Chemistry Revision Notes

Unit 1: States of Matter

L1: States of Matter
Changes of state: When particles lose (or gain) energy and
change characteristics
Kinetic particle theory:
• All substances are made up of particles
• The particles are attracted to each other (some strongly
and some weakly)
• The particles move around (meaning they have kinetic
energy)
• The kinetic energy of the particles increases with
temperature
• A substance can be a solid, liquid or a gas and can
change state from one to the other
• Each state has different characteristics based on the way
its particles are arranged
• An increase in pressure causes a decrease in gas volume
• An increase in temperature causes an increase in
pressure of the gas but also an increase in volume

L2: Diffusion
Brownian Motion: The random movement of particles as
they bump into each other
Diffusion: The movement of particles from and area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration

Rate of diffusion depends on 2 factors:

• The mass of the particles: the lower the mass, the faster
the rate of diffusion
• The temperature: the higher the temperature, the faster
the rate of diffusion

The difference between boiling and evaporation:

• Boiling is when all liquid particles become gas particles
at the boiling point
• Evaporation is when the particles on the surface only
become a gas and can happen at any temperature

Additional information for this unit

Spec link: 1.1-1.2
Textbook link: 1.1-1.5 (pages 2-13)
Unit 2: Atoms, Elements and Compounds
L1: Atomic structure
Elements: Each element is made up of one type of atom
which is different to the atoms of every other element
Structure of an atom:

Mass and electrical charge:

Atomic mass: Atomic number is the

protons + neutrons number of protons rather
than the number of
electrons because atoms
can lose or gain
electrons but do not
Atomic number:
usually lose or gain
protons
protons.
L2: Electronic con guration and isotopes
Shells: The outer layers of the atom where the electrons are
Electronic arrangement: How electrons are arranged in
their shells
Isotopes: Different atoms of the same element with the same
number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
• Isotopes of the same element have the same chemical
properties as they have the same electronic con guration

Relative atomic mass of an element (Ar)= (% of isotope 1

x mass number of isotope 1) + (% of isotope 2 x mass
number of isotope 2)/100
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L3: Ions and ionic bonding
• An atom that loses electrons has a positive charge and is
called an cation
• An atom that gains electrons has a negative charge and is
called an anion
• Ionic bonding takes place between metals and nonmetals
Ionic bond: A strong electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions
Giant lattice structure of ionic compounds: A regular
arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions
L4: Simple molecules and covalent bonds
Covalent bond: When a pair of electrons is shared between
two atoms leading to noble gas electronic con gurations
• Covalent bonds occur between nonmetals

• Covalent molecules containing just a few atoms are called

simple covalent structures
• They tend to have low melting and boiling points
• This is because the forces within the molecules are strong
but the forces between the molecules (intermolecular
forces) are weak
• Covalent substances do not conduct electricity, are
usually soft and brittle and tend to be insoluble in water
• Ionic substances do not conduct electricity as solids, but
they do conduct electricity when molten or aqueous
(dissolved)
• Ionic substances also tend to have high melting and
boiling points
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L5: Giant covalent structures and metallic bonding
• Giant covalent structures have very high melting and
boiling points and are usually hard
• Different forms of the same element are called allotropes
• Examples of allotropes are diamond and carbon; diamond
is an extremely hard material used in cutting tools as one
carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms while
graphite is soft and used as a lubricant since one carbon
atom is bonded to only three other carbon atoms
• Silicon (IV) oxide is similar to diamond in that one silicon
atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms
• This means they have similar properties
Metallic bonding: The electrostatic attraction between the
positive ions in a giant metallic lattice and a sea of
delocalised electrons

• The outer electrons separate from their atom and become

delocalised, creating a sea of electrons’. The atoms
become positive ions and are attracted to these electrons.
• This attraction is called metallic bonding and is the reason
positive metal ions do not repel each other.
• Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity and
have high melting and boiling points.
• They are also malleable (can be bent and pressed into
shape) and ductile (can be drawn out into wires).

Additional information for this unit

Key formulas:
Relative atomic mass of an element (Ar)= (% of isotope 1
x mass number of isotope 1) + (% of isotope 2 x mass
number of isotope 2)/100
Spec link: 2.1-2.7
Textbook link: 2.1-3.9 (pages 14-45)
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Unit 3: The Periodic Table
L1: Arrangement of elements
Periodic table: An arrangement of elements in periods and
groups in order of increasing proton number
• A property is a characteristic feature of any substance
• The chemical properties of an element are determined by
its atomic number
• Reactivity in metals increases down the group and from
right to left
• Reactivity in nonmetals and semi-metals increases up the
group and from left to right (not including Group 0)
• As you travel right across a period the elements become
more non-metallic
L2: Group1 Alkali Metals
Properties of alkali metals:
• They are soft and can be cut by a knife- softness increases
down the group
• They have low density- lithium, sodium and potassium
float on water
• Density increases down the group
• They have low melting and boiling points, which
decrease down the group
• They are good conductors of heat and electricity
• They are shiny- this is only seen when they are freshly cut
Reactivity in alkali metals:
• The further you go down the group, the more reactive the
alkali metals become
• The outer electron gets further from the nucleus as you go
down the group, reducing the force of attraction
• The inner shells shield’ the outermost electron from the
attraction of the nucleus

