STEEL

Introduction
• As far as the carbon content is concerned , the steel forms an intermediate stage
between cast-iron and wrought-iron.

• The cast-iron contains carbon from 2 to 4 %. In wrought-iron, the carbon content does
not exceed 0.15 %. In steel, the carbon content varies from anything below 0.25 % to
1.50%

• This is due to the fact that carbon, if in excess of 1.5% does not combine with iron and it
is present as free graphite. Thus the dividing line of cast-iron and steel is the presence of
free graphite.

• If there is no free graphite in the composition of a material, it is said to be steel. On the

other hand the presence of free graphite indicates that the material is cast-iron.

• Steel becomes harder and tougher as its carbon content goes on increasing and at the
maximum level of 1.5 %, all the carbon gets into chemical combination with iron and
none of it exists in its free state.
• The cast-iron can take up only compressive stresses and its use is limited to the
compression members only. The wrought-iron is a fibrous nature and it is suitable to resist
tensile strength.

• Steel is suitable for all construction purposes in general and hence it has practically
replaced cast-iron and wrought-iron in the present day practice of building construction.

• It is equally strong in compression as well as in tension.

• If a drop of nitric is placed on steel, it will produce a dark grey stain due to the presence of
higher percentage of carbon content. If the same procedure is carried out on wrought-iron,
the stain will not be appreciable. Thus the mild steel and wrought-iron can easily be
distinguished by this simple process.

• The final battle of cast-iron, wrought-iron and steel was fought on the field of construction
of skyscrapers. The column of early skeleton of skyscrapers were cast-iron and the beams
were of wrought-iron.
• Sir Henry Bessemer (1813-98) of England invented his converter in 1857 and it came into
use from 1880 or so. The introduction of the open-hearth process brought the final victory
of the steel because it produced a better quality of steel that could take up higher working
stresses.
 Manufacture of steel:-
The steel is manufactured by the following process:-

1) Bessemer process: This process was invented by a British engineer. Depending upon the
nature of the lining material of converter, this process may be acidic or basic.

In acidic process, the lining material is acidic in nature such as clay, quartz etc. It is adopted
when iron ores are free from or when they contain very small amount of Sulphur and
phosphorous.
In basic process, the lining material is basic in nature such as lime , magnesia , etc. It is
adopted for pig-iron containing impurities of any type. The basic process is commonly adopted.

The Bessemer converter is wide at the bottom and narrow at the top. It is mounted on two
horizontal trunnions so it can be tilted or rotated at suitable angle. The tuyeres are provided at
the bottom to allow passage of air from the air duct to the pig-iron.
The working of the convertor is as follows:

(i) The converter is tilted and it is charged with molten pig-iron from cupola furnace or
sometimes even directly from the blast furnace.

(ii) The converter is brought in an upright position and a blast of hot air is forced through the
tuyeres.
(iii) The air passes through the molten pig-iron. It oxidizes impurities of pig-iron and a brilliant
reddish-yellow flame is seen at the nose of converter.

(iv) The flame is accompanied by a loud roaring sound and within 10 to 15 minutes or so, all
the impurities of pig-iron are oxidized. The order of oxidation of various impurities is silicon,
carbon, manganese, Sulphur and phosphorus.

(v) When the intensity of flame has considerably reduced, the blast is shut off and the required
amount of suitable material such as ferro-manganese, spiege-leisen, etc. is added to make steel
of desired quality.

(vi) The blast of air is started for a few minutes. The converter is then tilted in discharge
position and the molten metal is carried into ladles or containers.

(vii) The molten metal is poured into large rectangular molds for solidification. Such solidified
mass is known as the ingot. These ingots are then further treated to form steel of commercial
pattern.
2) Cementation process: This process was formerly used to manufacture steel. It is costly and
it is now therefore practically not adopted. It consists in converting pig-iron to almost pure
wrought-iron and then preparing steel by adjusting carbon content.

This process is carried out as follows:

(i) The bars of pure wrought-iron are taken and they are placed between the layers of
powdered charcoal. The dome-shaped furnace known as the cementation furnace is generally
used for this purpose.

(ii) The furnace is heated and the bars are subjected to an intense heat for a period of 5 to 15
days as per quality of steel required.

(iii) The wrought-iron combines with carbon and steel of desired composition is formed. This
steel is covered with blisters or thin bubbles and it is therefore known as the blister steel. Its
structure is not homogeneous and it is full of cavities and fissures. The blister steel cannot be
used for making edge tools. It can only be used for machine parts and facing hammers.
3) Crucible steel process: This process is adopted to produce small quantity of high carbon
steel. In this process, the fragments of blister steel or short bars of wrought-iron are taken
and they are mixed with charcoal. They are then placed in fire clay crucibles and heated.
The molten iron is poured into suitable molds.
The steel produced by this process is known as the cast steel. It is hard and uniform in
quality. It is used for making surgical instruments, files, cutlery of superior quality, etc.

4) Duplex process: This process is a combination of the following two processes:

(i) Acid Bessemer process

(ii) Basic open-hearth process.

Following operations are therefore performed in preparing steel by the Duplex process:
(i) The molten pig-iron is given treatment in acid-lined Bessemer converter. The impurities
such as silica, manganese and carbon are eliminated at this stage.

(ii) It is then treated in basic lined open-hearth. The impurities such as Sulphur and phosphorus
are eliminated at this stage.

