2.1.

1 BASIC COMPONENTS OF LIVING SYSTEMS

MICROSCOPY - page 8
• magnification: How many times bigger the image is compared to the original
Formula: M = I / A
MEASURING:
1000 nanometers (nm) = 1 micrometre (µm)
1000 micrometers (µm) = 1 millimetre (mm)
1000 millimiters (mm) = 1 metre (m)

• resolution: Is the minimal distance apart that two objects con be in order for them to appear
separate

TYPE MAGNIFICATION RESOLUTION IMAGE

LIGHT: it uses light and a systems of

around x1.500-
lenses to generate magnified image 200nm
x2.000
of small objects

TRANSMISSION ELECTRON (TEM):

a beam of electrons is transmitted around x500.000-
0,2-0,5 nm
through a specimen and focused to x2.000.000
produce an image.

SCANNING ELECTRON (SEM): a

beam of electrons is sent across the around x100.000-
3-10nm
surface of a specimen and the x500.000
reflected electrons are collected.

LASER SCANNING CONFOCAL: a

specialized fluorescent microscopy
technique that increases the optical
around x2.000
resolution by using a pinhole aperture
to block out-of-focus light within the
image.

STAINING:
Staining is used because some cells let a lot of light through, so there is not enough contrast to see
the cells. Stains increase the contrast and allow components to become visible (different
components with the cell take up stains to different degrees). Types of stain technique:
• GRAM STAIN TECHNIQUE – Gram Positive bacteria will, when stained with iodine or crystal
violet, show up blue/purple under a microscope. Gram Negative bacteria, when stained, lose the
original stain so are counterstained. They then appear red/pink under the microscope.
• DIFFERENTIAL STAINING TECHNIQUE - two stains are used (usually for bacteria), usually
crystal violet and safranin.
• ACID-FAST TECHNIQUE – Cells are dyed, and washed with acid. Mycobacterium are not
affected and appear bright red under a microscope. Other bacteria lose the stain and are
exposed to methylene blue, with stains blue.

stains:
• crystal violet, methalyne blue - positively charged - stain negatively charged material
• nigrosin and congo red - negatively charged
EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE page 26
Cell is the basic unit of all living things. There are two fundamental types of cells:
1. prokaryotic, single celled organisms with a simple structure of just a single undivided internal
area called the cytoplasm.
2. eukaryotic, they make up multicellular organisms and they have a more complicated internal
structure
In the eukaryotic cells each organelle has a specific role —> division of labour, we also call the
organelles ultrastructure of a cell and we are able to see this features using an electron
microscope.

NAME MAIN FUNCTION IMPORTANT STRUCTURES

NUCLEUS Control centre for proteins • 10-20µm.

synthesis. Contains genetic • Nuclear envelope = double membrane, controls
material DNA. what goes in and out of nucleus and contains
Produces mRNA and ribosomes. the nuclear pores (allows passage of molecules
Controls cell division. in and out)
• Nucleoplasm = like cytoplasm.
• Chromatin = uncoiled DNA associated with
histone proteins. (when it coils and condenses
is known as chromosomes)
• Nucleolus = is an area within the nucleus.
Makes ribosomal RNA & assembles ribosomes.

ROUGH Large SA for proteins synthesis. Enclosed flattened sacs continuous with nuclear
ENDOPLASMIC Makes a pathway for transport of membrane. Lots of ribosomes on the surface.
RETICULUM materials (eg proteins).

SMOOTH Synthesis, transports and stores Enclosed flattened sacs continuous with nuclear
ENDOPLASMIC lipids and carbohydrates. membrane.
RETICULUM Cointeins lytic enzymes.

GOLGI Modifies proteins. Allows Stack of membranes that make flattened sacs
APPARATUS transportation of proteins in called cisternae and associated hollow vesicles.
vesicles pinched off from Golgi. It has two 'faces' - the cis (receiving or forming or
Makes lysosomes. entry) face, and the trans (or maturing or exit)
face.

PLASMA Controls movement of materials in 45% protein, 45% phospholipids, 10%

MEMBRANE and out of cell. Receptors. Allows cholesterol, glycolipids & glycoproteins.
cells to attach forming tissues.
Recognition sites for immune
system

CHLOROPLAST Site of photosynthesis. 2-10µm. Chloroplast envelope (material entry &

exit). Stroma (photosynthesis). Grana
(photosynthesis). Starch grains (carb store).

MITOCHONDRIA Aerobic respiration. Production of Double membrane (material entry & exit).
the molecule ATP. Krebs cycle. • the inner membrane is folded to form cristae
(large SA for enzymes).
• the fluid interior is called the matrix.
Mitochondria are semi-rigid, contain proteins, a
small amount of mitochondrial DNA, lipids,
allowing them to make their own organelles e.g.
ribosomes.
NAME MAIN FUNCTION IMPORTANT STRUCTURES

RIBOSOME Important in protein synthesis- site They are not surrounded by a membrane and are
of translation. constructed of RNA molecules.
80S (eukaryote) or 70S (prokaryote) type (smaller
than 80S). 2 subunits made from ribosomal RNA
and proteins.

LYSOSOME Used to destroy foreign material Lysosomes are specialized forms of vesicle that
inside and out of the cell contain hydrolytic acid.
(important role in immune Contains up to 50 enzymes. 1µm in diameter.
system) . Digests worn out
organelles (autophagy). Break
down cells after death (autolysis).