Alkali metal + water —> metal hydroxide + hydrogen

• All alkali metals react with air to form metal oxides. This
produces a layer of black oxide called tarnish.
• Lithium is used in batteries, alloys, medical treatment and
submarine and space vehicles
• Sodium is used in street lights and nuclear reactors
• Potassium is used in fertilizers, reworks, explosives and
food preservation
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L3: Group 7 Halogens
Properties of halogens:
• Halogens are very reactive nonmetals
• They are found as compounds in metals
• They can easily obtain a full outer shell by gaining one
electron
• They form negative ions with a -1 charge
• They are also found as diatomic molecules
• Going down the group, the melting point, boiling point,
size and density increase and reactivity decreases
• They do not conduct electricity
• They are brittle and crumbly when solid
• They are poisonous and smelly
• When halogens and metals react, they form ionic
compounds called metal halides (a type of salt)
• Chlorine is a pale yellow-green gas at r.t.p. and very pale
green (usually appears colourless) in an aqueous solution
• Bromine is a red-brown liquid at r.t.p. and orange in an
aqueous solution (although it turns yellow when diluted)
• Iodine is a grey-black solid at r.t.p. and brown in solution
Reactivity in halogens:
• The further the outer shell is from the positive attraction of
the nucleus, the harder it is to attract another electron to
complete the outer shell
• This is why the reactivity of the halogens decreases going
down group 7
• A more reactive halogen will always displace a less
reactive halide from its compound in a solution
Fluorine + sodium chloride —> sodium fluoride + chlorine
F2 + 2NaCl —> 2NaF + Cl2

• Fluorine is used in toothpaste and fluorine polymers

• Chlorine is used as water treatment, in bleach, pesticide,
weed killer, antiseptics and disinfectant
• Bromine is used in photography, medicines and
agriculture while iodine is used in animal feed
supplements and antiseptics.
L4: Transition metals and noble gases
• Transition metals have variable valency
• They are less reactive than alkali metals
• When metals react with oxygen and water, it is called
corrosion
• Thermal decomposition: The breaking down of transition
metals into simpler substances by heating them
Iron (II) carbonate —> iron oxide + carbon dioxide
FeCO3 —> FeO + CO2
• Many transition metals and their compounds are used as
catalysts

Chemical differences with alkali metals:

• Used as catalysts
• Variable oxidation numbers like iron (II) and iron (III)
• Forms coloured compounds
• Less reactive
Physical differences with alkali metals:
• Higher density
• Higher melting and boiling points
• Alkali metals are soft

• Noble gases are unreactive as they have full outer shells

• As a result, they are monoatomic unlike most gases which
are diatomic
• They are colourless and odourless
• The density and boiling point of noble gases increases
down the group
• Helium is used for inflating balloons and is a component
of breathing gas underwater
• Neon is used in neon signs, TV tubes and certain lasers
• Argon is used in light bulbs

Additional information for this unit

Spec link: 8.1-8.5
Textbook link: 12.1-12.5 (pages 146-159)
Unit 4: Stoichiometry
L1: The Mole and the Avogadro Constant
Mole: The number of atoms in exactly 12g of Carbon-12
Avogadro constant: A mole- 6.02 x 10^23 particles

A mole (in grams) of a substance is equal to its relative

atomic mass.

Number of moles = mass/molar mass

(mol) (g) (g/mol)

Number of moles x Avogadro’s constant = Total number

of particles

Relative atomic mass (Ar): The average mass of the isotopes

of an element compared to 1/12 of the mass of a12C atom
Relative molecular mass (Mr): The sum of relative atomic
masses
 L2: Molarity and Molar volume
1 mole of every gas occupies 24 dm^3 at room temperature
and pressure (RTP).

Number of moles= volume given/24 dm^3

24 dm^3= 24000cm^3

Molar concentration (or molarity) is the amount of moles per

dm^3

Concentration = moles/volume
(mol/dm^3) (mol) (dm^3)

1 dm^3=1000cm^3
1cm^3=1ml
1dm^3=1L
L3: Molar ratios
2KOH + H2SO4 ——> K2SO4 + 2H2O
2 moles of 1 mole of to form 1 mole of 2 moles of
potassium sulphuric potassium water
hydroxide acid sulfate

Ignore the numbers (like the 4 in 4Na) when calculating

Ar and Mr; these are only for the ratio.

N2 + 3H2 ——> 2NH3

Q) How many moles of NH3 are produced when 0.6 moles of
nitrogen react with hydrogen?
A) The ratio of nitrogen : ammonia (N2 : NH3) is 1:2, meaning
1 mole of nitrogen forms 2 moles of ammonia. Therefore,
0.6 moles of nitrogen forms 1.2 moles of ammonia.

1)Work out the moles of H2SO4. Remember to always convert

to moles if given a question like this. How we do this:
- Convert the 35ml to dm^3. 35ml=35cm^3, which means it
should be equal to 0.035dm^3.
- Rearrange the molarity formula to form moles =
concentration x volume and substitute in the values.
- You should get 0.125 x 0.035=0.004375 moles H2SO4.
2) Now we have the moles of H2SO4, we can use molar ratios
to work out the moles of NaOH. The molar ratio is 1:2, so we
get 0.00875 moles NaOH.
3) We now rearrange the formula again to form volume=
moles/concentration and substitute. We should get
0.00875/0.102=0.08578dm^3.
4) However, as you can see the answer is in dm^3. As the
question is asking for ml (aka cm^3) we multiply our answer
by 1000 to get 85.78ml.
Important! Your answers for questions like these may be
slightly different due to rounding, which is perfectly ne.
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L4: Limiting reactant
The reactant that is used up rst is the limiting reactant. The
other one is not completely consumed and is said to be in
excess. If you are given the values for both reactants you
must calculate the limiting reactant.

2Na + Cl2 ——> 2NaCl

How much NaCl is produced and what is left over when 6.70
mol Na reacts with 3.20 mol Cl2?
Use molar ratios to calculate the limiting reactant. One way
to do this is by multiplying Cl2 by 2. This gives us 6.40 mol,
showing that Cl2 is the limiting reactant and will only react
with 6.40 mol of Na. This also shows 6.40 mol NaCl will be
produced, meaning 0.30 mol will be left over.