It is thus seen that the Duplex process is found out to take advantages of both the processes,
namely, Bessemer process and open-hearth process. This process is economical and it results in
considerable saving of time.

To improve the quality of steel further, the Duplex process may be extended to the Triplex
process. The molten pig-iron, as obtained from basic lined open- hearth, is further treated in
electric furnace to produce steel of high quality.
5) Electric process: In this process, the electricity is used for heating and melting the metal.
The other procedure is same as in case of Bessemer process or open-hearth process.

• An electric furnace may either be rectangular or circular.

• It is made from steel plates. It is lined with basic refractory material.
• It is mounted on rollers so that it can be tilted as required.
• It is provided with electrodes.
• When electric current is switched on, the electric arcs are formed between the electrodes
and the surface of metal and with the intense heat of these arcs, the metal is heated and
melted.
• The capacity of electric furnace is about 100 to 150 kN and it is therefore not suitable for
manufacturing steel on a large scale. It is however used to prepare special steel on a small
scale
This process makes use of two types of electric furnaces:

(a) Arc type

(b) High frequency type.

a) Arc type
• A three phase direct arc type furnace. It consists of a circular steel casting lined inside with
refractory material. The roof is removable and a spare is usually kept for rapid replacement.
The roof is provided with three holes through which pass the electrodes.

• The hearth of an electric furnace may have acid and basic linings depending upon the
process adopted. Basic process is used for making steel ingots and some castings while the
acid process mostly for making steel castings.

• The usual size of this furnace is between 5 to 10 tones, though 50 and 100 tones furnaces
have been produced. This type of furnace is used for making alloy steels such as stainless,
high speed steel etc.

• The advantage of this furnace is that purer product is obtained and composition can be
exactly controlled during refining process. This is the reason that direct arc furnace even
being costlier in initial as well as operating cost is preferred. Though this furnace is
employed for melting and refining but due to higher cost its use is restricted to refining than
melting.
The electric-arc furnace (EAF)

is a squat, cylindrical vessel made of heavy steel plates. It has a dish-shaped refractory hearth
and three vertical electrodes that reach down through a dome-shaped, removable roof (see
figure).
• The shell diameter of a 10-, 100-, and 300-ton EAF is approximately 2.5, 6, and 9 meters. The
shell sits on a hydraulically operated rocker that tilts the furnace forward for tapping and
backward for slag removal.

• The bottom—i.e., the hearth—is lined with tar-bonded magnesite bricks and has on one side
a slightly inclined tap hole and a spout or, as shown in the figure, an oval hearth and a vertical
tap hole.

• With this latter arrangement, a furnace needs be tilted only 10° for tapping, producing a tight
and short tap stream that decreases heat loss and reoxidation of the liquid steel.

• Before charging, the vertical tap hole is closed from the outside by a movable bottom plate
and is filled with refractory sand.
The electric arc furnace operates as a batch melting
process producing batches of molten steel known
"heats". The electric arc furnace operating cycle is
called the tap-to-tap cycle and is made up of the
following operations:

Furnace charging
Melting
Refining
De-slagging
Tapping
Furnace turn-around
Following are the advantages of this process:

(i) The heat is quickly supplied and it is possible to have a wide range of possible
temperatures.

(ii) It presents a neat and clean operation.

(iii) The quantity of slag formed is small.

(iv) The temperature can be properly controlled.

(v) There is absence of ash and smoke.

(b) High Frequency Electric Furnace:

• This type of furnace works on the principle that when a piece of metal is held in a coil of wire
carrying alternating current, eddy currents flow in steel clue to the alternating magnetic field
being produced. Due to these currents steel is heated up.

• When the charge gets melted/ the eddy currents flowing through molten metal agitate or stir
it and mix the constituents thoroughly. Fig. 2.33 shows a high frequency induction furnace
which works up to 10000 cycles/second and is most suitable when the charge is of the same
composition as the casting.
6) L.D. Process:

This process originated in 1953 at Linz steel works in Austria. It combines the high productivity
of the acid Bessemer process and the superior quality of the basic open hearth steel.

The furnace is a vessel similar to that of the Bessemer converter except that the capacity is
between 30 to 40 tones (double that of Bessemer) and there is no detachable bottom with its
row of tuyere bricks. The vessel has a basic lining.

In this process a jet of pure oxygen (99%) is blown at a pressure of 7.0 to 10.5 bar and at a
speed even greater than the sound to the molten bath of hot metal.

The temperature thus produced is about 2550°C due to which the impurities like carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus and Sulphur etc. are burnt. For a converter of capacity 50 tones, the blow
lasts for about half an hour while the complete operation consumes about one hour.
The various steps involved are:

I. The converter still hot from previous blow is charged with 15% steel scrap and 85% molten
pig iron from the mixer.

II. Oxygen is blown through water cooled nozzle at a pressure of 7 to 10.5 bar and lime added.

III. The blow lasts for about half an hour, the dropping of flame indicates that the molten mass
has been refined.

IV. The separation of low carbon steel is effected by pouring out steel into a ladle and the
liquid slag thickened with burnt lime is left mostly in the converter.
LD process is the only process where Sulphur can be effectively reduced

The reasons for this are as follows:

A. Large volume of slag which is highly rich in lime is formed and is kept fluid due to intense
heat. Sulphur is eliminated as gas.

