Why do we fall ill?

When the functioning of one or more organs or systems of the body

is adversely affected, characterized by appearance of various signs
and symptoms, we say that we are not healthy or we have a
disease.

A wide range of organisms belonging to bacteria, viruses, fungi,

protozoans, helminths, etc., could cause diseases. Such disease-
causing organisms are called pathogens.
 Types of Diseases
•On the basis of pathogens/infectious agents-
1) Bacterial diseases-Cholera, anthrax, tuberculosis, typhoid,
tetanus, leprosy, diphtheria, dysentery, plague, pneumonia,
etc.
2) Viral diseases-AIDS,rabies,common cold, influenza,dengue,
polio, chicken pox, mumps, hepatitis B, etc.
3) Fungal diseases- Skin problems, athlete's foot, ringworm, etc.
4) Protozoan diseases- Malaria, Sleeping sickness, kala azar,
amoebiasis (amoebic dysentery), etc.
5) Helminthic diseases-Ascariasis, taeniasis,
elephantiasis(filariasis) ,etc.
• On the basis of duration of diseases-
1) Acute diseases- Short duration diseases
2) Chronic diseases- Longer duration diseases
• On the basis of cause
1) Infectious diseases-cause by pathogens. These include:
bacterial disease, viral diseases, fungal diseases etc.
2) Non-infectious diseases-not caused by pathogens. These
include:
• Genetic Diseases: Conditions inherited genetically (Down
syndrome, sickle cell anaemia).
• Environmental Diseases: Result from environmental factors
(lung cancer from smoking).
• Lifestyle Diseases: Associated with lifestyle choices (diabetes,
heart disease)
• On the basis of transmission
1. Communicable Diseases-These are infectious diseases that can be
transmitted from one person to another, either directly or indirectly. They
are caused by pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites.
• Transmission Methods:
a) Direct Contact: Physical interaction (touching, kissing).
b) Indirect Contact: Through contaminated surfaces or objects (fomites).
c) Airborne: Through respiratory droplets in the air.(Coughing, Sneezing)
d) Vector-borne: Transmitted by vectors like mosquitoes or ticks.