VESICLES Are used to transport materials • storage and transport role.

inside the cells. • single membrane with fluids inside

CELL CYTOSKELETON
The cytoskeleton is present throughout the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. It is a network of 3D
proteins fibers that fills the cytoplasm and gives stability and structure to the cell (acts as both
muscle and skeleton, for movement and stability).
NB! in images of eukaryotic
Primary types of fibers comprising the cytoskeleton are: cell —> actin filament are
• actin filaments / microfilaments shown in red, microtubule
• microtubule in green and the nuclei are
• intermediate filaments in blue.

organelle move: when pulled by cytoskeleton, they cover about 5

micrometers per second.

COMPONENT PROTEIN SUBUNIT STRUCTURE FUNCTION

MICROFILAMENTS actin contractile fibers carry out cellular movement including

contraction during cytokinesis
(process in which the cytoplasm of a
single eukaryotic cell is divided to
form two daughters cells).

MICROTUBULES tubulin globular tubular Determine cell-shape. They also act

proteins tracks for moving organelles and
vesicles. Spindle fibers for mitosis.

INTERMEDIATE many types, e.g. scaffold shapes give mechanical strength to cells and
FIBERS keratin help maintain their integrity, anchor
organelles.

CENTRIOLES: Centrioles are a component of the cytoskeleton and they are found in almost all
animal cells ad well as cells of certain algae and fungi. They are composed of microtubules.
Centrioles are hallow cylinders (0,5um length and 0,2 um diameter). Their internal structure is the
same as the basal body of a cilium, comprising 9 sets of 3 microtubules. In a cell there are 2
centrioles and they lie at right angles to one another near to the nucleus.

They have 2 main functions:

1. the microtubules form the spindle fibers during nuclear division (anaphase) and so position and
move the chromosomes during the process
2. they may be involved in the formation of microtubules that make uk the cytoskeleton of the cell.
CILIA AND FLAGELLA: They are extensions that protrude from some cell types. Flagella are
longer then cilia but cilia are usually present in much grater numbers.
• FLAGELLA are used for cells motility and in some cells are used ad sensory organelle to detect
chemical changes in the cells environment.
• CILIA can be mobile or stationary. Each cilium contains two central microtubules surrounded by
nine pairs of microtubules arranged like a “wheel” (9+2 arrangement).
1. stationary: function of sensory
2. mobile: beat in a rhythmic manner creating a current and causing fluids or objects around
the cell to move. (e.g. used in trachea to move mucus away from the lungs)

PROTEIN SYNTESIS
1. transcription —> nucleus
2. translation —> ribosomes/RER
3. modification —> golgi apparatus
4. exportation —> plasma membrane

1. Proteins are synthesized on the ribosomes bound to the endoplasmic reticulum.

2. They then pass into its cisternae and are packaged into transport vesicles
3. Vesicles containing the newly synthesized proteins move towards the Golgi apparatus via the
transport function of the cytoskeleton
4. the vesicles fuse with the cis face of the Golgi apparatus and the proteins enter. The proteins
are structurally modified before leaving the Golgi apparatus in the vesicles from its trans face
5. The vesicles move towers and fuse with the cell-surface membrane, realizing their contents by
exocytosis.

PHOTOMICROGRAPHS (also called micrograph, microphotograph or photomicrograph)

Photograph or similar image taken through a microscope or a similar device to show a magnified
image of an item. Light and electron microscope con be used and the pictures can be colored in
different ways to highlight different features.

THE ULTRASTRUCTURE OF PLANT CELLS page 33

CELLULOSE CELL WALL: Plants cells, unlike animal cells have rigid structures, as they have a
cell wall surrounding the cell-surface membrane.
Plants cell walls are made of cellulose (a carbohydrate). For this reason the cell walls gives shape
and makes rigid (also gives support to the also to the plant) the cell.

VACUOLE: are membrane lined sacs in the cytoplasm containing cell sap. The membrane of the
vacuoles is called tonoplast and it is selective permeable (some small molecules con pass through
others can’t)

CHLOROPLASTS: organelles responsible for photosynthesis. They have a double membrane

structure. The fluid enclosed in the chloroplast is called the storma. They also have an internal
network of membranes, which form flattened sacs that can stack together and form a granum, the
grana contain the chlorophyll pigments. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts also contain DNA and
ribosomes.
The internal membrane contains a large surface area needed for the enzymes, proteins and
pigment molecules necessary in the process of photosynthesis.
ANIMAL CELLS PLANT CELLS

only membrane is present tough, slightly elastic cell wall, present (in addition to
the cell membrane)

no cell wall and therefore no pits or plasmodesma pits and plasmodesma present in cell wall

chloroplasts absent chloroplasts present in large numbers for

photosynthesis

vacuole usually absent, however may have small, cells normally have a large vacuole filled with cell
scattered ones e.g. contractile vacuole sap

nuclueus can be anywhere in the cell, but usually nucleus usually at the edge of the cell
central.

centrioles present centrioles absent in higher plants

cilia and flagella present cilia and flagella absent in higher plants

glycogen granules used for storage starch used for storage

almost all cells are capable of division only some cells are capable of division

PROKARYOTIC VS EUKARYOTIC
PROKARYOTIC EUKARYTIC

no nucleus or any membrane bound organelles always have nucleus and other membrane bound
organelles

cell wall made of peptidoglycan and murein cell wall present only in plant made of cellulose

DNA is circular, without proteins DNA is linear and associated with proteins to form
chromatin

no cytoskeleton always has cytoskeleton

cell division is by binary fission cell division by mitosis or meiosis

ribosomes are small (70s) ribosomes are large (80s)