g
2
x1 x ( g)
u cos 2 u cos
y = u sin α 22
+−
αα
g
x
y = x tan α - 2

22
2u cos α
2
gx
y = x tan α 2u cos α
-
22

Substituting these values in equation (1)

The above equation is similar to the equation of the parabola y = bx - cx2. Hence the path of the
projectile is a parabola.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A body is thrown with a velocity of projection 49 ms-1 at an angle of projection 45°. Find (i)
Maximum height (ii) Time of flight (iii) Range (g= 9.8 ms-2).
Given
u = 49ms-1
α = 45°
height, H = α
Maximum 2 2 u sin 2g
 ⋅⋅ ⋅
2 9.8
= ⋅
00
49 49 sin 45 sin 45
= 61.25 m
Dynamics-I � 37

2u sin
Time of flight,T = gα

= 2 49 sin 45
⋅⋅
9.8
= 7.07 s
R= g
2
u sin 2 α
Range,

= 49 49 sin (2 45)
⋅⋅ ⋅
9.8

= 49 49 sin 90 ⋅ ⋅

= 245 m 9.8

2. A bullet fired from a gun with a velocity of 80 ms-1 strikes the ground at the same level as the
gun at a distance of 460 m. Find the angle of inclination with the horizontal at which the gun
was fired.
Given
u = 80 ms-1, R = 460 m, g = 9.8 ms-2
R= g
Range 2
u sin 2 α

g.R 9.8 460

⋅=
= 0.7044
Sin 2α = 2 2
u (80)
2α = Sin (0.7044) = 44° 46' ∴ α = 22° 23’
-1

3. The range of a projectile is equal to double the maximum height attained. Find the angle of
projection.
Given
Horizontal range = 2 × maximum height
ie., R = 2H
2
u sin 2 g sin
α 2gα
22u
=2
sin 2 α = sin α
2
 2 sin α cos α = sin α sin α
2 cos α = sin α
∴ tan α = 2
∴ α = tan-1 (2) = 63°26'
4. A projectile is thrown at an angle and another is thrown at (90- ) from the same point both
with the velocities 78.4ms-1. The second reaches 36.4m higher than the first. Find the
individual heights.
Given
Angle of projection of first projectile = θ
Angle of projection of second projectile = (90 - θ) Velocity of projection u = 78.4
ms-1 and H2 = H1 + 36.4m
H2 - H1 = 36.4m
38 � Engineering Physics-I

Where H1 is the maximum height of first one and H2 is the maximum height of second one.
θ
and H2 = 2 2 u sin (90 )
H1 = − θ 2 2 cos 2g
= u
22
u sin 2g 2g θ

θ
θ
Adding, H2 + H1 = + 2 2 u sin u2 2 cos

= ⋅
78.4 =
2g
2
u 78.4
2g

⋅= 313.6
2g 2 9.8
2H2 = 36.4+313.6 = 350
H2 = 175 m
Also, H1= H2 - 36.4 = 175 - 36.4
H1= 138.6 m
5. If the range of a projectile is and 256 3 m the maximum height reached is 64m. Calculate the
angle of projection.
Given
H = 64m R = 256 3 m
2g
Maximum height H = 64 = 22
u sin 2g α
(1)
22
α
u sin
g
Range, R = 256 3 = 2
u 2 sin cos
αα
2
u 2 sin cos (2)
αα
g
Dividing eqn. (1) by (2)
 22
64 u sin g tan
αα
=⋅ =
2
256 3 2g u 2 sin cos 4
αα
1
tanα = 1 1 tan
− 
α=

33
α = 30°

3.3 CIRCULAR MOTION

Introduction
In this chapter we study the motion of the bodies moving in a circular path. The motion of the body
in a circular path is called circular motion. The motion of the body in the circular path with uniform
velocity is called uniform circular motion. When it is in uniform velocity, the direction of motion at
any point is along the tangent to the circle at that point. If the body is set free, it would move in the
direction of the tangent at that point.
Angular velocity
Consider a body (or particle) moving along a circular path. If θ is the angle turned by the radius
vector in t second, then
Angular velocity ω =
tθ
The angle covered or swept or turned by the radius vector in one second is known as angular
velocity.
Dynamics-I � 39
-1
SI Unit of angular velocity is radian / second (rad s )
Radian is the angle made at the centre of the circle by an arc whose length is equal to the radius of
the circle.
Relation between angular velocity and linear velocity
Consider a particle moving along a circular path of radius r. Initially the particle is at a point A.
After t second the particle reaches the point B. Let θ be the angle swept by the radius vector in
t-second.

t
r
r

Bv
t
θ
θ
AA
 oOr
r

q - VERY SMALL

Angular velocity ω =
tθ

If θ is very small, the distance AB will be considered as a straight line. Let v be the linear velocity
of the particle.
s
Linear velocity, v = t
s
In ∆ OAB, sin θ = r
If θ is very small, sin θ = θ in radian
s
∴ θ = r (or ) s = r θ

θ ω=
  
r θ = rω
Linear velocity, v = r t
∴ v = rω
Linear velocity = Radius of the circle × Angular velocity
Note:
If θ = 1°, 1° = 0.0175 radian; Also sin 1° = 0.0175
Then sin 0.0175 (radian) = 0.0175 (natural value)
θ = 2° = 0.0349 radian; Also sin 2° = 0.0349
Then sin 0.0349 (radian) = 0.0349 (natural value) Hence sin θ = θ for very small values of
θ. It is practically valid up to = 4° = 0.0698 radian.
Period and frequency of revolution
Period (T): Period of revolution of a particle is the time taken by the particle to complete one
revolution.
Frequency (n): Frequency of revolution of a particle is the number of revolutions made in one
second.
40 � Engineering Physics-I

Relation between period T and angular velocity ω:

For one complete revolution (in T second),
Angle turned by the radius vector in T second = 2π
2
∴ Angle turned by the radius vector in one second = Tπ
2 π 2π
i.e., Angular velocity, ω = T or T = ω
Relation between period T and frequency n:
Let the particle completes n rotations in one second.
 This is called frequency. So, the time taken complete one rotation which gives period = 1/n.
Therefore, T = 1/n.
Relation between frequency n and angular velocity ω:
No. of revolutions in 1 second = n
Angle turned by the radius vector for one revolution = 2π
∴ Angle covered by the radius vector for n revolutions in 1 second = 2πn
i.e., Angular velocity, ω = 2πn
Normal acceleration:
For a particle in uniform circular motion, the direction of its velocity changes continuously but the
magnitude remains constant. For this, a force must act along the radius, towards the centre of the circle,
to maintain the circular path. Hence, there is acceleration acting on the body towards the centre of the
circle.
Thus, for a particle executing uniform circular motion, there must always be acceleration directed
towards the centre of the circular path along the radius. This acceleration is called normal acceleration
and the force responsible for this acceleration is known as centripetal force.
When a particle is moving along a circular path, the particle is accelerated towards the centre of
the circular path in a direction normal to the direction of its motion. This acceleration of the particle is
known as normal acceleration.
Centripetal force and Centrifugal force:
When a particle is moving along a circular path, it is accelerated towards the centre of the circular
path. Due to this acceleration there must be force acting on the particle towards the centre and this
force is known as centripetal force.
Centripetal force is defined as the force which acts towards the centre along the radius of the
circular path on which the particle is moving with uniform velocity.
Let a stone be tied to one end of a string and whirled in a horizontal plane with constant speed. The
stone is subjected to a force directed towards the centre of the circle. This force acting towards the
centre of the circle is called centripetal force.
The expression for centripetal force is given by
2 2
mv or mr

r= ω

By Newton's third law, there must be a reaction to this force. This reactive force which is directed
away from the centre is called centrifugal force.
The centrifugal force is defined as the force acting along the radius of the circle, away from the
centre, to balance the centripetal force.
The centripetal force and centrifugal force are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. As
centrifugal force is a reaction force, it ceases once the centripetal force stops.
Dynamics-I � 41

Examples for centripetal force:

The centripetal force is responsible for circular motion. Without this force the body cannot move
along a circular path. This force can be produced in different ways.
1. A body tied to one end of a string is being rotated in a circle; the centripetal force is supplied by
the tension of the string.
2. The moon revolving around the earth, the centripetal force is the gravitational pull of the earth
on the moon.
 3. A person riding a cycle along a circular path, the necessary centripetal force is supplied by a
sidewise pressure exerted by the road on the tyres.
Examples for centrifugal force:
1. A stone tied to one end of a string is being rotated in a circle, the stone itself exerts an equal and
opposite force on the hand. It is due to the centrifugal force.
2. A centrifugal pump is used to pump well water on the basis of centrifugal force.
Expressions for Normal acceleration and Centripetal force
Consider a particle of mass 'm' moving along a circular path of radius r. Let v be the velocity of the
particle. Initially the particle is at a point A. After t second the particle reaches the point B. Let θ be the
angle covered by the radius vector. Let B be very close to A, so that the angle covered θ is small.