2. Non-communicable Diseases (NCDs)-These are diseases that are not

transmitted from person to person. They often result from a combination
of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors.
 Bacterial Diseases
Tuberculosis (TB)
• Cause:
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• Transmission:
• Airborne (droplet infection)
• Target Site:
• Lungs, lymph nodes, bones, kidneys, genitals.
• Symptoms:
• Persistent cough, chest pain, coughing up blood, fatigue, fever, night sweats, and weight loss.
• Tests:
• Tuberculin Skin Test(Mantoux test) : A small amount of tuberculin is injected under the skin.
• Blood Tests
• Chest X-ray: To look for lung damage.
• Sputum Tests: Microscopic examination and culture of sputum.
• Precautions:
• Vaccination with BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) in high-risk areas.
• Avoiding close contact with infected individuals.
• Good ventilation in living spaces.
 Pneumonia
• Causative Agents:
• Streptococcus pneumoniae
• Symptoms:
• Cough, fever, chest pain, difficulty breathing, sputum production
• Target Site:
• Lungs, affects the alveoli (air sacs) and can cause fluid accumulation in the lung
• Diagnosis:
• Chest X-ray
• Sputum culture
• Blood tests
• Treatment:
• Antibiotics (Penicillin, Macrolides, Cephalosporins)
• Prevention:
• Pneumococcal vaccines
 Typhoid Fever
• Causative Agent: Salmonella typhi
• Transmission: Fecal-oral route, contaminated food/water
• Symptoms:
• High fever, abdominal pain, diarrhoea/constipation, rose spots (skin rash)
• Target Site:
• small intestine, liver, spleen, bone marrow, and gallbladder
• Diagnosis:
• Widal test (serology)
• Blood culture
• Treatment:
• Antibiotics (Ciprofloxacin, Azithromycin)
• Prevention:
• Sanitation, vaccination (oral/live-attenuated and injectable)
 Cholera
• Causative Agent: Vibrio cholerae
• Transmission: Faecal-oral route, contaminated water/food
• Target Site:
• Small intestine
• Symptoms:
• Profuse watery diarrhoea (rice-water stools), dehydration, vomiting
• Diagnosis:
• Stool culture
• Rapid antigen tests
• Treatment:
• Oral rehydration therapy (ORT)
• Antibiotics in severe cases (Doxycycline, Azithromycin)
• Prevention:
• Clean water supply, oral cholera vaccines
 Diphtheria
• Causative Agent:
• Corynebacterium diphtheriae
• Transmission:
• Respiratory droplets
• Target Site:
• Throat (pharynx) and tonsils
• Symptoms:
• Sore throat, fever, pseudo membrane formation in the throat (can obstruct
breathing)
• Diagnosis:
• Culture from throat swabs
• Toxin detection
• Treatment:
• Antitoxin, Antibiotics (Penicillin, Erythromycin)
• Prevention:
• Diphtheria vaccine(DTP Vaccine)
 Tetanus
• Causative Agent:
• Clostridium tetani
• Target Site:
• Nervous system, muscle spasms, particularly affecting the jaw muscles (lockjaw),
neck, and respiratory muscles
• Transmission:
• Contaminated wounds, spores in soil
• Symptoms:
• Muscle stiffness, lockjaw (trismus), painful spasms, respiratory failure
• Diagnosis:
• Clinical features
• Treatment:
• Tetanus immunoglobulin, Antibiotics (Metronidazole), muscle relaxants
• Prevention:
• Tetanus toxoid vaccine (part of DTP)
 Pertussis(whooping cough)
• Causative Agent
• Bordetella pertussis
• Symptoms
• severe coughing fits that end with a characteristic "whoop" sound during inspiration.
• Transmission
• Airborne transmission via respiratory droplets (coughing, sneezing).
• Close contact with an infected person.
• Target Site
• Respiratory Tract
• Diagnosis
• Nasopharyngeal swab
• Chest Xray
• Treatment
• Antibiotics
• Prevention
• DTP or DTaP vaccine (Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis)
• Tdap (Tetanus, Diphtheria, Pertussis) booster vaccines
 Plague
• Causative Agent
• Yersinia pestis
• Target Sites
• Lymphatic system, Lungs ,Bloodstream
• Transmission
• Flea bites, contact with infected animals, inhalation
• Symptoms:
• swollen lymph nodes , fever, chills
• cough, chest pain, difficulty breathing
• Diagnosis:
• Blood, sputum, or lymph node aspirate culture
• Treatment:
• Antibiotics (Streptomycin, Gentamicin)
• Prevention:
• Avoiding flea bites, handling animals carefully, vaccine.
 Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease)
• Causative Agent
• Mycobacterium leprae
• Target Site
• Skin, nerves (leading to loss of sensation), Mucous membranes of the respiratory tract
• Transmission
• Prolonged contact with nasal droplets from infected persons
• Symptoms
• Skin lesions, nerve damage (loss of sensation), deformities
• Diagnosis
• Skin biopsy, acid-fast staining, clinical symptoms
• Treatment
• Multi-drug therapy (MDT) - Dapsone, Rifampicin, Clofazimine
• Prevention
• Early diagnosis and treatment, avoiding close contact
 Viral diseases
Influenza
• Causative Virus
• Influenza virus (Types A, B, C)
• Mode of Transmission