B. The residual manganese in bath is higher and MnS gets oxidized giving out SO2 gas.

Following are the disadvantages of this process:

(i) An oxygen plant to prepare oxygen is required.

(ii) It cannot treat pig-iron of all grades and varieties.

(iii) It is not possible to control temperature precisely.

7. Open-Hearth Process:

This is also sometimes referred to as the Siemens- Martin process as Siemens of Germany first
invented this process by about the year 1862 and Martin made some improvements in the
process. The open-hearth process may either be acidic or basic as in case of Bessemer process.
The basic open-hearth process is more commonly adopted

This process is carried out in open-hearth furnace as shown in fig. 11-2. This furnace resembles
the reverberatory furnace which is used in the manufacturing process of wrought-iron.
The working of furnace is as follows:

(i) The hearth is filled with molten pig-iron from cupola furnace or sometimes even directly
from the blast furnace.

(ii) A mixture of pre-heated air and coal gas is allowed to pass over the hearth. This mixture
catches fire and because of the peculiar shape of the roof, it attacks the molten metal. This
produces intense heat and impurities of metal are oxidized.

(iii) When impurities of metal are removed to the desired extent, suitable material such as
ferro-manganese, spiege-leisen, etc. is added to make steel of required quality.

(iv) The molten metal is then poured into molds for forming ingots. These are then further
treated to form steel of commercial pattern.
This process is extensively used in the manufacturing process of steel as it possesses the following advantages:

(i) The basic slag obtained from the open-hearth process contains phosphorus. This slag in powder form can
therefore be used as good fertilizer.

(ii) The great economy can be achieved by providing regenerative chambers on either side of the hearth as
shown in fig. 11-2. These chambers make use of the waste heat of hot gases of combustion. The hot gases are
allowed to pass through brick gratings of regenerative chamber before they escape through chimney.

The directions of entering and leaving for air and gas are reversed at regular short intervals. The heated brick
gratings pass on heat preserved by them to the entering air and gas.

(iii) The operations involved in the process are simple.

(iv) This process makes it possible to utilize a high percentage of scrap and this scrap is converted into new
useful steel by this process.

(v) The time required to remove the impurities is short.

(vi) The steel manufactured by this process is homogeneous in character.

Uses of Steel:

Depending upon the carbon content, the steel is designated as the mild steel or medium carbon
steel or high carbon steel. The various uses of steel are governed by the amount of carbon
contained in it.

The carbon content of mild steel is about 0.10 to 0.25 per cent. When carbon content is less
than 0.10 per cent, it is known as the dead steel or very low carbon steel.

The carbon content of medium carbon steel is about 0.25 to 0.60 per cent.

The high carbon steel is also known as the hard steel and its carbon content varies from 0.60 to
1.10 per cent or so.
It is observed that the steel is required for the existence of the heavy and light engineering
industries,
for ship building, railways and rolling stock, automobiles, sheet metal industries, power
generation and electrical industries, etc.
It should also be noted that the entire range of electrical engineering industry depends upon
the property of magnetism of steel.
 Steel frame in building
pipeline

Stainless steel
cookware
balustrade
 ships
machinery

Medical equipment Hammer Commercial kitchen sinks

Factors Affecting Physical Properties of Steel:
The physical properties of steel such as ductility, elasticity, strength, etc. are greatly influenced
by the following three factors:

(1) Carbon Content: The variation in carbon percentage produces steel of different grades. The
carbon always assists in increasing the hardness and strength of steel. But at the same time,
it decreases the ductility of steel. The mild steel having carbon content of about 0.10 to 0.25
per cent is widely used for structural work.

(2) Presence of Impurities: The usual impurities in steel are silicon, Sulphur, phosphorus and
manganese.

If silicon content is less than 0.20 per cent, it has no appreciable effect on the physical
properties of steel. If silicon content is raised to about 0.30 to 0.40 per cent, the elasticity and
strength of steel are considerably increased without serious reduction in its ductility.
If Sulphur content is between 0.02 to 0.10 per cent, it has no appreciable effect on the ductility
or strength of steel. It however decreases malleability and weldability of hot metal. The excess
of Sulphur decreases strength and ductility of steel.

The phosphorus produces detrimental effects on steel. It is desirable to keep its content below
0.12%. It reduces shock resistance, ductility and strength of steel.

The manganese helps to improve the strength of mild steel. Its desirable content is between
0.30 to 1.00 per cent. When its content exceeds about 1.50 per cent or so, the steel becomes
very brittle and hence it loses its structural value.

(3) Heat Treatment Processes

Magnetic Properties of Steel:

The steel is also widely used in electrical machinery, generators, transformers, etc. For making
steel suitable for such use, its magnetic properties are given supreme importance and these
properties are obtained by carefully adjusting its chemical composition.
Following are the proportions of various elements in steel for making it to achieve better
magnetic properties:

(1) Carbon – It is desirable to keep carbon content as low as possible and it should not exceed
0.10 per cent.

(2) Silicon – The presence of silicon results in considerable increase of electrical losses and
hence it is highly undesirable.

(3) Sulphur and phosphorus – If combined content of Sulphur and phosphorus exceeds about
0.30 per cent, the magnetic properties of steel are greatly affected.

