CHAPTER 2


Mathematical
Language and
Symbols

CONTENTS

2.4 Four basic concepts: sets, functions, relations, binary

operations


FOUR BASIC CONCEPTS

(1) sets
(2) functions
(3) relations
(4) binary operations

SETS
Use of the word “set” as a formal mathematical term was
introduced in 1879 by Georg Cantor (1845–1918).

SET is any group or collection of well-defined objects.

Examples:

A set of counting numbers from 1 to 10.

A set of an English alphabet from a to e.

A set of even numbers.

A set of odd positive integers.


SETS
Note: A set is denoted by braces of curly brackets { } and
label or name set by a capital letter such as A,B,C …. etc.
Examples:
Word
A set of counting numbers from 1 to 10. description
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} Roster method

A set of an English alphabet from a to e.

B = {a,b,c,d,e}

A set of even positive integers.

C = {2,4,6,8,10….}

SETS

If S is a set, the notation ‘x ∈ S’ means that ‘x is an

element of S’.

‘x ∉ S’ means that ‘x is not an element of S’.

Each member of a set is called an element of a set and

the notation ∈ means that an item belongs to a set.

If S = {1,2,3,4,5}

then, 1 ∈ S ; 2 ∈ S ; 3 ∈ S ; 4 ∈ S ; 5 ∈ S

Thus, 6 ∉ S

TERMINOLOGIES OF SETS
1.) UNIT SET
➢ Unit set is set that contains only one element.

A = {1} ; B = {z} ; C = {banana}

2.) EMPTY SET/ NULL SET (∅)

➢ Empty or null set is a set that has no element.

A={ };B=∅
A set of seven yellow carabaos

TERMINOLOGIES OF SETS

3.) FINITE SET

➢ Finite set is a set such that the elements in the given
set is countable.

A = {1,2,3} ; B = {x,y,z}

4.) INFINITE SET

➢ Infinite set is a set such that the elements in the
given set has no end or not countable.
A set of counting numbers.
A = {…-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3…}

TERMINOLOGIES OF SETS

5.) CARDINAL NUMBERS (n)

➢ Cardinal numbers are used to measure the number
of elements in a given set.

A = {2,4,6,8} n=4

B = {a,c,e} n=3

TERMINOLOGIES OF SETS
6.) EQUAL SET
➢ Two sets, say A and B are said to be equal if and
only if they have equal number of cardinality and the
element/s are identical.
A = {1,2,3,4,5}
B = {4,3,5,1,2}
Hence,
A=B

TERMINOLOGIES OF SETS
7.) EQUIVALENT SET
➢ Two sets, say A and B are said to be equivalent if
and only if they have the exact number of elements.
A = {1,2,3,4,5}
A~𝐁
B = {a,b,c,d,e}

8.) UNIVERSAL SET

➢ The universal set U, is the set of all elements under
discussion.
A set of an English alphabet.
U = {a,b,c,d……z}

TERMINOLOGIES OF SETS
7.) JOINT SETS
➢ Two sets, say A and B are said to be joint if and only
if they have common elements.
A = {1,2,3}
B = {2,4,6}

8.) DISJOINT SETS

➢ Two sets, say A and B are said to be disjoint if and
only if they are mutually exclusive or they don’t have
common element/s.
A = {1,2,3} B = {4,6,8}

SETS
Set- builder Notation

Set-builder notation is especially useful when describing

infinite sets.

For instance, in set-builder notation, the set of natural

numbers greater than 7 is written as follows:

TEST YOURSELF

Use set-builder notation to write the following sets.

1.) The set of integers greater than -3

Answer: {x | x ∈ I and x > -3}

2.) The set of whole numbers less than 1000

Answer: {x | x ∈ W and x < 1000}

SETS
SUBSETS

Set A is a subset of set B, denoted by “A ⊆ B”, if and only

if every element of A is also an element of B.

Example:

Consider the set of letters in the alphabet and the set of

vowels {a, e, i, o, u}.
Every element of the set of vowels is an element of the set
of letters in the alphabet.
✓ Therefore, the set of vowels is said to be a subset of the
set of letters in the alphabet.

SETS
SUBSETS

Set A is a subset of set B, denoted by “A ⊆ B”, if and only

if every element of A is also an element of B.

Example:

For A ⊆ B, if x ∈ A , then x ∈ B.
Subset Relationships

✓ A ⊆ A, for any set A. Every set is a subset of itself.

✓ Ø ⊆ A, for any set A. The empty set is a subset of every

set.