O
V sinθ
r VC θ
v=0 r
θ θ

B Initially,
V cosθ
AV
Angular velocity, ω =
tθ

The velocity component in AO direction = zero

After t second
The velocity component in BC direction = vsinθ
Since θ is very small, the direction BC is very close to AO
direction. ∴ The change in velocity towards the center of the circle
in ‘t’ second = v sin θ - 0
= v sin θ

As θ is very small, sin θ = θ (in radian) The change in

v sin
velocity in one second = tθ
v sin
ie., Normal acceleration, a = tθ
v
∴ Normal acceleration, a = tθ
42 � Engineering Physics-I

Since ω = θ
t , a = vω
v
since v = rω, a = rω.ω = rω2 since ω = r
 v 2v
,a=v r= r
2
Normal acceleration, a = v
2
Centripetal force r or a = rω

According to Newton's II Law of motion, F = ma. As 'm' is the mass of the particle moving along a
circular path of radius r,
Centripetal force = mass X normal acceleration.
=
2
Normal v
acceleration, a
2
2
mv r or a = rω
Centripetal force, F =
2
r or F = mrω

SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A ball weighing 0.5 kg is tied to one end of a string and is whirled at a constant speed of 10ms-1 in
a horizontal plane. If the length of the string is 1m, calculate the normal acceleration and the
tension in the string.
Given
m = 0.5 kg, v = 10ms-1 l = r = 1m a = ? F = ?
2
v 2
(10)
Normal
= –2
1 = 100 ms .
acceleration a = r
Tension in the string (Cntripetal force)
2
F= r = 0.5 × (10) = 50N
2
mv
2. A body of mass 1 kg is tied to a string of length 1m revolves in a horizontal circle. If the
angular velocity is 3 rad s-1, calculate the centripetal force acting on the body.
Given
m = 1 kg, l = r = 1 m, ω = 3 rad s-1
Centripetal force F = mrω2 =1 × 1 × (3)2 =9 N
3. Find the centripetal force on a body of mass 500 g when it revolves in a circle of radius 1.5m.
The body makes 120 R.P.M.
Given
m = 500 g = 0.5 kg, r=1.5m
No. of revolutions = 120 per minute

i.e.,n = 120

60 = 2 revolutions per second

Centripetal force F = m r ω2
= mr (2πn)2 ( sinceω = 2πn) = 4π2 mrn2
 = 4 × 3.14 × 3.14 × 0.5 × 1.5 × 22 F = 118.4N
Dynamics-I � 43

4. A mass of 5kg is moving in a circle of radius 1m. If the centripetal force acting on the mass is
20N, find the linear velocity and angular velocity.
Given
F = 20N, r = 1m, m = 5 kg
2
mv r
F=
Fr ⋅
v2 = m = 20 1 = 4

5
v = 2 ms-1
v 2 -1
Angular velocity,ω = r = 1 = 2 rad s
5. A rope of length 1m can withstand a maximum weight of 10 kg. Now a stone of mass 200 g is
tied to it and is whirled round in a horizontal circle. Calculate the maximum permissible
speed of the stone.
Given
r = 1m, m = 200g = 0.2kg and F = 10 × 9.8 N

F = v2 =
⋅⋅
2
mv =
m 0.2
r
Fr

m ∴ v = Fr 10 9.8 1

v = 7.07 ms-1
6. One end of a string of length 0.64 m is attached to a bucket containing water and the bucket is
rotated about the other end in a vertical circle. Find the minimum speed with which it can be
rotated without spilling the water at the highest point. How many revolutions per minute it is
making?
Given
Length of the string (or) radius of the circle r = 0.64 m
For without spilling the water at highest point
2
mv
r
mg

0.64m

2
v
mg =
2
mv
r
r (or) g
=
 ∴ v2 = rg = 0.64 × 9.8 = 6.272
∴ The minimum speed v = –1
6.272 = 2.504 ms
ω
Leet n' be the no. of revolutions per second.
== = =
π π ⋅π
v 2.504
n 0.6231
2 r2 0.64 2

No of revolutions per minute = 0.6231 × 60 =

37.4 revolutions
44 � Engineering Physics-I

Banking of curved paths :

Curved track is to be considered as a part of the circular path. Consider a motor car moving along
a curved road. Now two forces are acting on the car, one is the weight of the car acting downward and
second is the normal reaction acting upward. In addition to these two forces, a horizontal centripetal
force should act on the car for safe negotiation of curved motion. This force is supplied by the pressure
exerted by the road on the tyres of the car towards inner side.
According to Newton's third law of motion, the tyres exert an equal and opposite pressure on the
road towards the outer side. Hence there must be a frictional force between the road and the tyres. This
frictional force tries to balance the centifugal force. If the road is in horizontal level, the friction may
not be sufficient to balance the centrifugal force. Then the car may skid. To avoid this the outer edge of
the road is raised a little above the level of the inner edge. This formation is called as banking of
curved paths.
In the case of train moving along a curved track, the necessary centrifugal force is supplied by the
pressure exerted by the rails on the flanges of the wheels. Also the flanges of the wheels exert an equal
and opposite pressure on the rails. Hence there must be a large amount of friction and it leads to
damage the rails also to derailment of the train.
To avoid this damage and derailment, the outer rail is suitably raised over the inner rail to eliminate
the flange pressure on the rails. This formation is called as banking of curved railway tracks. The
raising of outer edge of a curved path than the inner edge for providing the necessary centripetal force
is known as banking of curved path.
Angle of Banking
It is the angle between the normal horizontal path and the curved banked path. The angle of
banking of a curved path is defined as the angle through which the outer edge of the road is raised over
the inner edge.
The angle of banking of curved railway tracks is defined as the angle through which the outer rail is
raised over the inner rail.
Expression for Angle of banking of Railway tracks
Consider a train moving along a curved path of radius r. In figure, ABCD shows the vertical cross
section of a railway carriage. If the outer rail is raised over the inner rail by an angle q, the carriage is
inclined to the horizontal by the same angle . This angle is called angle of banking of the railway
tracks.
Let R1 and R2 be the reactions of the inner and outer rails.
The total vertical component of R, and R2 = R1 cos θ + R2 cosθ
= (R1 + R2) cos θ
The total horizontal component of R1 and R2 = R1 sinθ + R2 sinθ
 = (R1+ R2) sinθ
The vertical component balances the downward weight of the carriage. The horizontal component
supplies the necessary centripetal force and it balances the centrifugal force. Let m be the mass of the
carriage and v be the speed of the train.
R R cosθ 2
θ
R1
2
mv
C r
R sinθ
B
D
R cosθ

θ
h
I R sinθ θ
A
mg
Dynamics-I � 45

The downward weight = mg

2
mv r
The centrifugal force =
Equating the forces (R1+ R2) cos θ = mg (1)