N2 + 3H2 ——> 2NH3

How many grams of NH3 can be made from 3.5g H2 and 18g
N2? What’s left over?
1) Work out the moles of H2 and N2 using the formula
moles=mass/molar mass. You should get 1.75 mol H2 and
0.64 mol N2.
2) To work out which reactant is the limiting reactant, let us
use molar ratios and divide 1.75 mol by 3, giving us 0.58
mol N2. If we multiply that by 28, we get 16.24g N2. We have
18g of N2, proving that N2 is in excess and H2 is the limiting
reactant. We can also work out the leftover N2 by doing
18-16.24= 1.76g
3) We can now use molar ratios to work out the moles of NH3
we need. By multiplying 0.58 by 2, we get 1.16 moles NH3.
4) We can use mass= moles x molar mass to work out the
mass of NH3 produced. You should get 1.16 x 17= 19.72g NH3

New key formula:

Mass concentration= mole concentration x molar mass
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L5: Calculating percentage yield and purity
Percentage yield:
Theoretical yield: The maximum amount of product
calculated using the balanced equation
Actual yield: The amount of product obtained when the
reaction takes place
Percentage yield: The ratio of actual yield to theoretical
yield
Percentage yield = (actual yield/theoretical yield) x100

2C + O2 ——> 2CO
What is the percentage yield of CO when 30g O2 is used?
The actual yield is 40g CO.
1) First calculate moles of O2 using the formula moles=mass/
molar mass. This should give you 30/32=0.9375 moles.
2) Use molar ratios to work out the moles of CO. The ratio of
O2:CO is 1:2, so you should get 1.875 moles CO.
3) Calculate the mass of CO by rearranging the formula to
get mass=moles x molar mass. You should get 1.875 x 28=
52.5g.
4) Calculate the percentage yield with the formula (actual
yield/theoretical yield) x 100. This should give you
(40/52.5) x 100= 76.19%.

Percentage purity:
Percentage purity= (mass of pure reactant/mass of
impure reactant) x 100

C9H8O4 + NaOH ——> C9H7O4Na + H2O

4g C9H8O4 was neutralised by 17.5cm^3 of 1M NaOH. How
pure was the aspirin sample?
1) Calculate moles of NaOH using moles= concentration x
volume. You should get 0.0175 moles NaOH.
2) Use molar ratios to nd the moles of C9H8O4 =0.0175.
3) Work out the mass of pure aspirin using mass= moles x
molar mass. You should get 0.0175 x 180= 3.15g.
4) Use the formula (mass of pure reactant/mass of impure
reactant) x 100. You should get (3.15/4) x 100= 78.75%.
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L6: Empirical and Molecular formula
Molecular formula: The number and type of different atoms
in one molecule
Empirical formula: The simplest whole number ratio of the
different atoms or ions in a compound

Compound X is 39.9% C, 6.7% H and 53.4% O. What is its

empirical formula?
1) Always assume there is 100g of the substance if given
percentages. Then calculate the moles of each using
moles=mass/molar mass. You should get 39.9/12=3.325 mol
C, 6.7/1=6.7 mol H and 53.4/16=3.3375 mol O.
2) If you line them up side by side, you will see the 3.325
mol C is the smallest value. Divide all the values by that and
you will get C=1, H=2.02 and O=1.00.
3) Round up all these values and you get CH2O.

Molecular mass/empirical mass = multiplier

What is the molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide given

that its empirical formula is HO and its Mr=34?
1) Work out the molar mass of HO: 1+16=17
2) Use the formula molecular mass/empirical mass =
multiplier. This should give you 34/17=2.
3) Multiply HO by 2 to get H2O2.

Additional information for this unit

Key formulas:
Number of moles = mass/molar mass
Number of moles x Avogadro’s constant = Total number of particles
Number of moles= volume given/24 dm^3
Concentration = moles/volume
Mass concentration= mole concentration x molar mass
Percentage yield = (actual yield/theoretical yield) x100
Percentage purity= (mass of pure reactant/mass of impure reactant) x
100
Molecular mass/empirical mass = multiplier
Spec link: 3.1-3.3
Textbook link: 4.1-5.7 (pages 46-71)
Unit 5: Acids, bases and salts
L1: Acids and bases
Indicator: An indicator is a chemical that turns a different
colour depending on whether it is added to an acid or an
alkali

• Acids can be de ned as substances that release H+ ions

when dissolved in water (proton donor)
• When hydrogen chloride dissolves in water, it releases
H+ and Cl- ions:
• HCl ——> H+ + Cl-
• When ethanoic acid dissolves in water, it releases H+ and
CH3COO- ions:
• CH3COOH <——> H+ + CH3COO-

• Bases are substances that react with acids

• They absorb H+ ions and are therefore known as proton
acceptors
• The oxides and hydroxides of metals are bases
• All soluble bases are called alkalis
• Alkalis release hydroxide (OH-) ions in a solution
• NH3 + H2O ——> NH4+ + OH-

• Strong acids are completely dissociated in an aqueous

solution, so that all their H+ ions are released
• Weak acids are partially dissociated in an aqueous
solution; some of their H+ ions stay attached to the acid
molecule
• Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid and ethanoic acid is a
weak acid, as shown above