TEST YOURSELF
Determine whether each statement is true or false.
1.) {5,10,15,20} ⊆ {0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30}
True; every element of the first set is an element of the second set.

2.) W ⊆ N
False; 0 is a whole number, but 0 is not a natural number.

3.) {2,4,6} ⊆ {2,4,6}

True; every set is a subset of itself.

4.) Ø ⊆ {1, 2, 3}
True; the empty set is a subset of every set.

SETS
PROPER SUBSETS OF A SET

Set A is a proper subset of set B, denoted by A ⊂ B, if

every element of A is an element of B, and A ≠ B.

If A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,2,3,4,5,6} then, A ⊂ B

But If A = {a, e, i, o, u} and B = {e, i, o, u, a}

Then, A is not a proper subset of B


SETS
NUMBER OF A SUBSETS IN A SET

A set with 𝑛 elements has 2𝑛 subsets.

Examples:

▪ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} has 6 elements, so it has

26 = 64 subsets.

▪ {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ... , 15} has 12 elements, so it has

212 = 4096 subsets.

▪ The empty set has 0 element, so it has 20 = 1 subset.


SETS
ORDERED PAIR

Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the

ordered pair consisting of a and b together with the
specification that a is the first element and b is the second
element.

Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if, and only if,
a = c and b = d.

Symbolically,

(a, b) = (c, d) means that a = c and b = d


SETS
ORDERED PAIR

Find x and y if (4x + 3, y) = (3x + 5, -2)

Since

4x + 3 = 3x + 5

4x – 3x = 5 – 3

x=2

And obviously,

y = -2

OPERATION ON SETS
Sets can be combined in a number of different ways to
produce another set. Basic operation on sets:

(1) Union of Sets

The union of sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B is the set

defined as:

A ∪ B = { x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B }

Example:

If A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,2,4,5}

A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,5}

OPERATION ON SETS
Sets can be combined in a number of different ways to
produce another set. Basic operation on sets:

(2) Intersection of Sets

The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B is

the set defined as:

A ∩ B = { x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B }

Example:

If A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,2,4,5}

A ∩ B = {1,2}

OPERATION ON SETS
Sets can be combined in a number of different ways to
produce another set. Basic operation on sets:

(3) Difference of Sets

The difference of sets A and B, denoted by A − B is

the set defined as:

A − B = { x | x ∈ A and x ∉ B }

Example:

If A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,2,4,5}

A − B = {3}

OPERATION ON SETS
Sets can be combined in a number of different ways to
produce another set. Basic operation on sets:

(4) Complement of Sets

For set A, the difference U – A, where U is the

universe, is called the complement of A and is denoted by Ac .
Thus, Ac is the set of everything that is not in A.

Example:

Let U = {a, e, i, o, u} and A = {a, e}

Ac = {i, o, u}

OPERATION ON SETS

Sets can be combined in a number of different ways to

produce another set. Basic operation on sets:

(5) Cartesian Product

Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B,

denoted by ‘A x B’ and read as ‘‘A cross B’’, is the set of all
ordered pair (a,b) where a is in A and b is in B. Symbolically,

A x B = { (a,b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B }

Example: If A = {1,2} and B = {a,b}

A x B = {(1,a),(1,b),(2,a),(2,b)}


RELATIONS

Language of Relations

Objects in mathematics may be related in various ways.

A set A maybe related to a set B if A is a subset of B, or if A

is not a subset of B, or if A and B have at least one element
in common.

For another example, the number x may be said to be

related to a number y if x < y, or if it is a factor of y, or if

x2 + y2 = 1.

Language of Relations

RELATION
Let A and B be sets. A relation R from A to B is a subset of
A×B (cross product). Given an ordered pair (x, y) in A×B, x
is related to y by R if, and only if, (x, y) is in R.
The set A is called the domain of R and the set B is called
the co-domain.
The notation for a relation R may be written symbolically as
follows:
x R y means that (x, y) ∈ R

Language of Relations
Example:
Let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}.
An element x in A is related to an element y in B if, and only
if, x is less than y.
1. Find A×B.
2. Determine the set of all ordered pairs in A×B whose
elements are related.
3. Is 0 R 2?
4. Is 1 R 1?
5. What are the domain and co-domain of R?