(4) Manganese – If content of manganese exceeds about 0.30 per cent, it proves to be injurious
to the magnetic properties of steel.
Defects in Steel:
Following are the four common defects in steel:
(1) Cavities or Blow-Holes: These are formed when gas is confined or imprisoned in the molten
mass of metal. Such confined gas produces bubbles or blow-holes on solidification of metal.

(2) Cold Shortness: The steel, having this defect, cracks when being
worked in cold state. This defect is due to the presence of excess
amount of phosphorus.
(3) Red Shortness: The steel, having this defect, cracks when being worked in hot state. This
defect is due to the presence of excess amount of Sulphur.

(4) Segregation: Some constituents of steel solidify at an early stage and they separate out from
the main mass. This is known as the segregation and it is prominent on the top surface of the
ingots or castings.
Market Forms of Steel
Market Forms of Steel
(1) Angle Sections: The angle sections may be of equal legs or unequal legs as shown in fig. 11-
3 and fig. 11-4 respectively. The equal angle sections are available in sizes varying from 20
mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 200 mm x 200 mm x 25 mm. The corresponding weights per meter
length are respectively 9 N and 736 N.

The unequal angle sections are available in sizes varying from 30 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 200
mm x 150 mm x 18 mm. The corresponding weights per meter length are respectively 11 N and
469 N. Fig 11-3 shows an equal angle section of size 100 mm x 100 mm x 10 mm with weight
per meter length as 149 N. Fig. 11-4 shows an unequal angle section of size 90 mm x 60 mm x
10 mm with weight per meter length as 110 N.
(2) Channel Sections: The channel sections consist of a web with two equal flanges as shown in
fig. 11-5. A channel section is designated by the height of web and width of flange. These
sections are available in sizes varying from 100 mm x 45 mm to 400 mm x 100 mm. The
corresponding weights per meter length are respectively 58 N and 494 N. Fig. 11-5 shows a
channel section of size 300 mm x 100 mm with weight per meter length as 331 N.
(3) Corrugated Sheets: These are formed by passing steel sheets through grooves. These grooves
bend and press steel sheets and corrugations are formed on the sheets. These corrugated sheets
are usually galvanized and they are referred to as the galvanized iron sheets or G.I. sheets. These
sheets are widely used for roof covering.
(4) Expanded Metal: This form of steel is available in different shapes and sizes. Fig. 11-6
shows a plain expanded metal. It is prepared from sheets of mild steel which are machine cut
and drawn out or expanded. A diamond mesh appearance is thus formed throughout the
whole area of the sheet.

The expanded metal is widely used for reinforcing concrete in foundations, roads, floors,
bridges, etc. It is also used as lathing material and for partitions.
(5) T-Sections: The shape of this section is like that of letter T and it consists of flange and web
as shown in fig. 11-8. It is designated by overall dimensions and thickness. These sections are
available in sizes varying from 20 mm X 20 mm x 3 mm to 150 mm x 150 mm x 10 mm. The
corresponding weights per meter length are 9 N and 228 N respectively.

Fig. 11-8 shows T-section of size 100 mm X 100 mm x 10 mm with weight per meter length as
150 N. The special T-sections with unequal sides, bulbs at the bottom edge of web, etc. are
also available. These sections are widely used as members of the steel roof trusses and to form
built-up sections.
(6) I-Sections: These are popularly known as the rolled steel joists or beams. It consists of two
flanges connected by a web as shown in fig. 11-7. It is designated by overall depth, width of
flange and weight per meter length. They are available in various sizes varying from 75 mm x
50 mm at 61 N to 600 mm x 210 mm at 995 N.
(7) Plates: The plate sections of steel are available in different sizes with thickness varying from
5 mm to 50 mm. The corresponding weights per square meter are 392 N and 3925 N
respectively.

They are used mainly for the following purposes in the structural steelwork:

(i) To connect steel beams for extension of the length;

(ii) To serve as tension members of steel roof truss; and

(iii) To form built-up sections of steel.

(8) Ribbed (HYSD) Bars: These bars are produced from the ribbed which is a deformed high
strength steel. These bars have ribs or projections on their surface and they are produced by
controlled cold twisting of hot-rolled bars. Each bar is to be twisted individually and it is tested to
confirm the standard requirements. These bars are also called High Yield Strength Deformed
(HYSD) bars.
The ribbed (HYSD) bars are available in sizes varying from 6 mm to 50 mm diameter, with the
corresponding weights per meter length as 2.22 N and 154.10 N.

These bars are widely used as reinforcement in concrete structures such as buildings, bridges,
docks and harbor structures, roads, irrigation works, pile foundations, pre-cast concrete works,
etc.

Following are the advantages of the ribbed (HYSD) bars:

(i) It is possible to bend these bars through 180° without formation of any cracks or fractures on
their outside surface.

(ii) It is possible to weld certain type of ribbed HYSD bars by electric flash butt welding or arc
welding.
(iii) There is overall reduction in reinforcement cost to the extent of about 30 to 40 per cent
when these bars are used.

(iv) These bars are easily identified as they have got peculiar shape.

(v) These bars possess better structural properties than ordinary plain round bars. It is therefore
possible to design with higher stresses.

(vi) These bars possess excellent bonding properties and hence the end hooks are not required.

(vii) They can be used for all major types of reinforced concrete structures.

(viii) They serve as efficient and economical concrete reinforcement.