• Airborne droplets (coughing/sneezing), direct contact.
• Target Site
• Respiratory system (nose, throat, lungs).
• Symptoms
• High fever, chills
• Sore throat, dry cough
• Muscle pain, fatigue
• Headache, runny nose
• Prevention
• Annual flu vaccination.
• Handwashing, avoiding close contact with infected people
 Polio (Poliomyelitis)
• Causative Virus
• Poliovirus.
• Mode of Transmission
• Faecal-oral route, contaminated water.
• Target Site
• Nervous system (specifically motor neurons).
• Symptoms:
• Fever, sore throat
• Fatigue, nausea
• Muscle weakness, paralysis (in severe cases)
• Prevention:
• Polio vaccine (OPV/IPV).
• Safe water and sanitation practices.
 Common Cold
• Causative Virus
• Rhinovirus, Adenovirus, Coronavirus.
• Mode of Transmission
• Airborne droplets, direct contact.
• Target Site
• Upper respiratory tract (nose, throat).
• Symptoms:
• Runny or stuffy nose, sneezing
• Sore throat, mild cough
• Mild fever, headache
• Prevention:
• Handwashing, using tissues or elbows while sneezing, avoiding infected
individuals.
 Hepatitis
• Causative Viruses:
• Hepatitis A (HAV) – faecal-oral route (contaminated food/water).
• Hepatitis B (HBV) – bloodborne (contaminated needles, sexual contact).
• Hepatitis C (HCV) – bloodborne (contaminated needles, sexual contact).
• Target Site: Liver.
• Symptoms:
• Jaundice (yellowing of skin/eyes)
• Fatigue, abdominal pain
• Nausea, vomiting
• Dark urine, pale stools
• Prevention:
• Hepatitis A and B vaccines.
• Safe food handling, safe sex practices, avoiding sharing needles.
 HIV-AIDS
• Causative Virus
• Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
• Mode of Transmission
• Blood, sexual contact, mother-to-child during childbirth or breastfeeding.
• Target Site
• Immune system, particularly T lymphocytes.
• Symptoms (AIDS stage):
• Severe weight loss
• Opportunistic infections (pneumonia, tuberculosis)
• Chronic diarrhoea, fever
• Night sweats
• Prevention:
• Safe sex practices, using clean needles, antiretroviral therapy (ART) for infected individuals.
• No vaccine currently available.
 Dengue
• Causative Virus
• Dengue virus (Flavivirus).
• Mode of Transmission
• Aedes aegypti mosquito bite.
• Target Site
• Blood vessels, immune system.
• Symptoms:
• High fever, severe headache
• Pain behind eyes, joint and muscle pain ("breakbone fever")
• Skin rash, mild bleeding (nose, gums)
• Prevention:
• Eliminating mosquito breeding grounds, using insect repellent, mosquito nets,
wearing long-sleeved clothing.
• No specific antiviral treatment, but symptomatic management
 Measles (Rubeola)
• Causative Virus
• Measles virus (Paramyxovirus).
• Mode of Transmission
• Airborne droplets.
• Target Site
• Respiratory tract, immune system, skin.
• Symptoms:
• High fever, cough, runny nose
• Red, watery eyes (conjunctivitis)
• Koplik's spots inside the mouth
• Red, blotchy rash starting on the face and spreading downward.
• Prevention:
• MMR vaccine (Measles, Mumps, Rubella).
• Isolation of infected individuals to prevent spread.
 Chickenpox (Varicella)
• Causative Virus
• Varicella-zoster virus (VZV).
• Mode of Transmission
• Airborne droplets, direct contact with blister fluid.
• Target Site
• Skin, immune system.
• Symptoms
• Itchy red rash with fluid-filled blisters
• Fever, fatigue
• Loss of appetite, headache
• Prevention:
• Varicella vaccine.
• Isolation of infected individuals to avoid spreading the virus.
 Rabies
• Causative Virus
• Rabies virus (Rhabdovirus).
• Mode of Transmission
• Bite from an infected animal (dogs, bats).
• Target Site
• Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
• Symptoms:
• Fever, headache
• Anxiety, confusion, agitation
• Hydrophobia (fear of water), difficulty swallowing
• Paralysis, coma, death (if untreated).
• Prevention
• Rabies vaccine (post-exposure prophylaxis).
• Avoiding contact with wild or stray animals
 Mumps
• Causative Virus
• Mumps virus (Paramyxovirus).
• Mode of Transmission
• Airborne droplets, direct contact with saliva.
• Target Site
• Salivary glands (parotid glands).
• Symptoms
• Swelling of salivary glands (puffy cheeks)
• Fever, headache
• Muscle aches, loss of appetite
• Pain while chewing or swallowing.
• Prevention
• MMR vaccine.
• Isolation of infected individuals.
 Zika Virus
• Causative Virus
• Zika virus (Flavivirus).
• Mode of Transmission
• Female Aedes mosquito bite, sexual transmission, mother-to-child transmission during
pregnancy.
• Target Site
• Blood vessels, central nervous system (especially in fetuses).
• Symptoms:
• Mild fever, rash
• Conjunctivitis (red eyes)
• Muscle and joint pain, headache
• In pregnant women, it can cause microcephaly (small head) in newborns.
• Prevention:
• Avoiding mosquito bites, using insect repellent, wearing long clothing.
• No specific vaccine, but symptomatic management.
Protozoan diseases