Language of Relations

Example:
Let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}.
An element x in A is related to an element y in B if, and only if,
x is less than y.
1. Find A×B.
A×B = { (0,1), (0,2), (0,3), (1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3) }

Language of Relations
Example:
Let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}.
An element x in A is related to an element y in B if, and only if, x is
less than y.
2. Determine the set of all ordered pairs in A×B whose elements are
related.
0 R 1 since 0 < 1 1 R 2 since 1 < 2
0 R 2 since 0 < 2 1 R 3 since 1 < 3
0 R 3 since 0 < 3 2 R 3 since 2 < 3
Therefore, the set of all ordered pairs whose elements are related is:
R = {(0,1), (0,2), (0,3), (1,2), (1,3), (2,3)}

Language of Relations
Example:
Let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}.
An element x in A is related to an element y in B if, and only
if, x is less than y.
3. Is 0 R 2?
Yes. 0 R 2, because (0,2) is an element of R.
4. Is 1 R 1?
No. 1 in A is not related to 1 in B, because (1,1) ∉ R.
5. What are the domain and co-domain of R?
The domain of R is {0, 1, 2} and the co-domain of R is
{1, 2, 3}.

Language of Relations

Example:
Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and define a relation from A to
B as follows:
Given any (x, y) ∈ A×B
𝑥−𝑦
(x, y) ∈ R means that is an integer.
2

1. State all the ordered pairs in A×B which are in R.

2. Is 1 R 3? Is 2 R 3? Is 2 R 2?
3. What are the domain and co-domain of R?
 
Language of Relations
A×B = { (1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3) }
To determine which ordered pairs are related, examine each ordered pair in A×B to
see whether its elements satisfy the defining condition for R.
𝑥−𝑦
x and y are related if is an integer
2
1−1
For (1,1) = 0 , which is an integer. ∴ (1, 1) ∈ R
2
1−2 −1
For (1,2) = , which is not an integer. ∴ (1, 2) ∉ R
2 2
1−3
For (1,3) = -1 , which is an integer. ∴ (1, 3) ∈ R
2
2−1 1
For (2,1) = , which is not an integer. ∴ (2, 1) ∉ R
2 2
2−2
For (2,2) = 0 , which is an integer. ∴ (2, 2) ∈ R
2
2−3 −1
For (2,3) = , which is not an integer. ∴ (2, 3) ∉ R
2 2

Language of Relations

1. State all the ordered pairs in A×B which are in R.

R = { (1,1), (1,3), (2,2) }
2. Is 1 R 3? Is 2 R 3? Is 2 R 2?
▪ Yes, 1 R 3 because (1,3) is an element of R.
▪ No, 2 is not related to 3 because (2,3) is not an element of R.
▪ Yes, 2 R 2 because (2,2) is an element of R.
3. What are the domain and co-domain of R?
The domain of R is {1, 2} and the co-domain is {1,2,3}.

Language of Relations

Arrow Diagram of a Relation

Suppose R is a relation from set A to set B. The

arrow diagram for R is obtained as follows:

1. Represent the element of A as points in one

region and elements of B as points in another region.

2. For each x in A and y in B, draw an arrow from x

to y if, and only if, x is related to y by R.

Language of Relations
Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 3, 5} and define
relations S and T from A to B as follows:
For all (x, y) ∈ A×B,
(x, y) ∈ S means that x<y
T = {(2,1), (2,5)}

1. Draw arrow diagram for S.

2. Draw arrow diagram for T.
 
Language of Relations
Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 3, 5} 1. Draw arrow diagram for S.
and define relations S and T from S
A to B as follows:
For all (x, y) ∈ A×B,
1 1
(x, y) ∈ S means that x<y 2 3
T = {(2,1), (2,5)} 3 5
 
Language of Relations
Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 3, 5} 1. Draw arrow diagram for T.
and define relations S and T from T
A to B as follows:
For all (x, y) ∈ A×B,
1 1
(x, y) ∈ S means that x<y 2 3
T = {(2,1), (2,5)} 3 5

SEATWORK

1.) Let Y = {0,1,2} and Z = {0,1} and define a relation R from

A to B as follows: Given any (x,y) ∈ Y×Z,
𝑥+𝑦
(x, y) ∈ R means that is an integer.
2

1. Determine the set of all ordered pairs in Y×Z that is in R.

2. Is 1 R 0? Is 2 R 0? Is 2 R 1?

3. What are the domain and co-domain of R?


SEATWORK

2.) Let A = {2, 6, 8} and B = {2, 3, 4} and let R be a relation

from A to B as follows:

For all (x,y) ∈ A×B,

𝑥
(x, y) ∈ R means that is an integer.
𝑦

Draw an arrow diagram for R.



END OF PRESENTATION