(R1 + R2) sin θ = r (2)

2
mv
2
+θ=
(2) (R R ) sin mv +

θ
12

(1) (R R ) cos r m g

12

2
v
ie., tan θ =
rg
∴ The angle of banking of railway track,

If ' θ ' small, sin θ = tan θ
2
v
Let ‘l’ be distance (AB) between the rails. θ = tan rg -1

22 hv v
h
∴

= = l l rg rg
While constructing curved railway tracks, the value of h is obtained for fixed values of v, l and r.
Therefore, on a curved rail track, every train has to move with a particular speed specified for the
track.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A cyclist is riding at a speed of 22ms-1 takes a turn on a curved circular road of radius 44m. What is
 his inclination to the vertical?
Given
V= 22 ms-1, r = 44m, g = 9.8 ms-2

tan θ = = 44 9.8 ⋅ = 484

2
(22)
2 431.2
v
rg
tan θ = 1.122
θ = tan-1 (1.122) = 48°18'
2. An electric train has to travel on a railway track with a curve of radius 120 m with a speed of 36
kmph. Calculate the angle of banking of the rails.
Given

v = 36 kmph = 36 × 1000
-1
3600 = 10ms
r = 120 m g = 9.8 ms-2

22
v (10)
tanθ = ⋅
=
rg 120 9.8
tanθ = 0.0850
θ = tan-1 (0.085) = 40 51'
46 � Engineering Physics-I

3. A bend in level road has a radius of 18m. Find the maximum speed with which a car negotiates
the bend without skidding. The elevation of the road is 7o.
Given
R = 18m, θ = 70 and g = 9.8ms-2
2
v rg
tan θ =
v2 = rg × tan θ = 18 × 9.8 × tan70
= 18 × 9.8 × 0.1222 = 21.65
v = 4.65ms-1
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Any motion in nature is classified into two types, viz., periodic and non-periodic motion. Periodic
motion is that motion which repeats itself after equal intervals of time. The examples of periodic
motion are the motion of planets around the sun, motion of hands of a clock, motion of the balance
wheel of a watch.
If a body moves back and forth repeatedly about a mean position, it is said to possess oscillatory
motion. Vibrations of guitar strings, motion of a pendulum bob, vibrations of a tuning fork oscillations
of mass suspended in a spring, vibrations of diaphragm in telephones are few examples of oscillatory
motion. In all the cases of vibrations of bodies, the path of vibration is always directed towards the
mean or equilibrium position.
The oscillations can be expressed in terms of simple harmonic functions like sine or cosine
function. A harmonic oscillation of constant amplitude and single frequency is called simple harmonic
motion (SHM).
A particle is said to execute simple harmonic motion if its acceleration is directly proportional to
the displacement from a fixed point and is always directed towards that point.
Important definitions of SHM Displacement
The distance travelled by the oscillating particle from its mean position at any instant is called
displacement.
Amplitude
The maximum displacement of the oscillating particle from its mean position is called
amplitude. Oscillation
One complete to and fro motion is called one oscillation.
Period
Time taken by the oscillating particle to complete one oscillation is called
period. Frequency
The number of oscillations or vibrations made by the vibrating particle in one second is called
frequency.
Dynamics-I � 47

QUESTIONS
PART – A and PART – B
1. What is a projectile?
2. Define velocity of projection.
3. Define angle of projection.
4. Define trajectory of a projectile.
5. Define maximum height of a projectile.
6. Define time of flight of a projectile.
7. Define range of a projectile.
8. Give the condition for maximum range of a projectile.
9. What is a circular motion?
10. Define radian.
11. Define angular velocity.
12. Define normal acceleration.
13. Define centripetal force.
14. What is centrifugal force?
15. Define angle of banking.
16. Why does the outer rail is raised over the inner rail along a curved railway
track? 17. Define Simple Harmonic Motion
18. Define amplitude
19. Define frequency
20. Define period
21. Define Newton’s Law of motion
22. Explain fundamental equation of motion
23. What are the condition for maximum range
24. Derive the relation between angular velocity and linear velocity
25. Explain centripetal force and centrifugal force
26. Explain the banking of curved path
PART C
1. Derive an expression for the time of flight of the projectile.
2. Derive an expression for the horizontal range of the projectile.
o
Show that the range is maximum when the angle of projection is 45 for a given velocity of
3.
projection.
4. Prove that the path of a projectile is a parabola.
5. Derive the relations between angular velocity, period and frequency.
6. Obtain expressions for the normal acceleration and centripetal force of a body executing uniform
circular motion.
7. Derive an expression for the angle of banking.
48 � Engineering Physics-I

Exercise problems
0
1. A particle is thrown at an angle of 30 with a velocity of 36 kmph Calculate its (1) time of flight and
(2) horizontal range.
Ans: (i) 1.02s, (ii) 8.84m
2. The range of a projectile is equal to 3 times the maximum height attained. Find the angle of projec
tion. Ans: 5307'
3. The maximum height of a projectile is 2 times its horizontal range reached. Find the angle of projec
tion.
Ans: 79058'
4. A bomber flying horizontally with a constant velocity of 600 kmph at a height 480m wants to hit a
target on the ground. Find at what horizontal distance from the target should a bomb be dropped in
order to hit the target.
Ans: R = 1648 m
5. A body of mass 2 kg tied to a string of length 2m revolves in a horizontal circle. If the angular
velocity of the body is 5 rad s-1, calculate the centripetal force acting on the body.
Ans: F = 100N
6. In a circus, a man is riding a motor cycle in the form of vertical circle inside the hollow spherical
cave of diameter 6m. Find the minimum speed of the rider with which he can be riding without
falling at the highest point.
Ans: v = 7.668ms-1 or 27.6 kmph
7. A string of length 1.5 m can withstand a maximum weight of 5kg.wt. A body of mass 2kg is tied to
it and whirled round in a horizontal plane. Calculate the possible maximum number of revolutions
per minute
Ans : RPM = 38.6
 8. A scooter rider negotiates a curve of 100m radius on a level road with a speed of 72 kmph.
Calculate the angle of inclination to the vertical he should make to avoid falling.
Ans:θ = 22012'
9. An electric train has to travel a curved railway line of radius 50m with maximum speed of 36 kmph.
Calculate the angle through which the outer rail should be raised so that there is no lateral thrust on
the rails.
Ans: = 11031'
10. An aeroplane with a speed of 120 ms-1 negotiates a curve of radius 1200m. Calculate its angle of
banking.
Ans: = 50045'
11. The expected average speed of the traffic on a high way around the curve is 20 kmph. Calculate the
angle of banking of the high way if its radius of curvature be 12m.
Ans: = 14042'
Brain teaser
1. An electric train has to travel on a railway track with a bend of radius 120m with a speed of 45
kmph. Calculate the height through which the outer rail should be raised for safe running of the
train, if the distance between the two rails is 1.6m.