Malaria
• Causative Protozoan:
• Plasmodium species (P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae).
• Mode of Transmission:
• Bite of infected female Anopheles mosquito.
• Target Site
• Blood (red blood cells) and liver.
• Symptoms:
• High fever with chills (often in cycles)
• Sweating, headache
• Muscle pain, fatigue
• Nausea, vomiting
• In severe cases (especially with P. falciparum), it can lead to complications like anemia, seizures, and organ failure.
• Prevention:
• Use of insecticide-treated bed nets.
• Indoor residual spraying (IRS).
• Antimalarial drugs for prevention in endemic areas.
• Elimination of mosquito breeding grounds.
• Treatment:
• Antimalarial drugs (e.g., chloroquine, artemisinin-based combination therapy).
 Amoebiasis (Amoebic Dysentery)
• Causative Protozoan
• Entamoeba histolytica.
• Mode of Transmission:
• Fecal-oral route through contaminated food or water.
• Direct contact with infected individuals or surfaces.
• Target Site
• Large intestine (colon).
• Symptoms:
• Abdominal pain and cramps
• Diarrhoea (often with blood and mucus)
• Fever, nausea
• Weight loss
• In severe cases, the amoeba can invade the liver, causing liver abscesses.
• Prevention:
• Drinking safe, clean water.
• Proper sanitation and hygiene (handwashing).
• Safe food handling practices.
• Treatment:
• Antiprotozoal drugs (metronidazole, tinidazole)
 Leishmaniasis
• Causative Protozoan
• Leishmania species (L. donovani, L. tropica, L. braziliensis).
• Mode of Transmission
• Bite of infected female sandfly.
• Types and Target Sites
• Cutaneous leishmaniasis: Skin and mucous membranes.
• Visceral leishmaniasis (kala-azar): Internal organs, especially the liver, spleen, and bone
marrow.
• Symptoms:
• Cutaneous leishmaniasis: Skin sores, ulcers at the site of the bite.
• Visceral leishmaniasis: Fever, weight loss, enlarged spleen and liver (hepatosplenomegaly),
anemia, and weakness.
• Prevention:
• Avoiding sandfly bites by using insect repellent and bed nets.
• Wearing protective clothing in endemic areas.
• Treatment:
• Antiprotozoal drugs (amphotericin B, miltefosine )
• Skin ulcers may require local treatment.
 Sleeping Sickness (African Trypanosomiasis)
• Causative Protozoan
• Trypanosoma brucei (T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense).
• Mode of Transmission
• Bite of infected tsetse fly.
• Target Site
• Blood, lymphatic system, and central nervous system.
• Symptoms
• Early stage: Fever, headaches, joint pain, swollen lymph nodes.
• Late stage: Confusion, personality changes, excessive sleepiness (hence "sleeping sickness"),
coma, and death if untreated.
• Treatment
• Antiprotozoal drugs.
• Prevention
• Wearing long clothing to avoid tsetse fly bites.
• Using insect repellent.
• Tsetse fly control programs
Fungal diseases
Ringworm (Dermatophytosis)
• Causative Fungi
• Dermatophytes (Trichophyton, Microsporum, Epidermophyton species).
• Mode of Transmission:
• Direct skin-to-skin contact with infected individuals.
• Indirect contact via contaminated surfaces, towels, or clothing.
• Contact with infected animals.
• Target Site
• Skin, scalp, nails.
• Symptoms
• Red, circular, scaly patches on the skin (often itchy).
• Cracked, discoloured nails in nail infections.
• Hair loss and scaling on the scalp (in scalp infections).
• Prevention
• Keeping skin clean and dry.
• Avoiding sharing personal items like towels or hairbrushes.
• Wearing shoes in public showers or locker rooms.
• Treatment
• Topical antifungal creams (e.g., clotrimazole, terbinafine).
• Oral antifungal medication for severe cases
 Candidiasis (Yeast Infection)
• Causative Fungus
• Candida species, especially Candida albicans.
• Mode of Transmission:
• Overgrowth of Candida in warm, moist areas of the body.
• Rarely, person-to-person transmission.
• Target Site
• Mouth (oral thrush), genitals (vaginal yeast infection), skin folds, and bloodstream (invasive candidiasis).
• Symptoms
• Oral candidiasis (thrush): White patches in the mouth, soreness, difficulty swallowing.
• Vaginal candidiasis: Itching, burning sensation, thick white discharge.
• Skin candidiasis: Red, itchy rash, particularly in moist areas like under the breasts or in the groin.
• Invasive candidiasis: Fever, chills, and infection of various organs (in severe cases, usually in immunocompromised
individuals).
• Prevention
• Good personal hygiene.
• Keeping skin dry and clean.
• Avoiding overuse of antibiotics that kill good bacteria and allow fungal overgrowth.
• Treatment
• Topical antifungal creams (e.g., miconazole, clotrimazole).
• Oral antifungal drugs (e.g., fluconazole) for systemic infections.
 IMMUNITY
• The body's ability to defend itself against harmful microorganisms (like
bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites), toxins, and other foreign
invaders.