(ix) When these bars are used, the processes of bending, fixing and handling are simplified to a
great extent. It results into less labor charges.
(9) Round Bars: These are available in circular cross-sections with diameters varying from 5 mm
to 250 mm. They are widely used as reinforcement in concrete structures, construction of steel
grillwork, etc. The commonly used cross-sections have diameters varying from 5 mm to 25 mm
with the corresponding weights per meter length as 1.50 N and 38 N respectively.

(10) Square Bars: These are available in square cross-section with sides varying from 5 mm to
250 mm. They are widely used in the construction of steel
grillwork, for windows, gates, etc. The commonly use a
cross-sections have sides varying from 5
(11) Flat Bars: These are available in suitable widths varying from 10 mm to 400 mm with
thickness varying from 3 mm to 40 mm. They are widely used in the construction of steel
grillwork for windows and gates.

(12) Ribbed Mild Steel Bars: These are the hot rolled mild steel bars but during rolling steel
rods, ribs are produced on them. These ribs increase the bond strength of the bars. Such ribbed
mild steel bars are not recommended in the code, but are available in the market. They look
like high strength ribbed bars, but the allowable stresses in these ribbed mild steel bars are
much lower than HYSD bars. These bars should not be used in R.C.C. work.
(13) Thermo-Mechanically Treated Bars (TMT Bars): Sudden quenching of red hot steel bars by
a spray of water can produce steel bars with high strength at the surface with a core of mild
steel. As the core of the wire is still hot, the heat inside helps in tempering the surface. The
result is a structure with tempered martensite on the periphery and a fine grained ferrite-
pearlite at the center.

The combined strength of these materials raises the yield point of steel with the high
percentage of elongation at ultimate failure. TMT bars are also rolled with ribs to increase the
bond strength.

They are more corrosion resistance than cold twisted bars.

(14) Cold Twisted Deformed Bars (CTD Bars): These were the first high strength steel bars
introduced in India around I960. These bars are first hot rolled out of high grade mild steel,
with three or more parallel straight ribs and other indentations on it. After cooling, they are
twisted by a separate operation so that the steel is strained beyond the elastic limit and then
released.

This operation raises the yield point of steel for subsequent tensile or compressive stresses.
Thus, its strength is increased. Normally welding is not done in this type of steel as the
strength of the steel is increased due to cold working.

CTD bars can be easily identified in the field

(15) Welded Wire Fabrics (WWF): Welded wire fabric is fabricated from a series of wires
arranged at right angles to each other and electrically welded at all intersections. It is made
from medium tensile steel drawn out from higher diameter mild steel bars. It is much stronger
than mild steel and are available in different width rolls.

Welded Wire Fabric (WWF) has various uses in reinforced concrete construction. It is mostly
used for floor slabs on well-compacted ground. Heavier fabric, supplied mainly in flat sheets, is
often used in walls and for the primary reinforcement in structural floor slabs. It is also used in
road and runway pavements, box culverts and small canal linings.
APPLICATION FOR ROUND
AND FLAT STEEL BARS
Mechanical Treatment of Steel:
The purpose of giving mechanical treatment to the steel is to give desired shape to the ingots so
as to make steel available in market forms. The mechanical treatment of steel may be hot
working or cold working. The hot working is very common.

(1) Drawing: This operation is carried out to reduce the cross-section and to increase the
length proportionately. In this operation, the metal is drawn through dies or specially
shaped tools. The drawing is continued till wire of required diameter or cross-section is
obtained. This process is used to prepare wires and rods.

(2) Forging: This operation is carried out by repeated blows under a power hammer or a
press. The metal is heated above the critical temperature range. It is then placed on anvil
and subjected to blows of a hammer.

This process increases the density and improves grain size of metal. The riveting belongs
to forging operations. The process is used for the manufacture of bolts, cramps, etc.
The steel may be either forged free or die-forged. In the former case, the steel is free to spread
in all directions as it is hammered. In the latter case, the steel flows under the blows of a
hammer to fill the inside of a die and the excess material are forced out through a special
groove and then it is cut off. The die- forged parts have very accurate dimensions.

(3) Pressing: This is a slow process and it is carried out in equipment known as the press. The
main advantage of this process is that it does not involve any shock.

A press consists mainly of a die and a punch. The die and punch are suitably shaped to get
article of desired shape. The metal is placed on the die and punch is then lowered under a very
heavy pressure.

The metal is thus pressed between die and punch and article of desired shape is obtained. For
preparing articles with wide changes of shape, the pressing is to be carried out in different
stages.

This process is useful when a large number of similar engineering articles are to be produced.
(4) Rolling: This operation is carried out in specially prepared rolling mills. The ingots, while
still red hot, are passed in succession through different rollers until articles of desired shape
are obtained. The various shapes such as angles, channels, flats, joists, rails, etc. are obtained
by the process of rolling.

It is possible to prepare joint-less pipe with the help of this process. The solid rod is bored by
rollers in stages until the pipe of required diameter and thickness is obtained.
Heat Treatment of Steel
It is possible to alter the properties of steel by heating and cooling steel under controlled
conditions. The term heat treatment is used to indicate the process in which the heating and
cooling of solid steel is involved to change the structural or physical properties of steel.
 Following are the purposes of heat treatment:

(i) To alter the magnetic and electrical properties of steel,

(ii) To change the structure of steel,

(iii) To increase the resistance to heat and corrosion,

(iv) To increase the surface hardness,

(v) To make the steel easily workable, and

(vi) To vary the strength and hardness.

