Fault Analysis

• Fault calculations involve finding the voltage and current distribution throughout the system during
the fault.
• It is essential to determine the values of system voltages and currents during fault conditions, in
order to know the current settings of the protective devices to be used for detecting the fault and
the ratings of the circuit breakers.
• Based on fault studies, the short-circuit MVA at various points in the system can be calculated.
• Any impedance other than system impedances which is in the path of the fault current is called
‘fault impedance’.
• A solid fault/ bolted fault is said to occur when the fault impedance is zero.
• Faults on power systems are broadly classified into the following two main types:
(i) Symmetrical (Balanced) Faults :
➢ A fault involving all the three phases (i.e., a three-phase fault) is called a symmetrical (balanced) type of fault.
➢ In this type of fault, all the three phases are simultaneously short-circuited.
➢ There may be two situations—all the three phases may be short circuited to the ground or they may be short-
circuited without involving the ground.
➢ As the network remains electrically balanced during this type of fault, it is also known as balanced fault.
Because the network is balanced, it is solved on a per-phase basis.
➢ The other two phases carry identical currents except for the phase shift.
➢ This type of fault occurs very rarely, but it is the most severe type of fault encountered.
➢ When a fault occurs at a point in a power system, the corresponding fault MVA is referred to as the fault level
at that point, and, unless otherwise stated, it will be taken to refer to a 3-phase symmetrical fault.
➢ The fault levels provide the basis for specifying interrupting capacities of circuit breakers.
➢ The MVA rating required for a circuit breaker is usually estimated on the assumption that it must clear a 3-
phase symmetrical fault because, as that is generally the most severe fault and the worst case. Hence, the
circuit breaker’s rated breaking capacity in MVA must be equal to or greater than, the 3-phase fault level
MVA.
(ii) Unsymmetrical (Unbalanced) Faults
➢An unsymmetrical (unbalanced) fault is any fault other than a 3-phase
symmetrical fault: e.g. single line-to-ground (L-G) fault, line-to-line (L-L) fault,
and double line-to-ground (2L-G) fault.
➢The unsymmetrical fault is called unbalanced fault as it causes unbalanced
currents to flow in the system.
Per-unit system
• The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the actual value of that
quantity to an arbitrarily chosen base value having the same dimensions.
• 1.0 per-unit value of any quantity is equal to base value of that quantity.
Base and Per-Unit Values in a Single-Phase System
Base and Per-unit Values in a Three-phase System
• For a three-phase system, three-phase kVA or MVA and line-to-line voltage in kV are usually chosen as base
values.
• When dealing with balanced three-phase circuits, it is always assumed that the circuit is star-connected,
unless otherwise stated i.e., the impedances take line current at line to-neutral voltage which is equal to line-
to-line voltage divided by 3 .
Change of Base of Per-unit Quantities
• For power-system analysis, all impedances must be expressed in per-unit on a common system
base.
• If 𝑍𝑝𝑢, 𝑜𝑙𝑑 be the per unit impedance on old MVA base (𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝑏, 𝑜𝑙𝑑 and kV base (𝑘𝑉)𝑏, 𝑜𝑙𝑑 and
𝑍𝑝𝑢, 𝑛𝑒𝑤 be the per unit impedance on new MVA base (𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝑏, 𝑛𝑒𝑤 and kV base (𝑘𝑉)𝑏, 𝑛𝑒𝑤 ; then
𝑍𝑝𝑢, 𝑜𝑙𝑑 and 𝑍𝑝𝑢, 𝑛𝑒𝑤 are given by

(1)

(2)

Dividing Equation (2) by (1), the value of 𝑍𝑝𝑢, 𝑛𝑒𝑤 is given by

(3)
• If the old and new kV bases are the same, Eq. (3) reduces to

(4)

In equations (3) and (4), (𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝑏, 𝑜𝑙𝑑 and (𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝑏, 𝑛𝑒𝑤 are three-phase base MVA,
and (𝑘𝑉)𝑏, 𝑜𝑙𝑑 and (𝑘𝑉)𝑏, 𝑛𝑒𝑤 are line-to-line base voltage in kV.