• Neutralisation is when the H+ ions from an acid react with

the OH- ions from an alkali to produce water
• H+ (aq) + OH– (aq) → H2O (l)
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L2: Reactions of acids and alkalis
Litmus:
• Red in acidic solutions
• Blue in alkaline solutions
Methyl orange:
• Orange-red in acidic solutions
• Yellow in neutral and alkaline solutions
Thymolphthalein:
• Colourless in acidic and neutral solutions
• Blue in alkaline solutions
Acid + metal ——> salt + hydrogen
Acid + base ——> salt + water
Acid + metal oxide ——> salt + water
Acid + metal hydroxide ——> salt + water
Acid + metal carbonate ——> salt + water + carbon
dioxide

• Hydrochloric acid (HCl-) forms chloride salts

• Sulfuric acid (H2SO4(2-)) forms sulfate salts
• Nitric acid (HNO3-) forms nitrate salts
2Li + 2HCl ——> 2LiCl + H2
Mg + H2SO4 ——> MgSO4 + H2
MgO + 2HNO3 ——> Mg(NO3)2 + H2O
MgCO3 + H2SO4 ——> MgSO4 + H2O + CO2

Bases such as sodium, chlorine and potassium hydroxides

react with ammonium salts, driving out ammonia gas.
Metal hydroxide + ammonium salt ——> salt + water +
ammonia gas
Calcium hydroxide + ammonium chloride ——> calcium
chloride + water + ammonia
L3: Oxides
Four types of oxides:
• Acidic oxides
• Basic oxides
• Amphoteric oxides
• Neutral oxides

• Acidic oxides:
- Nonmetal oxides like CO2 and SO2
- Often gases at room temperature
- React with water to produce acids:
- SO3 + H2O ——> H2SO4
- React with bases and alkalis to produce salts:
- CO2 + 2NaOH ——> Na2CO3 + H2O

• Basic oxides:
- Metal oxides like CuO and CaO
- Often solid at room temperature
- Most are insoluble in water
- React with acids to produce salt and water:
- MgO + 2HCl ——> MgCl2 + H2O

• Amphoteric oxides:
- Metal oxides like Al2O3 or ZnO
- Can behave as acidic or basic oxides
- React with acids and bases to produce salt and water
- Aluminium oxide as a base:
- Aluminium oxide + hydrochloric acid ——> aluminium
chloride + water
- Aluminium oxide as an acid:
- Aluminium oxide + sodium hydroxide ——> sodium
aluminate + water

• Neutral oxides:
- Nonmetal oxides
- Show neither basic nor acidic properties
- Insoluble in water
L4: Making salts
• All ammonium, potassium and sodium salts are soluble in
water
• All nitrates are soluble in water
• Most chlorides are soluble in water (except lead and
silver, although PbCl2 is soluble in hot water)
• Most sulfates are soluble in water (except barium, calcium
and lead)
• Most carbonates are insoluble in water (except potassium,
ammonium and sodium)
• Most hydroxides are insoluble in water (except potassium,
ammonium, sodium and partially calcium)
Insoluble salts Soluble salts

Most carbonates, except potassium, ammonium Potassium salts

and sodium

Silver chloride Ammonium salts

Lead chloride (although PbCl2 is soluble in hot Sodium salts

water)

Barium sulfate Nitrates

Calcium sulfate Most chlorides

Lead sulfate Most sulfates

Most hydroxides, except potassium, Calcium hydroxide (partially)

ammonium, sodium and partially calcium

Ways to prepare salts:

• Add acid to an excess metal, insoluble base or insoluble
carbonate
Hydrated substance: A substance that is chemically
combined with water
Anhydrous substance: A substance containing no water
Water of crystallisation: The water molecules present in
hydrated crystals
• Preparing insoluble salts by precipitation reactions
- Two soluble salts are mixed to create an insoluble salt
- Eg. the preparation of lead iodide
• Acid-alkali titrations (also used to prepare soluble salts)
- This is a very accurate version of method 1, which is
mixing acids and alkalis to get soluble salts
- You can use this to calculate concentration

Additional information for this unit:

Key formulas:
Acid + metal ——> salt + hydrogen
Acid + base ——> salt + water
Acid + metal oxide ——> salt + water
Acid + metal hydroxide ——> salt + water
Acid + metal carbonate ——> salt + water + carbon
dioxide
Metal hydroxide + ammonium salt ——> salt + water +
ammonia gas
Spec link: 7.1-7.3
Textbook link: 11.1-11.8 (pages 128-145)
Unit 6: Rate of Reaction
L1: Collision theory
Physical change:
• No new chemical is formed
• Reversible
• Change in state
Chemical change:
• Irreversible
• New chemicals are formed
• Bubbles are given off
• Colour change takes place
• Heat or light given off
Rate of reaction= Amount of reactant used/time

• The minimum amount of energy needed for the particles

to react is called the activation energy and is different for
each reaction
• The rate of reaction depends on:
- The frequency of collision between particles
- The kinetic energy with which particles collide
- The number of particles per unit volume
- Activation energy

• Factors which affect rate of reaction:

- Temperature
- Surface area of solid reactants
- Concentration of liquid reactants
- Pressure of gaseous reactants
- Use of a catalyst

• Methods to nd rate of reaction:

- Gas syringe
- Upturned measuring cylinder
- Weighing scale
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L2: Changing the rate of reactions
Temperature:
• At higher temperatures particles have more energy
• This means they are faster and more likely to collide with
other particles
• When the particles collide, they do so with more energy
so the number of successful collisions increases
Concentration:
• At higher concentrations there are more particles in the
same amount of space
• This means the particles are more likely to collide and
therefore more likely to react
Pressure:
• As pressure increases, the space in which the gas
particles are moving becomes smaller
• The gas particles become closer together, increasing the
frequency of collisions and thus increasing the rate of
reaction
Surface area:
• If the solid is split into several pieces, the surface area
increases
• This means there is an increased area for non-solid
reactant particles to collide with
• The smaller the pieces, the larger the surface area
• This means more collisions and a faster rate of reaction
Catalysts:
• Substances that change the rate of reaction without being
used up
• Catalysts never produce more product- they produce the
same amount more quickly
• Different catalysts work in different ways, but most lower
the reaction’s activation energy (Ea)