It may be noted that the heat treated steels amount hardly to about 5 per cent of the total steel
production. However the heat treatment is indispensable for tools and dies and a variety of
special purpose of steels which are essential for the existence of the modern industry.
The heat treatment processes in general depend on the following factors:

(i) Equipment for controlling the temperature;

(ii) Furnaces employed;

(iii) Heating medium;

(iv) Methods employed in heating and cooling a given variety of steel;

(v) Quenching mediums;

(vi) Rate of heating and cooling;

(vii) Variety or specification of steel; etc.

The heat treatment is generally an expensive proposition. But if it can be planned on a large
scale, its cost can be justified.
 The principal processes involved in heat treatment of steel are as follows:
1. Annealing: The main object of this process is to make the steel soft so that it can be easily
worked upon with a machine. The annealing reduces the tensile strength. But it increases
ductility and brings back the steel to the best physical state to resist fracture under sudden
stresses.

The high carbon and high speed steels must necessarily be annealed before hardening to
improve the toughness.
The annealing also causes the following effects:

(i) Altering the microstructure in such a way as to make it suitable for hardening.

(ii) Improving the machinability and mechanical properties.

(iii) Relieving the internal stresses.

(iv) Removing or minimizing the segregation of the essential constituents of steel.

(v) Restoring ductility, particularly after the steel has been subjected to the cold working.

Following is the procedure for annealing:

(i) The steel to be annealed is heated to the desired temperature. The temperature depends
upon the carbon content of steel and it is about 50°C to 55°C above the critical temperature.
Table 11-2 shows the temperature to be kept during annealing for steels with different carbon
contents.
(ii) After the desired temperature is achieved, the steel is held at the annealing heat till it is
thoroughly heated. The time for which annealing temperature is to be maintained will depend
on type of furnace, nature of work, etc. In general, it may be mentioned that this time should
be just sufficient for making the carbon dissolved into and diffused through the material,

(iii) The steel is then allowed to cool slowly in the furnace in which it was heated.
2. Case Hardening: In this treatment, the core of specimen remains tough and ductile and at the
same time, the surface becomes hard. Such a result is achieved by increasing the carbon
content at the surface. It is also known as a process of chemical heat treatment in which the
saturation of the surface having low carbon steel is carried out by diffusion of carbon from the
surrounding medium at a high temperature.

The case hardening is important for the components like gears, bearing surfaces, etc., which
require faces to be tough, shock resistant and capable of carrying high stresses. The steel used
for this purpose is generally of low carbon content and does not respond appreciably to the
heat treatment.
Following is the procedure of case hardening:
The article to be carburized is held in the carburizing mixture for a definite time and at definite
temperature. The time and temperature will depend upon the depth of case required and
composition of steel. The usual period is 6 to 8 hours and the usual temperature range is 900°C
to 950°C.

After carburizing, the article is treated in one of the following ways:

(a) It is quenched directly from the box at the carburizing temperature.

(b) It is cooled slowly in the carburizing box and then it is reheated and quenched.

(c) It is cooled slowly in the carburizing box and then it is reheated twice and also quenched
twice.
(i) Depth of Case Hardening:
Following/actors affect the depth of case hardening:

(a) Period of treatment,

(b) Quality and nature of carburizing mixture, and

(c) Temperature of furnace.

It is observed that at higher temperature of furnace, the depth of case hardening is

more. Further, if period of treatment is about 4 to 6 hours, the depth of case hardening
is about 0.50 mm to 1 mm and if period of treatment is increased to about 18 hours or
so, the depth may be about 3 mm or so.
(ii) Carburizing Mixtures:
Following are the carburizing mixtures which are commonly used in the process of case
hardening:

(a) Animal charcoal,

(b) Bone and horn parings,

(c) Cyanides,

(d) Finely cut leather pieces, and

(e) Wood charcoal and soda ash, proportion being 95% and 5% respectively.

The last one is more commonly used. The animal charcoal is also sometimes preferred as
nitrogen contained in it helps the carbon to unite more rapidly with iron.
(iii) Precautions in Case Hardening:

Following precautions are to be taken in the process of case hardening:

(a) If articles are of alloy steels, they should be quenched in oil.

(b) The quenching should preferably be carried out in water. But for articles with unequal or
uneven shapes or thickness, the oil quenching should be adopted.

(c) The article should be placed in such a way that it can expand freely in all directions.

(d) The article to be treated should be clean and free from dirt, grease, oil, rust, etc.

(e) The box in which the process is to be carried out should be cemented with fire-clay. It
should be seen that the air is thoroughly excluded from the box.

(f) The thickness of carburizing layer should be at least 25 mm all-round the article.
3. Cementing:
In this process or technique, the skin of the steel is saturated with carbon. The process consists
in heating of the steel in a carbon rich medium between the temperature of 880°C to 950°C.

4. Cyaniding:
This process is used to produce hard cases on the surfaces of low or medium carbon steels. It
consists in adding carbon and nitrogen to the surface layer of the steel so as to increase its
hardness, wear resistance and fatigue limit. The steel is heated in a molten cyanide salt bath
maintained at a temperature of 950°C and it is then followed by water or oil quenching.