• It involves the immune system, a complex network of cells, tissues, and

organs that work together to protect the body.

• Types of immunity-
• Innate immunity.
• Acquired immunity.
 Innate Immunity (Natural or Non-specific Immunity)
The defense mechanisms we are born with, which act as the first line of defense against
pathogens.
• Key Features
• Acts immediately or within hours of a pathogen's appearance in the body.
• Non-specific, meaning it does not target specific pathogens but rather provides general
protection.
• No memory of previous encounters with pathogens.
• Components:
• Physical Barriers: Skin, mucous membranes, hair, and cilia in the respiratory tract.
• Chemical Barriers: Stomach acid, enzymes in saliva, and lysozymes in tears that destroy
pathogens.
• Cellular Defenses:
• Phagocytes: White blood cells like neutrophils and macrophages that engulf and destroy pathogens.
• Natural Killer (NK) Cells: Attack virus-infected and cancerous cells.
• Inflammatory Response: When tissue is injured or infected, inflammation occurs, leading
to redness, heat, swelling, and pain.
• Fever: Elevated body temperature inhibits the growth of pathogens.
Acquired Immunity (Adaptive or Specific Immunity)
Immunity that develops over time as the body is exposed to specific pathogens.
• Key Features:
• Specific to particular pathogens.
• Has memory, meaning the immune system can recognize and respond more rapidly if the
pathogen invades again.
1. Types of Acquired Immunity:
1. Active Immunity: When the immune system produces its own antibodies after being
exposed to a pathogen or receiving a vaccine.
• Natural Active Immunity: Develops when a person recovers from an infection (e.g., chickenpox).
• Artificial Active Immunity: Develops after vaccination (e.g., measles vaccine).
• Duration: Long-lasting or even lifelong.
2. Passive Immunity: When antibodies are transferred to a person from another source.
• Natural Passive Immunity: Passed from mother to baby through the placenta or breast milk
(maternal antibodies).
• Artificial Passive Immunity: Injection of antibodies, such as in antivenom or immunoglobulin
therapy.
• Duration: Short-term immunity, usually lasting a few weeks or months.
 Components of the Immune System
1.White Blood Cells (Leukocytes): These are the key players in the immune response.
• Types of White Blood Cells:
• Lymphocytes:
1. B cells: Produce antibodies that attack invading bacteria, viruses, and toxins.
2. T cells: Help destroy infected or cancerous cells.
• Phagocytes: Cells that engulf and digest pathogens (e.g., macrophages, neutrophils).
2.Antibodies: Proteins produced by B cells in response to specific antigens (foreign
substances).
• Function: Bind to pathogens or toxins to neutralize them or mark them for destruction by
other immune cells.
3.Lymphatic System includes lymph nodes, lymph vessels, and organs like the spleen
and thymus.
• Function: Helps in transporting white blood cells, removing toxins and waste, and filtering out
harmful substances from the blood and lymph.
4.Organs of the Immune System:
1. Bone Marrow: Produces new blood cells, including white blood cells.
2. Thymus: Where T cells mature.
3. Spleen: Filters blood and helps to destroy old or damaged blood cells, as well as pathogens.
4. Lymph Nodes: Filter harmful substances and contain immune cells that help fight infection.
 Immune Responses
1.Primary Immune Response: The immune system's first reaction to a new
pathogen.
• Slower to develop.
• Involves the production of antibodies and the activation of T cells specific to the
pathogen.

2.Secondary Immune Response: The body's faster and stronger immune

response when it encounters the same pathogen again.