Question:
The reactance of a generator designated X" is given as 0.25 per unit based on the generator's
nameplate rating of 18 kV, 500 MVA. The base for calculations is 20 kV, 100 MVA. Find X" on the
new base.
Solution:
18 2 100
X" = 0.25× × = 0.0405 per unit
20 500
Single-line diagram or one-line diagram
• It is a simplified representation of an electrical power system.
• It depicts components and connections between them in a power network using standardized
symbols.
• The purpose of the one-line diagram is to supply in concise form the significant information about
the system.
Example:

Fig. A. One-line diagram of a simple power system

Impedance and Reactance diagrams
• Impedance diagram: Components in the single line diagram are represented by their equivalent
impedances.
• In fault calculations, the resistances in the system are often small compared to the reactances. For
simplicity, these resistances can be ignored, and the system is modeled only using the reactances of
the components. This results in what is known as the reactance diagram.
• Reactance diagram: Components in the single line diagram are represented by their equivalent
reactances.
• A generator is represented by an emf in series with an impedance (reactance).
• Transformers are represented by their equivalent circuits. As the current flowing through the shunt
branch of transformer is in order of less than 10% of the rated current, shunt branch in the
transformer equivalent is neglected.
• A short line is represented by its series impedance (reactance). Medium and long lines are
represented by nominal 𝜋 circuits. The susceptance of transmission lines is very much less than the
reactance of transmission line. So, the shunt branches in equivalent circuit are neglected.
• The generated emfs of synchronous motor loads contribute to the fault current, they are always
included in making fault calculations.
• Static loads are neglected during fault, as voltages dip very low so that currents drawn by them are
negligible in comparison to fault currents.
• In case of fault analysis, induction machine is not considered in the impedance (reactance) diagram because
the fault current contribution by the induction motor will be zero after few cycles (1 to 3 cycles) of transient
operation due to the absence of excitation in the induction machine.
• Circuit breakers are chosen to have very low impedance (almost zero).
• The impedance and reactance diagrams represent balanced conditions in a three-phase system. In a
symmetrical three-phase system, the currents in all three phases are equal in magnitude and 120° apart in
phase angle. Under these conditions, we analyze the system using positive-sequence components, which
represent the normal operating conditions where each phase carries an equal load.
• The impedance or reactance diagram in this case is also called the positive-sequence diagram, as it shows
how the system behaves under balanced three-phase conditions. The positive-sequence diagram is useful for
analyzing balanced three-phase faults or symmetrical components in the system.
• The steps to be followed for drawing the impedance (or reactance) diagram from the one-line diagram of a
power system are as follows:
(i) An appropriate common kVA or MVA base for the system is chosen.
(ii) The whole system is considered to be divided into a number of sections by the transformers. An
appropriate kV base is chosen in one of the sections and the kV bases of other sections are calculated in
the ratio of transformation.
(iii) Per-unit values of voltages and impedances in all sections are calculated and they are connected as per the
topology of the one-line diagram. The resulting diagram is the per-unit impedance diagram.
• When the transformers are present in power system, the base quantities of voltages on the primary
side will be different from the base quantities on secondary side.
• For a transformer with turn ratio 1:n, base voltage on secondary side is ‘n’ times the base voltage
on the primary side. Therefore,
𝑉𝑏2 = 𝑛𝑉𝑏1

The power (VI) rating of transformer is same on both the primary and secondary side
𝑍
Primary side 𝑍1𝑝𝑢 = 𝑉𝑏1 1
൘I
𝑏1
I𝑏1
𝑍1𝑝𝑢 = 𝑍1 ×
𝑉𝑏1
𝑍
Secondary side 𝑍2𝑝𝑢 = 𝑉𝑏2 2
൘I
𝑏2
1
I𝑏2 I𝑏1
𝑍2𝑝𝑢 = 𝑍2 × 2
= 𝑛 𝑍1 × 𝑛
𝑉𝑏2 𝑛𝑉𝑏1
I𝑏1
𝑍2𝑝𝑢 = 𝑍1 × = 𝑍1𝑝𝑢
𝑉𝑏1
Advantages of p.u. system:
1. Calculations in the power system are simplified.
2. The number of ratings that we deal with is reduced to one.
3. The p.u. quantities in primary and secondary side of transformer are same.
4. In case of proper selection of base quantities, the numbers that we deal with are
between 0 to 1.
5. 3 complexity is avoided in most of the calculations.
% Resistance: Voltage drop across the resistor as a percentage of the rated machine
voltage.
I 𝑅
% R = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 × 100
𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

% Reactance: Voltage drop across the reactance as a percentage of the rated

machine voltage.
I 𝑋
% X= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 × 100
𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

%𝑅
𝑅𝑝𝑢 =
100

%𝑋
𝑋𝑝𝑢 =
100
Question: The one-line diagram of a simple power system is shown in Fig. below. The data for each
component is given below the diagram.