The commonly used molten salts in this process are sodium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium
cyanide, soda ash and barium chloride. The composition of salt bath will vary according to the
temperature of the salt, thickness of the case to be obtained, type of steel to be treated and
period of operation. The process grants the case thickness of about 0.075 mm to 1 mm.

The carbon monoxide is formed by the decomposition of sodium cyanate. It evolves atomic
carbon which is diffused in the steel. At the same time, the nitrogen is also dissociated from
sodium cyanate and it is introduced in the steel.
Following are the advantages of cyaniding:

(i) It helps in retaining the bright finish of parts.

(ii) It is most suitable for parts subjected to high loads.

(iii) The cracks and distortions can be minimized by uniform heating maintained by the salt.

Following are the disadvantages of cyaniding:

(i) The fumes formed are unhealthy and hence it requires careful handling of the process.

(ii) The liquid carburizing can produce better surface hardness.

(iii) There is risk of spiltering of poisonous salts.

5. Hardening: The object of this process is just the reverse of that of the annealing process.
The steel is to be made hard by this process whereas it is made soft by the annealing process.

The process of hardening is just similar to that of annealing except that there is difference in
rate of cooling. In hardening process, the cooling is to be carried out at controlled rate. Such a
controlled rate of cooling is known as the quenching.

Following are the mediums of quenching, the most common quenching mediums being oil and
water:

(i) Air: The hot article is allowed to cool down in still air. A mild quench is obtained by this
medium. The thin sections such as knife blades are effectively hardened by cooling in air.
(ii) Molten Salts:

The molten salts are usually used as medium of quenching for martempering and
austempering. The stepped quenching or hardening by interruption is known as the
martempering. The quenching at constant temperature is known as the austempering or
isothermal quenching.

The lower the temperature of the salt bath, the higher the cooling rate it provides. The
cooling in a salt bath is achieved only by conduction. Hence, the cooling capacity is increased
to a great extent by agitation. The thin film of chlorides covering the article grants protection
to the article from oxidation.

(iii) Oil:
The hot article is dropped in oil to cool down. The quenching in oil is quite slow. But it helps in
preventing the quenching cracks developed due to rapid expansion of the article. It is more
suitable for quenching alloy steels than plain carbon steels. The temperature range for
quenching capacity of oil is limited from 20°C to 150°C.
The disadvantages of oil quenching are as follows:

(a) The cooling rate is comparatively low.

(b) The oil possesses high inflammability.

(c) The tendency of oil is to thicken or become gummy in the course of time. On account of the
danger from cracking, it is usual to air cool smaller sections and oil quench larger sections.

(iv) Water:

This is the most commonly adopted medium for quenching. The hot article is dropped in water
to cool down. It is used for carbon steels and for medium carbon low alloy steels. It tends to
form a pronounced vapor blanket or bubble, which causes high structural stresses and even
quenching cracks.
6. Nitriding:
The process of saturating the surface layer of steel with nitrogen by heating is known as the
nitriding. The heating is carried out between the temperature 480°C to 650°C in an atmosphere
of ammonia. The thickness of nitriding layer may vary from 0.01 mm to 1.00 mm. The
treatment makes the steel hard and increases its resistance to corrosion, wear and fatigue in
such media as the atmosphere, water, steam, etc.

The nitriding produces a hard case without quenching or any further heat treatment.

The atomic nitrogen thus formed diffuses into the iron. The nitriding is usually applied to
medium carbon alloy steels which acquire high wear resistance due to this process.

Following are the advantages of nitriding:

(i) It generally avoids the machining and finishing of the product.

(ii) It helps in obtaining very high surface hardness.

(iii) It is a better process than carburizing.

(iv) It offers good wear resistance.

(v) It proves to be economical for mass production.

(vi) The distortion and cracks are minimum as quenching is eliminated.

(vii) The nitride parts retain hardness up to 500°C.

Following are the disadvantages of nitriding:

(i) It is not economical unless specialized equipment is available.

(ii) It requires long operation time say about 100 hours for a depth of 0.038 mm.

(iii) The limited alloy steels containing only aluminum, chromium, vanadium and molybdenum can form good
nitrides.

(iv) There is oxidation due to prolonged heating time.

7. Normalizing:
The object of this process is to restore steel structure to normal condition and it is adopted
when structure of steel is seriously disturbed for any reason. This process also makes the
material reasonably ductile without seriously affecting its strength.

Following is the procedure of normalizing:

(i) The steel is heated to a point 40°C to 50°C above its upper critical temperature.

(ii) It is maintained at that temperature for a short duration.

(iii) It is then allowed to cool down in still air at room temperature. This is also known as the air
quenching.
With respect to annealing and normalizing, the following points should be noted:

(i) Duration:

The heat treatment process of normalizing is of short duration due to the increased rate of
cooling in air.

(ii) Heating Range:

The normalizing requires a heating range which is about 40°C above that of annealing.

(iii) Mechanical Properties:

The normalizing raises the yield point, ultimate tensile strength and impact strength values of
steel. The normalized steels are harder and stronger but less ductile than annealed steels with
the same composition. In general, the mechanical properties of the normalized steels are
better than the annealed steels.
8. Tempering:
This process is applied to the steels which are treated with the hardening process. The
hardened steel is in a stressed condition and very brittle and cannot be used for practical
purposes.