UNIT

4 DYNAMICS - II

4.1 ROTATIONAL MOTION OF RIGID BODIES

Introduction:
According to Newton’s first law of motion, “Every body continues to be in a state of rest or in a
state of uniform motion along a straight line, unless it is compelled to change that state by some
external force”.
This law consists of two parts i.e., (1) A body at rest will not move on its own unless an external
force acts on it and (2)
A body which is in uniform linear motion will not change either its speed or
direction of motion on its own, without the help of an external force.
The inability of a body to change its state on its own, without the help of external force is termed as
inertia. Inertia is a fundamental property of the matter. The more is the mass of the body, the more will
be inertia. Thus in translatory (linear) motion the mass of the body is a measure of coefficient of
inertia. Rigid body
If the distance between any two points in a body is not altered by applying a force, however large
the force may be, the body is said to be a rigid body.
A rigid body may be defined as that body which does not undergo any change in its shape or size
due to the application of force.
Actually, no body is a perfect rigid body. When the changes in the body are negligible, it can be
considered as a rigid body.
Rotational motion
 Each body is made of large number of tiny particles. In the case of linear motion, all the particles
present in the body will have same linear velocity.
When the body rotates about a fixed line (axis of rotation), its motion is known as rotatory motion.
The axis of rotation may lie within the body or outside the body. If all the particles of a body move in a
circular path about the axis of rotation, the rigid body is said to have pure rotational motion. When a
body is in rotational motion about an axis, all the particles present in the body will have same angular
velocity, but different linear velocities. The values of the linear velocities of these particles depend on
the distance of the particles from the axis of rotation, since v = r ω
In rotational motion also, a rigid body which is free to rotate about an axis, opposes the change to θ
be produced in its state. The measure of opposition not only depends on the mass of the body but also
on the distances of the particles of the body from the axis of rotation.
Suppose a particle of mass ‘m’ is at a distance r from an axis, the product mr2 is called the moment
of inertia of the particle about that axis.
Thus in rotational motion the moment of inertia of the body about the given axis of rotation is a
measure of coefficient of inertia.
Hence, the moment of inertia plays the same role in rotational motion as that of mass in translatory
motion.
Moment of Inertia of a particle
The moment of inertia of a particle about an axis is equal to the product of the mass of the particle
and square of its distance from the axis.
50 � Engineering Physics-I

Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ is placed at a distance ‘r’ from the fixed axis. Then, the moment of
inertia of the particle about the axis = mr2. The S.I. unit for moment of inertia is kg m2. X'

Moment of Inertia of a rigid body

Inertia of a body is its inability to change by itself its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line.
Similarly Moment of inertia of a body is its inability to change by itself its state of rest or of
uniform rotatory motion about an axis.
y

y y
1
m1 y
y2
m2 3
m3

An external torque (rotating effect of force) is necessary to change its state.

Let us consider the rotation of a rigid body about an axis. It consists of a large number of particles
of masses m1, m2, m3 etc., situated at distances r1 , r2 , r3 etc., from the axis yy’. Then m1r1 2 is known as
the moment of inertia of the particle of mass m1 about that fixed axis.
Then, the moment of inertia of the rigid body = Sum of moments of inertia of all the particles
present in the body.
I = m1r12 + m2r22 + m3r32 + .........................
I = Σ mr2
Hence the moment of inertia of a rigid body about a fixed axis is the sum of the moment of inertia
of all the particles of the rigid body.
Radius of gyration
Radius of gyration is the distance between the given axis and the centre of mass of the body. The
centre of mass of a body is point where the entire mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated.
X1

M
X
K
Dynamics-II � 51

It is denoted by ‘ K ’.
If M is mass of the body, then moment of inertia I = MK2.
Hence, mr2 = MK2
Expression for Kinetic Energy of a Rigid body rotating about an axis:
Consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis XOX’. The rigid body consists of a large number
of particles. Let m1, m2, m3,….. ... etc., be the masses of the particles situated at distances. r1, r2, r3, ......
etc., from the fixed axis. All the particles rotate with the same angular velocity ω. But the linear
velocities of the particles are different.
1 2
Kinetic Energy = 2mv
1 2
= 2 m (rω) (∴v = rω)
1
= 2m r ω
2 2

1
The kinetic energy of the first particle = 2 m1 r1 ω
2 2

1
The kinetic energy of the second particle = 2 m2 r2 ω
2 2

1
The kinetic energy of the third particle and so on = 2 m3 r3 ω
2 2

X‘

X r3
r1 r2
m3
m1
2

w
 The kinetic energy of the whole body is equal to the sum of the kinetic energy of all the particles
present in the body.
1 1 1 1
The kinetic energy of the rigid body = 2 m1 r1 ω + 2 m2 r2 ω + 2 m3 r3 ω + .... m
2 2 2 2 2 2

r m r m r .......
 +++ω
 
222 2
=
11 2 2 3 3
2

22
=1 mr

2∑ ω
But, Σmr2 = Moment of inertia of the rigid body about the fixed axis = I
2
Therefore, The kinetic energy of the rigid body = 1 I

2ω
52 � Engineering Physics-I

Angular momentum
The moment of linear momentum is known as angular momentum.
Consider a particle of mass m is at a distance r from the axis of rotation. When a particle is in rota
tional motion about an axis, it has both linear velocity ‘v’ and angular velocity ‘ω’. Then, Angular
momentum of the particle = linear momentum × perpendicular distance between the particle and the
axis of rotation
=mv×r

= m r ω × r ( v = rω)
X‘

O
r

mv
∴ Angular m
momentum = mr2ω

Where ω is the angular velocity of the particle.

The SI unit for angular momentum is kg m2 s–1
Expression for Angular momentum of a Rigid body rotating about an
axis: X‘
 O

X r3
r1 r2
m3
m1
2

Consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis XOX’. The rigid body consists of a large number
of particles. Let m1, m2, m3... etc., be the masses of the particles situated at distances r1, r2, r3, ... etc.,
from the fixed axis. All the particles rotate with the same angular velocity, but with different linear
velocities depending on the values of ‘r’.
Angular momentum = moment of linear momentum
= linear momentum × distance
= mv × r = mrω × r (∴ v = rω)
= mr2ω
Dynamics-II � 53

∴ The angular momentum of the first particle = m r ω 1 1

2

The angular momentum of the second particle = m r ω 2 2

2

The angular momentum of the third particle = m r ω 3 3

2

...and so on.
The angular momentum of the whole body is equal to the sum of the angular momenta of all the
particles present in the body.
The angular momentum
L m r m r m r .......

 = ω+ ω+ ω+
2 22
11 2 2 3 3
of the rigid body


= (m1r12 + m2r22 + m3r32 + ..) ω

= Σmr2 ω
But, Σmr2 = moment of inertia of the rigid body = I
∴ The angular momentum of the rigid body = Iω
Law of conservation of angular momentum
When there is no external torque acting on a rotating body, the angular momentum of that body
remains a constant. This is the statement of law of conservation of angular momentum. i.e., if I1 and ω1
are the initial moment of inertia and angular velocity of a rotating body and if I2 and ω2 are new
moment of inertia and angular velocity of the body, without the help of any external torque, then
according to this law,
 I1 ω1 = I2 ω2
Examples
a) Consider a person standing on a turn-table with arms extended and a pair of weights, one in each
hand. The table is made to rotate by a motor and then the motor is switched off. Now, if that
person pulls his arms inwards, we can see a considerable increase in the speed of rotation. This
is because, in the new position, his moment of inertia I about the axis of rotation decrease, due to
the decrease in the value of r. Since the angular momentum is conserved, a decrease in the value
I results in an increase in the value of angular velocity ω. Therefore the person is found to rotate
faster.
b) A circus acrobat, a diver or skater, all take advantage of this principle. consider a diver has
just left a diving board with his arms and legs extended, with a particular angular momentum. If he
now pulls his arms and legs in, his moment of inertia I decreases, leading to increase in angular
velocity ω. By increasing ω, the diver can perform more number of somersaults, before entering the
swimming pool.
54 � Engineering Physics-I