Additional information for this unit

Key formulas:
Rate of reaction= Amount of reactant used/time
Spec link: 6.1-6.2
Textbook link: 9.1-9.6 (pages 102-117)
 Unit 7: Redox reactions
L1: Oxidation and reduction
• Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a substance
• Reduction is the removal of oxygen from a substance

• Oxidation is the loss of electrons

• Reduction is the gain of electrons
• Oxidation is the loss of hydrogen
• Reduction is the gain of hydrogen

• Acidi ed potassium manganate (VII) is an oxidising agent

that is used to test for the presence of reducing agents
• When added to a reducing agent it changes from purple
to colourless
• Potassium iodide is a reducing agent which is used to test
for the presence of oxidising agents
• When added to an acidi ed solution of an oxidising agent
the solution turns red-brown due to iodine forming
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L2: Oxidation state
Oxidation state rules:
• An element on its own has an oxidation number of 0
• For a simple ion, the oxidation number is the charge of the
ion
• In a compound, the sum of the oxidation states is 0
• In a complex ion, the sum of the oxidation numbers equals
the charge
• During oxidation, the oxidation number increases
• During reduction, the oxidation number decreases
L3: Half equations
Equations written to show what happens to electrons
between during oxidation and reduction are called half
equations.
Example:
Mg + CuSO4 ——> MgSO4 + Cu
Mg ——> Mg2+ + 2e- (oxidation)
Cu2+ + 2e- ——> Cu (reduction)
Mg + Cu2+ ——> Mg2+ + Cu

Additional information for this unit

Spec link: 6.4
Textbook link: 6.1-6.4 (pages 72-81)
Unit 8: Reversible reactions
L1: Energy changes
Exothermic reaction:
• Heat is given to surroundings
• Temperature of surroundings increases
• Examples include:
- Burning reactions
- Detonation of explosives
- The reaction of acids and metals
- Respiration
- Neutralisation
- The Thermit Process
Endothermic reaction:
• Heat is taken in
• Temperature of surroundings decreases
• Examples include:
- Thermal decomposition
- Photosynthesis
- Some types of electrolysis
- Sherbert

Enthalpy change: Transfer of thermal energy during a

reaction
Activation energy: The minimum energy that colliding
particles must have to react
L2 & L3: Bond energies
• Bond-breaking is endothermic (energy is taken in)
• Bond-making is exothermic (energy is given out)
• A reaction is endothermic if more energy is supplied than
released
• A reaction is exothermic if more energy is released than
supplied
• The amount of energy needed to make or break a bond is
called bond energy
L4: Reversible reactions
• A reversible reaction is in equilibrium when the forward
and reverse reactions take place at the same rate and the
concentrations of reactants and products are no longer
changing
• When water is added to anhydrous copper (II) sulfate it
becomes hydrated copper (II) sulfate but when heated
up, it turns back to anhydrous copper (II) sulfate
• Copper (II) sulfate is blue when hydrated and white when
anhydrous
• This is also the same for cobalt (II) chloride, which is pink
when hydrated and blue when anhydrous
L5: Haber process
• The Haber process is the industrial reaction used to make
ammonia (NH3) from hydrogen (H2) and nitrogen (N2)

• The yield of ammonia produced by the Haber

process depends on the temperature and pressure of the
reaction
• The highest yield of ammonia is theoretically produced
by using a low temperature and a high pressure
• However these conditions are not used in practice, as a
low temperature slows down the rate of reaction and a
high pressure needs stronger, more expensive equipment

• To produce a high yield of ammonia, but with a fast rate of

reaction and without the need for overly
expensive equipment, the Haber process is carried out
at 450 °C and 200 atmospheres
• The most important factor in deciding what conditions to
use is therefore not yield, but total cost
• The costs come from raw materials, wages, equipment
and energy
• The ammonia is cooled, lique ed and then removed as it
is produced, causing the equilibrium to shift to the right to
produce more ammonia
• The source of hydrogen for the reaction is methane and
the source of nitrogen is the air
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L6: Contact process
• The process of making sulfuric acid is called the contact
process
Step 1: Sulfur dioxide is made by reacting sulfur in air or
roasting sul de ores in oxygen

Step 2: Sulfur trioxide is produced in a reversible reaction;

the reaction is exothermic in the forward direction.

200 kPa (2 atmospheres)

The reaction favours low temperature and high pressure

Step 3: The sulfur trioxide is reacted with sulfuric acid to

form a product called oleum

Step 4: The oleum is then diluted with water to produce

concentrated sulfuric acid

Additional information for this unit

Spec link: 5.1, 6.3
Textbook link: 8.1-8.3 (pages 92-97 and 100-101) and
10.1-10.4 (pages 118-127)
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Unit 9: Electrolysis
L1: Principles of electrolysis
Electrolysis: The decomposition of an ionic compound when
molten or in an aqueous state by passing an electric current
through it
Electrolyte: The molten or aqueous substance that
undergoes electrolysis

L2: Reactions at the electrode

Rules for electrolysis of a solution:
• Cathode:
- Either a metal or hydrogen forms
- The more reactive an element, the more it likes to exist as
ions
- If the metal is more reactive than hydrogen, it remains as
ions and hydrogen forms at the cathode
- If the metal is less reactive than hydrogen, the metal forms
• Anode:
- If it is a concentrated solution of a halide, chlorine,
bromine or iodine form
- If the halide solution is dilute or there is no halide oxygen
forms
- 4OH- ——> O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
L3: Uses of electrolysis
• Electrolysis is used to obtain aluminium from its ore
bauxite (Al2O3)
• The bauxite is rst dissolved in cryolite to lower its
melting point and increase its electrical conductivity