• Due to the presence of memory cells (B cells and T cells)

• The immune system produces antibodies much more quickly, often preventing
symptoms of the disease.
 Vaccination and Immunity
• Vaccination: A method of stimulating the immune system to produce an immune
response without causing the actual disease.
• How Vaccines Work:
• A vaccine introduces a weakened, killed, or part of a pathogen into the body, prompting the
immune system to create antibodies.
• After vaccination, memory cells remain in the body, providing protection if the actual pathogen
enters the body in the future.
• Types of Vaccines
• Live-attenuated vaccines: Contain weakened versions of the live virus or bacteria. Examples:
Measles, Mumps, Rubella (MMR) vaccine, and the oral polio vaccine.
• Inactivated vaccines: Contain killed forms of the virus or bacteria. Examples: Inactivated polio
vaccine, Hepatitis A vaccine.
• Subunit, recombinant, and conjugate vaccines: Use specific pieces of the virus or bacteria (like
proteins or sugars). Examples: Hepatitis B vaccine, HPV vaccine.
• Toxoid vaccines: Contain inactivated toxins produced by the bacteria. Examples: Diphtheria and
tetanus vaccines.
• mRNA vaccines: Use messenger RNA to instruct cells to produce a protein that triggers an
immune response. Examples: COVID-19 vaccines (Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna).
 Immunization
• Immunization is the broader process by which a person becomes protected
against a disease through vaccination or by recovering from the disease itself.
• How It Works: Immunization can occur in two ways:
• Active Immunization: This occurs when a vaccine stimulates the immune system to
produce its own protection (antibodies). It typically provides long-lasting immunity.
• Passive Immunization: This involves giving pre-formed antibodies to a person. It
provides immediate but temporary protection. An example is the administration of
immunoglobulin to a person exposed to a virus like rabies.
• Difference Between Vaccination and Immunization:
• Vaccination is the act of introducing a vaccine into the body.
• Immunization is the process by which the body builds immunity after the vaccination or
after recovery from the infection.
 Immunity Disorders

1.Autoimmune Diseases: Conditions where the immune system mistakenly

attacks the body's own cells. Examples include:
1. Rheumatoid arthritis
2. Type 1 diabetes
2.Immunodeficiency Diseases: Conditions where the immune system's ability to
fight infections is compromised. Examples include:
1. AIDS (caused by HIV)
3.Allergies: Hypersensitive immune response to harmless substances like pollen,
dust, or certain foods. The immune system overreacts and releases chemicals
like histamines, leading to symptoms such as itching, swelling, and sneezing.
.
.

Antibodies
Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are specialized proteins produced by the
immune system in response to foreign substances called antigens (which can be
pathogens like bacteria, viruses, and toxins)
Structure of Antibodies
•Antibodies are Y-shaped molecules composed of four polypeptide chains:
•Two Heavy Chains: The longer chains that make up the main body of the
antibody.
•Two Light Chains: The shorter chains that attach to the heavy chains.
•Antigen-Binding Sites: Each antibody has two antigen-binding sites at the
tips of the Y, allowing it to bind specifically to an antigen.
•Variable Region: The part of the antibody that varies between different
antibodies, allowing for specific binding to unique antigens.
•Constant Region: The part that remains the same across different antibodies
and determines the class and function of the antibody
 Types of Antibodies (Immunoglobulin Classes)
1.IgG (Immunoglobulin G):
1. Most abundant antibody in blood.
2. Provides long-term protection and is involved in the secondary immune response.
3. Can cross the placenta, providing passive immunity to the fetus.
2.IgM (Immunoglobulin M):
1. First antibody produced in response to an infection.
2. Effective in forming complexes and activating the complement system.
3.IgA (Immunoglobulin A):
1. Found in mucosal areas, such as the gut, respiratory tract, and saliva.
2. Provides protection on mucosal surfaces and in secretions like breast milk.
4.IgE (Immunoglobulin E):
1. Involved in allergic reactions and responses to parasitic infections.
2. Binds to allergens and triggers histamine release from mast cells.
5.IgD (Immunoglobulin D):
1. Functions mainly as a receptor on B cells that have not yet been exposed to an antigen
Key Terms to Remember:

• Antigen: A substance (often on the surface of pathogens) that triggers

an immune response.
• Pathogen: A microorganism that causes disease (bacteria, viruses,
fungi, parasites).
• Phagocytosis: The process by which phagocytes engulf and destroy
pathogens.
• Memory Cells: Immune cells that remain in the body after an
infection or vaccination and allow for a faster immune response
during future encounters with the same pathogen.