4.2 GRAVITATION
Newton’s laws of Gravitation
Law 1 : Any two particles of matter attract each other with a force
Law 2 : The force of attraction between any two objects is
i. directly proportional to the product of the masses
ii. inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. If m1, m2 are masses of two
particles, separated by a distance ‘d’ then the force of attraction between the particles,
d

m1 m 2
mm
F α 12
2
d

mm
F = G 12
2
d

where G is known as “universal gravitational constant” and the value of G = 6.6733 × 10–11 N
m2kg–2
Acceleration due to gravity
Galileo was the first to make a systematic study of the motion of a body under the gravity of Earth.
He dropped various objects from the leaning tower of Pisa and made analysis of their motion under
gravity. He came to the conclusion that “in the absence of air, all bodies will fall at the same rate”. It is
the air resistance that slows down a piece of paper or a parachute falling under gravity. If a heavy stone
and a parachute are dropped where there is no air, both will fall together at the same rate.
Experiments showed that the velocity of a freely falling body under gravity increases at a constant
rate. i.e., with a constant acceleration. The acceleration produced in a body on account of the force of
gravity is called acceleration due to gravity. It is denoted by ‘g’. At a given place, the value of ‘g’ is the
same for all bodies irrespective of their masses. It differs from place to place on the surface of the
Earth. It also varies with altitude and depth.
The value of g at sea-level and at a latitude of 45° is taken as the standard (i.e) g = 9.81 m
s–2. Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the Earth
 Consider a body of mass m on the surface of the Earth as shown in the Figure. Its distance from the
centre of the Earth is R (radius of the Earth).
GMm
The gravitational force experienced by the body, F = 2
R
where M is the mass of the Earth.
m

mg
R

Earth
Dynamics-II � 55

From Newton’s second law of motion,

Force F = mg.
GMm
Equating the above two forces, 2

R = mg
GM
∴g=2
R
This equation shows that g is independent of the mass of the body m. But, it varies with the
distance from the centre of the Earth. If the Earth is assumed to be a sphere of radius R, the value of g
on the surface of the Earth is given by
GM
Mass and Weight g = 2
R
Variation of acceleration due to gravity with altitude (height):
Let P be a point on the surface of the Earth and Q be a point at an altitude h. Let the mass of the Earth
be M and radius of the Earth be R. Consider the Earth as a spherical shaped body. Q

The acceleration due to gravity at P on the surface is

GM

R (1)
g=2
 Let the body be placed at Q at a height h from the surface of the Earth. The acceleration due to
gravity at Q is
GM
gh = 2

(R h) + (2)
2
gR
2
dividing (2) by (1)
=
g (R h) + 2h 1
h
R
By simplifying and expanding  −
 
using binomial theorem, gh = g
The value of acceleration due to gravity decreases with increase in height above the surface of the
Earth.
56 � Engineering Physics-I

4.3 SATELLITES
A body moving in an orbit around another bigger body is called a satellite. A body that moves
around a planet is called a satellite.
The objects that are moving in orbit by nature itself around a planet are called natural satellites.
For example, moon is the natural satellite for the earth. The earth is a satellite for the sun. Man also has
placed artificially some satellites to move in orbit around the desired planets. These satellites are called
artificial satellite.
The artificial satellites are carried by rockets to the predetermined height, a few hundred kilometers
above the surface of the earth. At this height the air is in a rarefied state and hence air friction is
negligible.
After reaching the predetermined height, the satellite is given very high horizontal velocity so that
it remains moving in a nearly circular orbit.
The artificial satellites are broadly classified as earth resources satellites, meteorological satellites
and satellites carrying microwave sensors.
Escape velocity and Orbital velocity
Escape velocity (Ve)
When a body is thrown vertically upwards, it will return to the earth’s surface after attaining certain
height. If the velocity of projection is increased, the height attained by the body becomes greater and
then the body returns to the earth. This is due to the gravitational force of attraction of the earth. If the
body is to be projected with a particular greater velocity, the body escapes from the gravitational pull
so that it never returns to the earth. This velocity of projection is called escape velocity, it is different
for different planets.
The minimum velocity required to project a body in upward direction from the surface of the earth
so that it escapes from the earth’s gravitational pull is called escape velocity.
Orbital velocity (Vo)
In order to put a satellite into the orbit around the earth, the satellite must be projected to the
particular height and then it must be turned in a direction perpendicular to the line from the centre of
the earth so that it moves in an orbit around the earth.
The velocity of the satellite along its orbit around the earth is called orbital
velocity. Expression for Escape Velocity (Ve) :
Consider a body of mass m which is to be projected with escape velocity Ve from the surface of the
earth. If the body is placed on the surface of the earth, then
Ve
m
α
dR

M
EARTH

The weight of the body = mg …(1) Let M be the mass of the earth and R its radius.
According to Newton’s law of gravitation,
GMm
The gravitational force, F = 2

R ...(2)
Dynamics-II � 57

where G is a constant known as gravitational constant. The gravitational force on a body in the
earth’s atmosphere is also equal to the weight of the body. Equating the eqns. (1) and (2)
GMm
2

R = mg
GM = gR2
Since Ve is the escape velocity given to the body.
1 0 .....(3) mV 2
The given kinetic energy = 2
This kinetic energy is converted into workdone to escape the body from gravitational pull. If the
body moves a distance dR in vertical direction against the force F, then, Work = Force × distance
∴ Work done by the body = F dR
GMm
=2

R × dR
In order to escape the body from the gravitational pull, the work done by the body to move from
the distance R to infinity (the boundary of the gravitational field) is given by
R
∞ ∫
GMm
d
W=2
R
R

W = GMm
R
 1 GMm
mV
2
=
2R
0

Equating the eqns. (3) and (4).

2GM R
Ve =
Here,GM = gR2
2
2gR R
∴Ve =

∴ The Escape velocity Ve = 2gR

Expression for orbital velocity of a satellite :
Consider a satellite of mass m is placed on the surface of the earth.
The weight of the satellite = mg ...... (1) Let M be the mass of the earth, and R its radius.
According to Newton’s law of gravitation,
GMm

R (2)
The gravitational force F = 2
where G is a constant known as gravitational constant.
The gravitational force on the satellite is equal to its weight. Equating the eqns. (1) and
(2). GMm
2

R = mg ∴ GM = gR
2

The satellite is to be projected vertically upto a particular height h, after it must be turned in a
perpendicular direction, then the satellite revolves around the earth in a circular orbit of radius r, with
an orbital velocity of V0.
58 � Engineering Physics-I 2
mVo

The centripetal force, F = r …(3)

V0
hmE

M
T
m r

The necessary centripetal force for circular motion of the satellite is given by the gravitational
force. Hence, equating the equations (3) and (2)
2
mV GMm
 rr=
o

2
2
GM gR
V ( GM gR )
2
∴= = = 
o
rr
gR ( r R h)
R h= +
2

The orbital velocity of the

satellite,Vo = +
Note: When the satellite is launched in near earth orbit which is 200 km to 300 km , h is small
when compared to R so that, R + h = R. Then

V gR 0 =
Uses of Artificial Satellites
The artificial satellites are launched for many purposes by different countries. The important uses
of artificial satellite are
i) Collection of scientific data
ii) Weather monitoring
iii) Military Spying
iv) Remote sensing
v) Communication purpose – the satellite receives microwaves and TV signals from the earth and
amplifies them and transmits them back to various stations on the earth.
Worked Problems
1. If the radius of the earth is 6400km and the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8ms-2. Calculate
the escape velocity
Given: R = 6400 km and g = 9.8 ms-2
Escape velocity V0 = 2gR = 3 2 9.8 6400 10 ⋅⋅ ⋅
V0 = 11.2 km per second
2. A satellite is revolving round the earth at a distance of 182 km from the surface of the earth.
The radius of the earth is 6371 km and g is 9.81 ms-2. Calculate the orbital velocity of the
satellite.
Given: g = 9.81 ms-2, R = 6371 × 103 m, h = 182 × 103 m
(R+h) = (6371 + 182) 103 = 6553 × 103 m
2 32
gR 9.81 (6371 10 )
3
V0 =
(R h) 6553 10
⋅⋅=
+⋅
V0 = 7795 ms (or ) 7.795 kms-1
-1