The steels after hardening must be tempered to achieve the following objects:

(i) To improve the ductility, strength and toughness;

(ii) To increase the hardness and wear resistance;

(iii) To obtain predetermined mechanical properties;

(iv) To reduce the brittleness; and

(v) To relieve the internal stresses caused by hardening.

Following is the procedure adopted for tempering:

(i) The article after being quenched in hardening process is reheated to suitable temperature.
This temperature should be below the critical temperature.

(ii) The temperature is maintained for a certain period. The duration of period depends on
quality of steel required and composition of steels.

(iii) The article is then allowed to cool down in still air.

The tempering procedures are classified in the following three categories in accordance with
the heating conditions:

(i) Low-Temperature Tempering:

The temperature range is 150°C to 200°C and its purpose is to reduce the internal stresses and
to increase toughness without any appreciable loss in hardness.
(ii) Medium-Temperature Tempering:

This method requires the temperature range of 350°C to 400°C. It is used to toughen the steel
at the expense of hardness.

(iii) High-Temperature Tempering:

It is carried out with the temperature range of 500°C to 650°C. It almost completely eliminates
the internal stresses and provides the most favorable ratio of strength to toughness for
structural steels.
4 Types of Steel
According to the American Iron & Steel Institute (AISI), Steel can be categorized into four basic
groups based on the chemical compositions:

a) Carbon Steel
b) Alloy Steel
c) Stainless Steel
d) Tool Steel

There are many different grades of steel that encompass varied properties. These properties can
be physical, chemical and environmental.

All steel is composed of iron and carbon. It is the amount of carbon, and the additional alloys
that determine the properties of each grade.
Carbon Steel
Carbon Steel can be segregated into three main categories: Low carbon steel (sometimes known
as mild steel); Medium carbon steel; and High carbon steel.

Low Carbon Steel (Mild Steel): Typically contain 0.04% to 0.30% carbon content. This is one of
the largest groups of Carbon Steel. It covers a great diversity of shapes; from Flat Sheet to
Structural Beam. Depending on the desired properties needed, other elements are added or
increased

Medium Carbon Steel: Typically has a carbon range of 0.31% to 0.60%, and a manganese content
ranging from .060% to 1.65%. This product is stronger than low carbon steel, and it is more
difficult to form, weld and cut. Medium carbon steels are quite often hardened and tempered
using heat treatment.

High Carbon Steel: Commonly known as “carbon tool steel” it typically has a carbon range
between 0.61% and 1.50%. High carbon steel is very difficult to cut, bend and weld. Once heat
treated it becomes extremely hard and brittle.
Alloy Steel:
Alloy steel is a steel that has had small amounts of one or more alloying elements (other than
carbon) such as such as manganese, silicon, nickel, titanium, copper, chromium and aluminum
added. This produces specific properties that are not found in regular carbon steel. Alloy steels
are workhorses of industry because of their economical cost, wide availability, ease of
processing, and good mechanical properties. Alloy steels are generally more responsive to heat
and mechanical treatments than carbon steels.

The heat-treated type is available in both Annealed and Normalized.

Stainless steel:
Stainless steel is a steel alloy with increased corrosion resistance compared to carbon/alloy
steel. Common alloying ingredients include chromium (usually at least 11%), nickel, or
molybdenum. Alloy content often is on the order of 15-30%.
Common applications include food handling/processing, medical instruments, hardware,
appliances, and structural/architectural uses.

Tool steel:
Tool steel is a term used for a variety of high-hardness, abrasion resistant steels. Specific tool
applications are dies (stamping or extrusion), cutting, mold making, or impact applications like
hammers (personal or industrial). It is also a common material used to make knives.

Tool Steels are extremely hard and are quite often used to form other metal products.
Tool Steel is available in a wide variety of shapes including round bar, flat bar, square bar and
more.
Properties of Mild Steel:
Following are the properties of mild steel:

(i) It can be magnetized permanently.

(ii) It can be readily forged and welded.

(iii) It cannot be easily hardened and tempered.

(iv) It has fibrous structure.

(v) It is malleable and ductile,

(vi) It is not easily attacked by salt water.

(vii) It is tougher and more elastic than wrought-iron.

(viii) It is used for all types of structural work.

(ix) It rusts easily and rapidly.

(x) Its melting point is about 1400°C.

(xi) Its specific gravity is 7.80.

(xii) Its ultimate compressive strength is about 80 to 120 kN per cm2.

(xiii) Its ultimate tensile and shear strengths are about 60 to 80 kN per cm2.
Properties of Hard Steel:
Following are the properties of hard steel:

(i) It can be easily hardened and tempered.

(ii) It can be magnetized permanently.

(iii) It cannot be readily forged and welded.

(iv) It has granular structure.

(v) It is not easily attacked by salt water.

(vi) It is tougher and more elastic than mild steel.

(vii) It is used for finest cutlery, edge tools and for parts which are to be subjected to shocks and
vibrations.
(viii) It rusts easily and rapidly.

(ix) Its melting point is about 1300°C.

(x) Its specific gravity is 7.90.

(xi) Its ultimate compressive strength is about 140 to 200 kN per cm2.

(xii) Its ultimate shear strength is about 110 kN per cm2.

(xiii) Its ultimate tensile strength is about 80 to 110 kN per cm2.

Steel construction