Carbon electrodes

• The carbon anodes need to be regularly replaced as

oxygen at the anodes reacts with them to form CO2

• Impure copper is puri ed by using pure copper as the

cathode and the impure copper as the anode
• This is done using copper (II) sulfate as the electrolyte
with copper electrodes
• At the cathode:
• Cu2+ + 2e- ——> Cu (reduction)
• At the anode:
• Cu ——> Cu2+ + 2e- (oxidation)
• When the electrolysis of copper (II) sulfate is carried out
with graphite electrodes, the product at the cathode is the
same but the product at the anode is oxygen

Electroplating: The process of coating one metal with

another by electrolysis
• The metal you want to be coated is the cathode and the
metal you want to coat it with is the anode
• Metal objects are electroplated to improve their
appearance and resistance to corrosion
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 Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells
• Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells use hydrogen and oxygen to
produce electricity with water as the only product

Advantages of hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells:

• No pollution
• Release more energy per kg than petrol or diesel
• No power lost in transmission
• Quieter compared to a petrol energy
Disadvantages:
• Expensive
• Hydrogen is more dif cult and expensive to store than
petrol as it is flammable and explodes under pressure
• Less ef cient in low temperatures
• Only a small number of hydrogen lling stations
• Hydrogen often obtained by methods involving the
combustion of fossil fuels

Additional information for this unit

Spec link: 4.1-4.2
Textbook link: 7.1-7.4 (pages 82-91) and 8.4 (pages 98-99)
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Unit 10: Metals and alloys
L1: Behaviour of metals
Physical properties of metals:

Chemical properties of metals:

• React with dilute acids to form salts
• Form basic oxides
• Form positive ions when they react
Corrosion: The gradual destruction of a metal due to
chemical reactions with its environment
• Rusting is a speci c name given to the corrosion of iron
• It is a chemical reaction between iron, oxygen and water
• Chemical name for rust: hydrated iron (III) oxide
4Fe + 3O2 + 4H2O ——> 2Fe2O3.2H2O
• Some common barrier methods are painting, greasing
and coating with plastic
• They prevent rusting by excluding oxygen or water
• Aluminium is a very reactive metal but it does not corrode
• This is because the outer layer of aluminium atoms react
with oxygen in the atmosphere, forming an unreactive
layer of aluminium oxide on its surface to protect it from
corrosion
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L2: Reactivity series
The reactivity series places metals in order of their
reactivity based on how vigorously they react with water
and dilute acids.

L3: Displacement reactions

Displacement reaction: One in which a more reactive metal
displaces a less reactive metal from a compound
Aluminium + iron oxide ——> Aluminium oxide + iron
2Al + 3FeO ——> Al2O3 + 3Fe
• Displacement reactions are redox reactions
• The more reactive metal is oxidised and the less reactive
metal is reduced
• The lower the position of a metal in the reactivity series,
the easier it is for carbon or hydrogen to remove oxygen
from the metal oxide
L4: Metal extraction
• The lower a metal in the reactivity series the more readily
its compounds decompose when heated (thermal
decomposition)
• Carbonates (except sodium and potassium carbonate):
Decompose to the metal oxide and carbon dioxide
• Hydroxides (except sodium and potassium hydroxide):
Decompose to the metal oxide and water
• Nitrates (except sodium and potassium nitrate):
Decompose to the metal oxide, nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen
• Nitrates of sodium and potassium: Decompose to nitrites
(NO2 salts) and oxygen

Extraction of iron from its ore (haematite):

• A mixture called the charge is added through the top of
the blast furnace
• The charge contains these 3 things:
- Iron ore/haematite: mostly iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3)
- Limestone: calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
- Coke: pure carbon
• Steps of reducing iron ore:
1) Carbon + oxygen ——> carbon dioxide
C + O2 ——> CO2
2) Carbon dioxide + carbon ——> carbon monoxide
CO2 + C ——> 2CO
3) Iron oxide + carbon monoxide —> carbon dioxide + iron
Fe2O3 + 3CO —> 3CO2 + 2Fe
4) Calcium carbonate —> calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
CaCO3 —> CaO + CO2
5) Calcium oxide + silicon dioxide ——> calcium silicate
CaO + SiO2 ——> CaSiO3
• Carbon dioxide and nitrogen from stage 3 remain
unchanged and leave through the top of the furnace
• Calcium silicate is mixed with bitumen to make roads
 L5: Alloys
Metal Uses Properties

Aluminium Overhead cables, cooking foil, Low density, unreactive, non-

food containers, drink cans, toxic, does not corrode, good
aircraft conductor of electricity

Copper Aircraft, electrical wires, water Very good conductor of

pipes electricity, does not corrode,
non toxic, ductile

Zinc Galvanizing iron or steel Reactive so prevents rusting

through sacri cial protection (it
loses electrons which move
into iron, causing it to react
with air and water in iron’s
place)

Iron Gates and lamps Hard, heavy, malleable

Gold Jewelry Unreactive, ductile, lustrous

Alloy: A mixture of a metal with at least one other element

Alloy Components Uses Properties

Stainless steel Iron + carbon + Cutlery, construction, Strong, resists

chromium + nickel hospital and factory corrosion, attractive
equipment

Brass Copper + zinc Door handles, buttons, Hard, easy to shape,

musical instruments, attractive, does not
ornaments corrode

Bronze Copper + tin Coins, statues, bells, Hard, sonorous, resists

propellers for ships corrosion

Mild steel Iron + carbon Buildings, ships, cars, Hard, strong

machinery

• Alloys can be harder and stronger than pure metals and

are more useful
• This is because different sized atoms in alloys mean the
layers can no longer slide over each other