Dynamics-II � 59

QUESTIONS
Part – A and B
1. Define rigid body
2. Define moment of inertia of a particle
3. Define moment of inertia of a rigid body
4. Define radius of gyration
5. Define angular momentum
6. State the law of conservation of angular momentum
7. State Newton’s I law of gravitation
8. State Newton’s II Law of gravitation
9. What is a satellite?
10. Define escape velocity
11. Define orbital velocity
12. Give any two uses of artificial satellites
13. Derive an expression for the moment of inertia of a rigid body about an
axis. 14. Explain Newton’s Law of Gravitation
15. Explain escape velocity and orbital velocity
16. Write the uses of artificial satelites
Part – C
1. Derive an expression for the kinetic energy of a rigid body rotating about an axis. 2.
Derive an expression for the angular momentum of a rigid body rotating about an axis. 3.
Obtain an expression for the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth. 4.
Obtain an expression for the variation of acceleration due to gravity with altitude. 5.
Derive an expression for the escape velocity from the surface of the earth
6. Derive an expression for the orbital velocity of a satellite.
Exercise Problems
1. Find the escape velocity at the surface of the moon, given that the radius of moon is 2 x 106 m and
acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon is 1.69 ms-2.
2. A satellite is revolving in circular orbit at a height of 800 km from the surface of the earth. Calculate
the orbital velocity. The radius of the earth is 6400 km and g = 9.8 ms-2 Brain teaser
1. The escape velocity from the surface of the earth is 11.2 kms-1. Find the escape velocity from the
surface of another planet where mass and diameter are twice that of earth.
2. What is the acceleration due to gravity at a distance from the centre of the Earth, which is equal to
diameter of the Earth ?

UNIT

5 SOUND AND MAGNETISM

5.1 SOUND
Introduction:
Sound is produced due to the vibrations of the body. These vibrations are transferred to the air
medium and propagated in all directions in the form of waves. When the vibrational sound waves reach
our ear, the diaphragm of the ear vibrates with equal vibrations produced by the body. Hence we are
able to hear the sound by the sensation perceived by the nerves of the ear.
 The number of vibrations made in one second is known as frequency of the sound. It is expressed
in hertz (Hz). The range of the frequency between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz is the audible range, Human
ears cannot respond to the sound below and above this range. In this sense, all vibrating bodies cannot
produce audible sound. The vibrations of frequency below 20 Hz are called infrasonic and above
20,000 Hz are called ultrasonic.
Sound is a mechanical wave and hence it requires a medium to propagate. So we can't hear the
sound in vacuum. It travels with the velocity of 330 ms-1 in air. Sound waves are reflected and
refracted like light waves.
Wave motion:
When a stone is thrown on a pond of water, ripples spread out in all directions on the surface of
water. The stone disturbs the water medium at one place but the disturbance is transferred in all
directions continuously. This continuous movement of the disturbance is called a wave.
If a wave passes in a medium, the particles of the medium vibrate about their mean position. The
particles do not move along with the wave, only the vibrations are transferred from one particle to
adjacent particle of the medium in the form of energy.
There are two types of wave motion. They are
1) Longitudinal wave motion and
2) Transverse wave motion
1) Longitudinal wave motion:
If the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave, the wave
is known as longitudinal wave.
Examples:
1. The propagation of sound in air
2. The propagation of sound in gas
3. The propagation of sound inside the liquid
a)
C

b)
R
C
c)

CC
R

d)
RRR
CCC
Sound and Magnetism � 61

The longitudinal waves travel in a medium in the form of compressions and rarefactions. The place
where the particles of the medium crowded together are called compressions and the places where the
particles spread out are called rarefactions.
The compressions and rarefactions produced by a vibrating tuning fork are as shown in the figure.
When the prong (arm) of the fork moves to the right, it compresses the medium in front of it to form
compression. Meanwhile the prong returns to the left, a temporarily vacuum is created there. To fill it,
the particles of the medium spread out in that place to form a rarefaction.
Thus as the prong of the fork vibrates to and fro, alternate compressions and rarefactions are trans
mitted in the medium. As a result, the particles of the medium simply move back and forth about their
mean position parallel to the direction of the propagation of the wave.
2) Transverse wave motion:
If the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave, the
wave is known as transverse wave.
Examples :
1. Ripples travelling on the water surfaces.
2. Waves travelling along a rope.
3. Other waves like light waves,heat radiations, radio waves etc.
The transverse waves travel in a medium in the form of crests and troughs. The points where the
particles of the medium displaced maximum in the upward direction are called crests. The points where
the particles displaced maximum in the downward direction are called. troughs

Crests

Troughs

The crests and troughs produced by the transverse wave motion are as shown in the figure. In
transverse wave, alternate crests and troughs are transmitted in the medium. As a result, the particles of
the medium move up and down about their mean position perpendicular to the direction of propagation
of the wave.
Progressive Waves:
If a wave travels continuously in a medium without any disturbance, then the wave is said to be
progressive wave. Longitudinal waves and Transverse waves are two types of progressive waves and
they can travel continuously in any medium if there is no obstruction.
Amplitude:
When sound wave propagates in a medium, the maximum displacement of the vibrating particles of
the medium from their mean position is called amplitude.
Wavelength (λ) :
The wavelength is the distance between two consecutive particles of the medium which are in the
same state of vibration.
It is also defined as the distance travelled by the wave during the time the vibrating particle
completes one vibration.
In longitudinal waves, the wavelength is the distance between two successive compressions or
rarefactions. In transverse waves, the wavelength is the distance between two successive crests or
troughs.
62 � Engineering Physics-I

Period (T):
The time taken by the vibrating particle to make one vibration is called
period. Frequency (n):
The frequency is the number of vibrations made by the vibrating particle in one
second. Velocity (v):
The distance travelled by the sound wave in one second is known as velocity of
sound. Relation between Wavelength, Frequency and Velocity of a Wave :
Let n be the number of vibrations made by the vibrating particle in one second. It is also known as
its frequency.
Time taken for one vibration = period (T) = 1/n.
Let λ be the wavelength of the wave produced
Velocity of the wave is the distance through which the wave advances in the medium in one
second

∴ Velocity of wave motion,.V = dis tan ce travelled

time taken
V = λ/T =λ/(1/n) = λ n
∴V = nλ
Stationary Waves:
If a progressive wave travelling in a medium meets the surface of an obstacle, it is reflected. The
reflected wave is superimposed on the incident wave to form a new type of wave called stationary
wave.
Also, when two identical waves having equal wavelength and amplitude travel in opposite
directions they superimpose on each other forming stationary wave.
A stationary wave formed by a vibrating string is as shown in the figure. Consider a string P Q
fixed at the end Q and it vibrates up and down at the free end P. Then a transverse wave is setup and it
proceeds towards the fixed point Q and gets reflected back to the end P. Now the stationary wave is
formed in the string.
At certain points of the medium, the displacement due to the two waves cancel each other and
those points remain at rest. Such points are called nodes (N). At certain other points there is maximum
displacement. Such points are called antinodes (A). The distance between two successive nodes or
antinodes is λ / 2.

AAAAA

QP N N N N N N
AAAAA

λ/2

The distance between a node and the next antinode is λ / 4

The longitudinal waves also produce the stationary waves.
Sound and Magnetism � 63

VIBRATIONS
Free Vibrations :
The vibrations of any body with its natural frequency are called free vibrations. When a body is set
in vibration and left free, it executes vibrations. The frequency depends upon the dimensions and
elastic constants of the body. Such vibrations are called free vibrations and the frequency of vibration
is known as the natural frequency.
If a tuning fork is set in vibration, it vibrates with its own frequency. Such vibrations are called free
vibrations or natural frequency.
Forced Vibrations :
The vibrations of a body with a frequency induces vibrations on another vibrating agent are called
forced vibrations.
Suppose a vibrating tuning fork is placed with its stem on a table, the vibrations of the fork are
impressed on the table and the table is forced to vibrate. The vibrations set up on the table are called
forced vibrations.
Resonance :
When the forced vibrations given on the body is equal to its natural frequency of vibrations, the
body vibrates with maximum amplitude. This phenomenon is called resonance.
When a vibrating tuning fork is kept on a table, the table is forced to vibrate with the frequency of
the tuning fork. If the natural frequency of the table is equal to the frequency of the tuning fork, the
table vibrates with its natural frequency and hence resonance occurs.
Laws of vibration in stretched strings:
I Law : The frequency of vibrating string is inversely proportional to its length, when the tension
and linear density of the string are kept constant.
n 1l
∝