Additional information for this unit

Key formulas:
Metal + water ——> metal hydroxide + hydrogen
Metal + steam ——> metal oxide + hydrogen
Spec link: 9.1-9.6
Textbook link: 13.1-14.5 (pages 160-185)
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Unit 11: Organic chemistry
Fuels
Fossil fuels: Coal, natural gas, petroleum
Methane: The main constituent of natural gas
Hydrocarbon: A compound that contains carbon and
hydrogen only
Petroleum: A mixture of hydrocarbons
L1: Alkanes
Functional group: An atom or group of atoms that
determines the chemical properties of a homologous series
Homologous series: A family of similar compounds with
similar chemical properties due to the presence of the same
functional group
Important pre xes of organic compounds: Meth=1 Eth=2
Prop=3 But=4 Pent=5 Hex=6 Hep=7 Oct=8 Non=9 Dec=10

• The alkanes form a homologous series of hydrocarbons

• General formula of alkanes: CnH2n+2 (where n= the
number of carbons)
• Features of a homologous series:
- All share the same general formula
- Consecutive members differ by CH2
- Same functional group
- Similar chemical properties
- Show a gradual change in physical properties as molar
mass increases
- Can usually be prepared by similar methods
• As the chain gets longer, the alkanes’ boiling points rise
and they burn less easily
• Alkanes are saturated compounds, meaning they only
form single carbon-carbon bonds
• This makes them mostly unreactive

CH3 C2H6

C3H8
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L2: Naming hydrocarbons
Naming branched chain alkanes:
1) Identify the longest carbon chain (the parent chain)
2) Identify all of the substituents (groups branching from
the parent chain)
3) Number the carbons of the parent chain from from the
end closest to any substituent groups
4) If the same substituent occurs more than once, the
location of each substituent is given; the number of times
the substituent group occurs is indicated by a pre x
5) If there are two or more different substituents they are
listed in alphabetical order

Halides:
• Chlorine= chloro
• Bromine= bromo
• Iodine= iodo
Alkyls:
• CH3= methyl
• CH2CH3= ethyl

1) The longest chain number is 4 (butane).

2) There are two CH3 substituent groups (methyl).
3) Since both substituents are in the middle, we can
number from either side. This time we’ll number from
the left.
4) Each substituent is located in positions 2 and 3. This
means the name of this alkane is 2,3-dimethylbutane.
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L3: Isomerism and reactions of alkanes
Structural formula: An unambiguous description of the way
the atoms in a molecule are arranged
Structural isomers: Organic compounds with the same
molecular formula but different structural formulas

C4H10 Butane C4H10 2-methylpropane

Combustion reactions:
• Complete combustion
Alkane + oxygen ——> carbon dioxide + water
• Incomplete combustion
Alkane + oxygen ——> carbon monoxide + water

Substitution reactions: One atom or group of atoms is

replaced by another atom or group of atoms
• Alkanes react with chlorine in ultraviolet light
• This reaction only takes place in ultraviolet light; it is a
photochemical reaction
• This is because ultraviolet light provides the activation
energy
L4: Alkenes
• The alkenes are a homologous series of hydrocarbons
• General formula of alkenes: CnH2n
• Alkenes contain a carbon-carbon double bond and so are
unsaturated
• Alkenes with four or more carbons display positional
isomerism

Addition reaction: Where only one product is formed

• When bromine is added to an alkene its red colour
disappears and it becomes colourless, forming an alkane
• This shows that addition reactions can take place due to
the double bonds
• Alkenes can add hydrogen to form alkanes
Alkene + hydrogen ——> Alkane

(Nickel)

• Alkenes can also add steam to form alcohols

Alkene + steam ——> Alcohol

• Large hydrocarbons are broken down into smaller

molecules using heat and a catalyst (catalytic cracking)
• This is because alkenes do not occur naturally in
petroleum
• The small molecules are then separated by fractional
distillation
L5: Alcohols
• Alcohols are a homologous series of organic compounds
• General formula: CnH2n+1OH
• Functional group: Hydroxyl group (OH)
• Alcohols with three or more carbons display positional
isomerism

• The intramolecular forces between alcohol molecules are

relatively strong because the OH groups attract each
other
• Greater amounts of energy are needed to separate the
molecules, meaning alcohols have relatively high boiling
points compared to alkanes of the same length
• Because alcohols contain an OH functional group they
often react in a similar way to water; however, they can
also burn in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water
• This makes ethanol useful as a fuel as it can burn in
oxygen; it is also useful as a solvent
• Most ethanol is made from glucose by fermentation
C6H12O6 ——> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
• This reaction is performed by yeast respiring
anaerobically at 25ºC to 35ºC
• This reaction uses renewable resources but is slow and
produces impure ethanol which has to be distilled
• Another method of manufacturing ethanol is catalytic
addition of steam to ethene
(300ºC, 60 atmospheres/6000 kPa)

(Sulfuric acid)

• This method is faster and gives pure ethanol but is

expensive and uses unrenewable resources
L6: Carboxylic acids
• General formula: CnH2n+1COOH

• Any carboxylic acid can be made by oxidizing the

corresponding alcohol
• Ethanol can be oxidised to make ethanoic acid

• Carboxylic acids have relatively high melting and boiling

points
• They are weak acids which are very soluble in water
• They have a characteristic smell
• They react like typical acids:
- With metals to form salt and hydrogen
- With metal hydroxides to form salt and water
- With metal carbonates to form salt, water and carbon
dioxide
 Esters:

• Esters are made from the reaction of a carboxylic acid

with an alcohol
Carboxylic acid + alcohol ——> ester + water

• They end in -anoate

• The rst part of the name is the alcohol and the second
part is the carboxylic acid
• However the rst part of the structure is the carboxylic
acid while the second part is the the alcohol

• The reactants are heated and concentrated sulfuric acid is

used as a catalyst
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L7: Polymerisation
• A polymer is a large molecule built up from very small
molecules called monomers
• The two main types of polymerization are addition and
condensation
• In addition polymerization, alkenes can be made into
polymers by adding alkenes in a chain of monomers
• Addition polymerization only happens in alkenes

• In condensation polymerization there are two reactants

with different functional groups
• A small molecule such as water is released
• A polyester is formed from monomers of a dicarboxylic
acid (a carboxylic acid with two COOH groups) and a diol
(an alcohol with two OH groups)
• The dicarboxylic acid loses an OH and the diol loses an H
• This forms the ester linkage with the functional group
COO
• A polyamide is formed from monomers of a dicarboxylic
acid and a diamine (an amine with two NH2 groups)

• The dicarboxylic acid loses an OH and the diamine loses

an H
• This forms the amide linkage with the functional group
CONH
• PET can be converted back into monomers and re-
polymerised
• Plastics are made from polymers
• The unreactivity of plastics means they are non-
biodegradable, making them dif cult to dispose of
• Environmental challenges caused by plastics:
- Disposal in land ll sites
- Accumulation in oceans
- Formation of toxic gases from burning

Additional information for this unit

Key formulas:
Alkane + oxygen ——> carbon dioxide + water
Alkane + oxygen ——> carbon monoxide + water
Alkene + hydrogen ——> Alkane
Alkene + steam ——> Alcohol
Carboxylic acid + alcohol ——> ester + water
Spec link: 11.1-11.8
Textbook link: 16.1-17.7 (page 204-237)
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Unit 12: Environmental chemistry
L1: Air
Composition of air:
• 78% Nitrogen
• 21% Oxygen
• 0.93% Argon
• 0.04% Carbon dioxide
Boiling points of:
• Oxygen: 183ºC
• Argon: 186ºC
• Nitrogen: 196ºC

• Methane is formed from the decomposition of vegetation

and waste gases from digestion in animals
• Higher levels of methane lead to increased global
warming which leads to climate change

How greenhouse gases cause global warming:

• Greenhouse gases absorb thermal radiation
• The earth reflects or emits thermal radiation
• The greenhouse gases reduce thermal energy loss into
space
• This heats up the atmosphere, increasing its temperature

Strategies to reduce the effects of climate change:

• Planting trees: More photosynthesis meaning more
carbon dioxide absorbed
• Reduction in livestock farming: Reduces methane
emissions
• Decreased use of fossil fuels by using more renewable
energy: Less carbon dioxide emitted

Strategies to reduce the effects of acid rain:

• Use low sulfur fuels
• Flue gas desulfurisation: Waste gases from power stations
are treated with a slurry of calcium oxide, which reacts
with sulfur dioxide to give calcium sul te
• Use of catalytic converters in vehicles: Convert nitrogen
oxides to nitrogen while also dealing with carbon
monoxide
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L2: Water
• Distilled water is used in practical chemistry rather than
tap water as it contains fewer chemical impurities

Tests for the presence of water:

• Turns anhydrous copper (II) sulfate from white to blue
• Turns anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride from blue to pink
Tests for the purity of water:
• Melting point (0ºC)
• Boiling point (100ºC)
Water from natural sources may contain substances like:
• Dissolved oxygen
• Metal compounds
• Plastics
• Sewage
• Harmful microbes
• Nitrates from fertilisers
• Phosphates from fertilisers and detergents
Some of these substances are bene cial like:
• Dissolved oxygen for aquatic life
• Some metal compounds provide essential minerals for life
Some of these substances are potentially harmful like:
• Some metal compounds are toxic
• Some plastics harm aquatic life
• Sewage contains harmful microbes which cause disease
• Nitrates and phosphates lead to deoxygenation of water
and damage to aquatic life

• Ammonium salts and nitrates are used as fertilisers

• NPK fertilisers provide the elements nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium for improved plant growth

Additional information for this unit

Spec link: 10.1-10.3
Textbook link: 15.1-15.8 (pages 186-203)
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 Unit 13: Experimental techniques
Identi cation of ions and gases
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 Experimental design
Solvent: A substance that dissolves a solute
Solute: A substance that is dissolved in a solvent
Saturated solution: A solution containing the maximum
concentration of a solute dissolved in the solvent at a
speci ed temperature
Residue: A substance that remains after evaporation,
distillation, ltration or any similar process
Filtrate: A liquid or solution that has passed through a lter
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Chromatography
• If two substances are the same, they will produce
identical chromatograms
• An impure substance will show more than one spot while
a pure substance will show up with just one spot
• When chromatography is being performed on some
colourless substances like amino acids or sugars a
locating agent is used
• Locating agents are substances which react with the
sample and produce a coloured product which is visible
• The chromatogram is treated with the locating agent after
chromatography has been performed
• The Retention factor (Rf) values are used to identify
components in mixtures
• The Rf value of a particular compound is always the same
Rf= Distance travelled by substance/Distance travelled
by solvent

Additional information for this unit

Key formulas:
Rf= Distance travelled by substance/Distance travelled
by solvent
Spec link: 12.1-12.5
Textbook link: 18.1-19.5 (pages 238-267)