II Law : The frequency of vibration is directly proportional to the square root of the tension, when
the length and linear density of the string are kept constant.
nT∝

III Law : The frequency of vibration is inversely proportional to the square root of the linear
density of the string, when the tension and length of the string are kept constant.
1
n
m
∝

According to above laws,

1T
1Tnk
∝ (or ) 1m=
n
lm
Where k – is a constant and its value is equal to ½.
1T
∴∝
n
21 m

If (∴T = Mg) = 1 Mg 21
m
1 Mg


n=2
2 lm
64 � Engineering Physics-I

Note: The linear density,

2 2
mass Volume density r l m r
⋅ πρ
= = = =π ρ
 length length l
Sonometer :

The phenomenon of resonance is used in sonometer. In sonometer, the frequency of a tuning fork
is equal to the frequency of the vibrating string. Here resonance takes place and the string vibrates with
maximum amplitude.
Experimental determination of frequency of a tuning fork using
sonometer: L
ACB

The sonometer consists of a hollow wooden box. A nail is fixed at one end and a smooth pulley is
fixed at the other end of the box. One end of a sonometer string is tied to the nail and other end of the
string passes over the smooth pulley. The free end is attached to the weight hanger. A, B and C are
three knife edges placed on the box under the string. A, B are fixed and C is movable.
A suitable tension (T = Mg) is applied to the string. A small paper rider is placed on the string in
between A and C. The tuning fork of frequency ‘n’ is excited with a rubber hammer and its stem is
kept on the sonometer box. Now the string is made to vibrate. The movable knife-edge C is adjusted
such that the string vibrates with the same frequency of the fork. At that time, the paper rider placed on
the string between A and C, is violently thrown off from the string. Now the vibrating length of the
string AC= l is measured.
Let r be the radius of the string measured by using screw gauge and 'ρ' be the density of the
material of the wire, then
The linear density, m = π r2 ρ
The experiment is repeated by changing the value of tension (load). The readings are tabulated.
Sl.No. Load (M) Vibrating l2 M
2
length AC = l
l

Mean : 1 Mg


The frequency of the tuning fork, n = 2
2 lm
M
The mean value of 2
is calculated frequency of the tuning fork ‘n’

l is substituted in the above formula and the

Sound and Magnetism � 65

ACOUSTICS OF BUILDINGS:
Echo : The first reflected sound is known as echo. The sound produced by a source is propagated
continuously in a medium if there is no disturbance. But if it meets the hard surface of an obstacle, it is
reflected. The clear echo depends upon the following factors.
1. Good reflector of sound
2. Maximum surface area of the reflector and
3. The distance of the reflector from the source of sound.
Reverberation :
The sound produced in a hall suffers multiple reflections before it becomes inaudible. As a result
of these reflections, the listener continues to receive sound, even if the source of sound is cut off. This
prolonged reflection of sound in a room even after the sound source has been stopped is called
reverberation. It is the persistence of sound due to multiple reflections from the walls, floor and ceiling
of a hall. The reverberation is also called multiple echoes. In a room, the walls, floor and other flat
surfaces reflect sound with a small loss of energy.
Reverberation time:
If a building is to be acoustically correct, its reverberation time must be in optimum level. It should
not be too long or too short. if it is too short, then the room becomes dead in sound aspect. If it is too
long, then the reverberation will be there inside the building for long duration. The reverberation
produces continuous sound with decreasing intensity upto a particular time after that it disappears.
This time is known as reverberation time.
The reverberation time is defined as the time taken by the sound to fall from its original intensity to
one millionth of its original intensity.
Sabine formula :
Sabine derived an equation for the reverberation time.
Where V is the volume of the hall, a is the coefficient of absorption of each reflecting surface
present in the hall and A is the area of the each

T = 0.16 V
α A second
sound absorbing surface present in the hall.
Coefficient of absorption of sound energy:
The co-efficient of absorption of sound energy of any surface is defined as the ratio of the sound
energy absorbed by the surface to the total sound energy incident on the surface. Let α be the
coefficient of absorption of sound energy of a surface, then

α = The sound energy absorbed by the surface

The total sound energy incident on the surface
Acoustics of Buildings (Architectural acoustics):
The term 'Acoustics of building' describe the production, transmission and reception of sound
inside the building. The following points should be taken into consideration for the acoustic design of
the buildings, auditorium, cinema theatres etc.
1. The sound heard by the audience should be sufficiently loud in any part of the hall. 2.
The quality of the speech and music should not be changed any where inside the hall. 3.
 There should not be focusing of sound due to walls and ceiling, in any part of the hall. 4.
There should not be any vibrations due to resonance.
5. There should not be any other noise from other sources, both from outside the hall and from
with in the hall.
Two more important factors should also be considered for good acoustic design of the
buildings. 1. Echo and 2. Reverberation
66 � Engineering Physics-I

1. Echo :
The direct sound from the source and the reflected sound (echo) from the walls produce confusion
in certain buildings. A hall with large number of open windows is free from the defect. Echoes can be
eliminated by making the walls rough. But in the case of musical hall, however echoes are desirable, to
a certain extent.
2. Reverberation :
The Reverberation is the prolonged reflections of sound from the walls, floor and ceiling of a hall.
The sound produced in the hall undergoes multiple reflections before it becomes inaudible. As a result
the clarity of the successive speech is affected. Due to this reason, the reverberation time should be
optimum to hear the clear sound in the hall.
To minimize this defect, Sabine derived an equation for the reverberation time, Where V is the
volume of the hall, α is the coefficient of absorption of each reflecting surface present in the hall and A

is the area of the each sound absorbing surface present in the hall. T = 0.16V

α A second
In the above Sabine's equation, T will be minimized by increasing the value of α. So the
reverberation is minimized by covering the inner surfaces of the hall using absorption materials like
carpets, wall screen, porous tiles etc.
The reverberation time value depends on the use for which the building is designed. The acceptable
limit for reverberation time is
For speech, 0.5 s
For music, between 1.0 and 2.0 s
For small theatres, between 1.0 and 1.5 s
For larger theatres, up to 2.3 s
Noise Pollution :
The unwanted sounds which are dumped into the atmosphere, thus producing a nuisance and
adverse effect on the health of human beings, are known as noise pollution. Noise pollution leads to
severe health problems by creating either physical or mental problems. As a result, it affects the
working efficiency, personal comfort, and in some cases it may lead to industrial accidents. There are
varieties of noises such as domestic noise, traffic noise, aircraft noise, etc. Even though the sources of
noise are numerous, the types of sources of noise are generally classified into two types.
(i) Industrial noises and (ii) Non- industrial noises
The noises which are produced due to the movements of car, motor truck, motor cycle, aircraft,
machines, explosions, etc. are known as industrial noises. The noises which are produced due to the
loudspeaker, construction work, radio, etc. are known as non-industrial noises. The industrial and
non-industrial noises are generally measured by using the sound pressure level in decibel (dB).
Some important sound pressure level for domestic and industrial noise is listed
below. Source of noise. Sound pressure level (dB)
Garden 20
 Library 30
Ringing alarm clock 80
Heavy traffic 90
Electric generator 76
Concrete mixer 85
Power saw 90
Noisy factory 100
Threshold of pain 140
Sound and Magnetism � 67

Worked Problems
1. A wire 50 cm long and of mass 6.5 × 10-3 kg is stretched so that it makes 80 vibrations per sec
ond. Find the stretching tension.

3 3 1 m 13 10 kgm
mass 6.5 10 length
−−
0.5− ⋅ = = =⋅
1 T 1T
2
n or n

2l m 4l m = =
2

∴ Tension T = 4l2m2 n = 2 × 0.5 × 0.5 × 13 × 10-3 × 80 × 80

= 83.2 N
2. The density of a sonometer wire of radius 0.3mm is 7800 kgm-3. Find its linear density.
Linear density m = πr2 ρ
m = 3.14 × (0.3 × 10-3)2 × 7800
= 2204.28 × 10-6
= 2.204 × 10-3 kg m-1

5.2 MAGNETISM
The word 'magnetism' is derived from the name of a dark brown coloured ore called magnetite
found in Magnesia. The ore possesses the property of attracting small pieces of iron. The ore
magnetite available in nature is called as natural magnet. Artificial magnets also can be prepared from
iron or steel materials. Iron materials are mostly used to prepare electromagnets and temporary
magnets
whereas the steel materials are used to prepare permanent magnets.

Magnetic field:
The space around the magnet in which the magnetic lines of force act is called the magnetic field.
The direction of magnetic field at a point is given by the direction of the force acting on the north pole
of a magnetic needle placed at the point. If the magnetic lines of force formed are parallel, the field is
called uniform magnetic field and have equal strength at all the points.
 N
N SS

Pole Strength (P) :

The pole strength of a magnet is defined as the force acting on the pole when it is placed in a
uniform magnetic field of unit intensity.
Let P be the pole strength placed in a uniform magnetic field of intensity H, Force acting on the
pole, F = HP. If H = 1, then F = P The unit of pole strength is ampere metre (Am.)
68 � Engineering Physics-I

Magnetic Induction (B) :

The magnetic induction or magnetic flux density is defined as the total number of magnetic lines of
force passing normally, through unit area of cross section.
The unit of magnetic induction is weber/metre².
Intensity of magnetic field (H) :
The intensity of the magnetic field at a point in a magnetic field is defined as the force experienced
by a unit north pole placed at that point.
The unit of Intensity of magnetic field is ampere/metre (Am-1)
Magnetic permeability (m) :
The magnetic permeability of the medium (material) is the ratio of the magnetic induction in the
medium to the intensity of magnetic field
B
Intensity of magnetic field i.e.μ = H producing that induction.

Magnetic permeability = Magnetic induction

The unit of magnetic permeability is weber/ampere-metre (WbA m )or henry/metre.

Magnetic moment (m) :

Magnetic moment of a magnet is defined as the moment of the couple acting on a magnet when it
is placed perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of unit intensity.
Consider a magnet of length 2l placed perpendicular to the uniform magnetic field of intensity H. If
P is the pole strength of the magnet,
Force experienced by the poles
F = HP
If H = 1, unit intensity of magnetic field, Force F = P
Two equal forces P and P acting on the magnet in opposite directions to form a couple.
Moment of the couple = P × 2l
i.e. Magnetic moment M = 2lP
Hence, the magnetic moment of a magnet can also be defined as the product of pole strength and
the distance between the poles. But, the distance between the poles is approximately equal to the length
of the magnet. So, the moment can be taken as the product of pole strength and length of the magnet.
The unit of magnetic moment is ampere metre² (Am²)

(S)

F=HP=P H=1
N S-P+

2
I

(N) F=HP=P
Sound and Magnetism � 69

Intensity of Magnetisation (M) :

Intensity of magnetisation of a magnet is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume of the
magnet.
Let m be the magnetic moment of the magnet having volume v, then

Intensity of magnetisation = Magnetic moment

m Volume of the magnet
i.e. M = v

The unit of intensity of magnetisation is ampere/metre (Am-1)

Hysteresis :
In electrical method, a magnetic material can be magnetised by keeping it inside an insulated coil
(solenoid) through which a current is passed. Before passing the current, the magnetising field around
the coil is zero. Then there is no magnetism induced in the material. If the magnetising field H is
gradually increased by increasing the current ‘I’ the intensity of magnetisation induced in the material
also increases upto a particular value. After that the intensity of magnetisation is not increased even
though the magnetising field is increased. Now the material is said to be saturated.
If the magnetising field is gradually decreased to zero value, the intensity of magnetisation in the
material also decreases but not to zero value. There is a tendency in the material to retain some amount
of magnetism. Then, if the field is increased in the reverse direction from zero value, for a particular
value the retained magnetism in the material is removed completely. Further increasing the field, the
material attained the saturated value of magnetism in the reverse direction and so on.
Definition :
The lagging in intensity of magnetisation behind the magnetising field is known as hysteresis. A
graphical curve which represents the variation in the intensity of magnetisation (M) with magnetic
field intensity (H) is known as hysteresis loop (M-H curve).
Retentivity, Coercivity and magnetic saturation :
1. Retentivity or residual magnetism :
 Retentivity or residual magnetism is the amount of intensity of magnetisation retained in the
material after removing the magnetising field.
2. Coercivity or coercive force :
Coercivity or coercive force is the amount of magnetising field applied in the reverse direction to
remove the residual magnetism completely from the material.
3. Magnetic saturation :
When the magnetising field is increased, the intensity of magnetisation induced in the material also
increases up to a particular value. After that the intensity of magnetisation is not increased even though
the magnetising field is increased. Now the material attains the saturation value of intensity of
magnetisation.
Experiment to draw the Hysteresis loop:
The experimental arrangement is shown in the figure. A long solenoid is connected in a circuit.
The direction of the current can be reversed by using a commutator C. The given specimen in the form
of a rod is placed inside the solenoid. A deflection magnetometer is placed in Tan-A position at a short
distance along the axis of the rod. The deflection magnetometer is adjusted zero position.
The intensity of magnetic field H can be calculated by using the formula H = (NI) / L, where N is
the number of turns in the solenoid, 'I' the strength of the current passing through the solenoid and L,
the length of the solenoid. The value of I can be measured by using ammeter. The intensity of
magnetisation
70 � Engineering Physics-I

M induced in the specimen can be calculated by using the formula M = k tan θ / V where k is constant,
θ is the deflection in the magnetometer and V is the volume of the magnet.
TAN-A
N
C +
--
I
k

RhA
+

Ba

The strength of the current I is gradually increased in steps of 0.2A up to a required value. Every
time the deflection in the magnetometer is noted. Then the values of H and the corresponding values
of M are calculated. The current is decreased in steps up to zero value and again the corresponding
values of H and M are calculated. The experiment is also repeated by passing the current in the reverse
direction.
A graph is drawn by taking the values H along X-axis and M along Y-axis. A loop OABCDEFA is
obtained as shown in the figure.
In the figure, when H is increased from zero to G, the value of M is increased from zero to A
represented by OA. At the point A, the specimen reached the saturated value.
If H is decreased from G to zero, the value of M decreases from A to B, but not to zero. Now the
specimen retains some amount of magnetism known as retentivity (OB).
When H is increased in the reverse direction from zero to C, the value M reaches zero value at a
point C. The amount of H applied in the reverse direction to remove the residual magnetism is known
as coercive force or coercivity (OC). Further repeating the process the remaining portion CDEFA is
obtained. The closed loop ABCDEFA is called one cycle of hysteresis loop or M-H curve.
When the material is taken through a cycle of magnetisation, there is some expenditure of energy.
This loss of energy dissipates in the form of heat in the specimen. The loss of energy is proportional to
the area of the hysteresis loop.
directly
Y
M

BA

F –X
C
X
H

KOG

E
D

-Y

Selection of magnetic materials for permanent and temporary magnets (Uses of

Hysteresis loops):
The hysteresis loops are very useful in the selection of magnetic materials for permanent and
temporary magnets and other industrial purposes. The hysteresis loops for different materials are
compared to one another and then the materials are selected for suitable purposes.
For example, let ABCDEFA be the hysteresis loop for soft iron and A' B' C' D' E' F' A' the
hysteresis loop for steel. Here the area of the hysteresis loop for steel is more than that of soft iron.
Therefore the loss of energy is more in steel than that in soft iron. Hence the quantity of heat emitted
by steel is more