Fig. One-line diagram of the power system

Solution:
Since the three-phase MVA rating of the generator 𝐺3 is 50 MVA, the common three-phase base MVA is 50
MVA. The line-to-line base voltage in the circuit of generator 𝐺3 is 11 kV. Therefore, the line-to-line base
voltages in the transmission line is 33 kV, that in circuits of generators 1 and 2 is 6.6 kV and that in circuit of
motor is 11 kV.
For fault calculations, static loads A and B are neglected.
The per-unit reactances of various components on the common MVA base of 50 MVA are calculated below:
50
Generator 𝐺1 : 0.20× 25 = 0.40 𝑝𝑢
50
Generator 𝐺2 : 0.20× 25 = 0.40 𝑝𝑢
50
Generator 𝐺3 : 0.18× 50 = 0.18 𝑝𝑢
50
Transformer 𝑇1 : 0.22× 30 = 0.366 𝑝𝑢
50
Transformer 𝑇2 : 0.20× 30 = 0.333 𝑝𝑢
50
Motor M: 0.25× = 0.50 𝑝𝑢
25
20×50
Transmission Line : = 0.918 𝑝𝑢
332
The per-unit impedance diagram of the system is shown below:

Fig. Per-unit impedance (reactance) diagram of the system

Question: The one-line diagram of a three-phase power system is shown in Fig. below. Select a common three-
phase base MVA of 200 and line-to-line base voltage of 22 kV on the generator side. Draw an impedance
diagram with all impedances marked in per-unit. The manufacturer’s data for each device is given as follows:

Fig. One-line diagram

Solution: Common three-phase base power is 200 MVA. Since the line-to line base voltage on the generator
side is 22 kV, line to line base voltage of Line 1 and Line 2 are 220 kV and 132 kV respectively and the line-to-
line base voltage of the synchronous motor circuit is 11 kV. For fault calculations, static load of 40 MW is
neglected in the impedance diagram. The per-unit reactances of various components on the common MVA base
of 200 MVA are calculated below:
200
Generator G: 0.20× 200 = 0.20 𝑝𝑢
200
Transformer 𝑇1 : 0.12× 100 = 0.24 𝑝𝑢
200
Transformer 𝑇2 : 0.10× 100 = 0.20 𝑝𝑢
200
Transformer 𝑇3 : 0.10× 100 = 0.20 𝑝𝑢
200
Transformer 𝑇4 : 0.08× 100 = 0.16 𝑝𝑢
200 10.5 2
Synchronous motor M: 0.18× 60 × 11 = 0. 546 𝑝𝑢
40×200
Line 1 : = 0.165 𝑝𝑢
2202
55×200
Line 2 : = 0.631 𝑝𝑢
1322
The per-unit impedance diagram of the system is shown in Fig. below:

Fg. Per-unit impedance (reactance) diagram of the system

Symmetrical fault analysis
• Symmetrical fault is defined as the simultaneous short circuit across all the three phases.
• This type of fault may involve ground or may not involve ground.
• This fault is very infrequent in occurrence, but it is the most severe type of fault which gives rise
to the maximum fault current.
• Under symmetrical fault condition, the three-phase system behaves like a balanced circuit and can
be analyzed on a single-phase basis.
• Since the network remains electrically balanced during this type of fault, it is also known as
balanced fault.
• The circuit breaker’s rated breaking capacity in MVA must be equal to, or greater than, the 3-phase
fault level MVA.
• The reactance of the synchronous generator under short-circuit conditions is a time varying
quantity, and for network analysis three reactances are defined: the subtransient reactance 𝑋𝑑′′ , for
the first few cycles of the short-circuit current, transient reactance 𝑋𝑑′ , for the next relatively longer
cycles, and the synchronous reactance 𝑋𝑑 , thereafter.
• The sub-transient reactance (𝑋𝑑′′ ) is used for determining the interrupting capacity
of the circuit breakers.
• For relay setting and coordination, transient reactance (𝑋𝑑′ ) is used.
• The values of 𝑋𝑑′′ , 𝑋𝑑′ and 𝑋𝑑 are such that 𝑋𝑑′′ < 𝑋𝑑′ < 𝑋𝑑 .
• The faulted network can be conveniently solved by using the Thevenin’s theorem.
• In order to simplify fault calculations, the following assumptions are made.
(i) Immediately before occurrence of the fault, the system is operating on no-load at
rated frequency and system voltage is at its nominal value.
(ii) The emfs of all the generators are in phase. This means that all the generators
are in synchronism prior to occurrence of the fault.
(iii) System resistance is neglected and only the inductive reactance of the system is
taken into account.
(iv) Shunt admittances of the transformer are neglected.
(v) Shunt capacitances of the transmission line are neglected.
• The steps in the calculations for a symmetrical fault are as follows:
(i) A one-line diagram of the system is drawn.
(ii) A common base is selected and the per-unit reactances of all the components of the power
system as referred to the common base are calculated.
(iii) From the one-line diagram, the single-phase reactance diagram of the system is drawn.
(iv) Thevenin’s theorem is applied at the fault location. Keeping the identity of the fault point intact,
the reactance diagram is reduced and the Thevenin’s equivalent reactance 𝑋𝑒𝑞 of the system as
viewed from the fault point is found. The Thevenin’s voltage 𝑉𝑓 , the pre-fault voltage at the
fault point is taken as 1.0 ∠0° pu, because the system is unloaded and hence, system voltage at
all points is the nominal voltage.
(v) The per-unit value of the fault current is calculated as the ratio of the Thevenin’s voltage 𝑉𝑓.𝑝𝑢
to the Thevenin’s equivalent reactance 𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 , i.e., 𝑉𝑓.𝑝𝑢 / 𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 . The fault current is purely
reactive as resistance is neglected. The per-unit value of the fault MVA is calculated as 1/
𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 . Using base values, the per-unit values are converted to actual values.
• If the normal (rated) system voltage is taken as the base voltage, the per-unit pre fault voltage at the
fault point, 𝑉𝑓.𝑝𝑢 = 1.0 pu. Hence, per-unit fault (short-circuit) current is given by
𝑉𝑓.𝑝𝑢 1
I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 = =
𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢
If (𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝑏 be three-phase base MVA and (𝑘𝑉)𝑏 the line-to-line voltage in kV, the base current I𝑏 is
given by
Actual fault current, I𝑓 = pu fault current, I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 × base current, I𝑏
1 (𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝑏 ×103
I𝑓 = × A
𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 √3 𝑘𝑉 𝑏

The per-unit fault level or fault MVA or short-circuit MVA or short-circuit capacity is given by
1
𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑓.𝑝𝑢 = 𝑉𝑓.𝑝𝑢 × I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 =
𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢
The actual value of the fault MVA is given by
𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑏
𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑓 = 𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑓.𝑝𝑢 × 𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑏 =
𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢
Sudden Short-circuit of an Unloaded Synchronous Generator
A sudden short-circuit at the terminals of an unloaded synchronous generator is an example of three-
phase symmetrical fault.
The demagnetizing effect produced by the armature reaction of the synchronous generator under
steady state three-phase short circuit condition is taken into account by a reactance 𝑋𝑎 in series with
induced emf.
The series combination of reactance 𝑋𝑎 and leakage reactance 𝑋𝐿 of the machine is called
synchronous reactance 𝑋𝑑 (direct axis synchronous reactance in the case of salient pole machines).

Fig. Steady state short circuit model

• When a sudden three-phase short circuit occurs at the terminals of an unloaded or open-circuited
synchronous generator, it undergoes a transient in all the three-phases finally ending up in steady-
state condition.
• Immediately after occurrence of a short-circuit, as the air-
gap flux cannot change instantaneously (theorem of
constant flux linkages), currents appear in the field and
damper windings in order to counter the demagnetizing
effect of the armature short circuit current and help the
main flux.
• These currents decay in accordance with the time constants
at the windings.
• The time constant of the field winding which has high
Fig. Approximate circuit model leakage inductance is larger than that of the damper
during sub-transient period (occurs winding, which has low leakage inductance.
immediately after fault) of short
• Thus, during the initial part of the short circuit, the field
circuit
and damper windings have currents induced in them so that
in the circuit model, their reactances (𝑋𝑓 of field winding
and 𝑋𝑑𝑤 of damper winding) appear in parallel with a 𝑋𝑎 .
• As the damper winding currents are first to die out, 𝑋𝑑𝑤 effectively becomes open
circuited and at a later stage 𝑋𝑓 becomes open circuited.
• The machine reactance thus changes from the parallel combination of 𝑋𝑎 , 𝑋𝑓 and
𝑋𝑑𝑤 during the initial period (subtransient period) of the short circuit to parallel
combination of 𝑋𝑎 , and 𝑋𝑓 in the middle period (transient period) of the short
circuit, and finally to 𝑋𝑎 in steady state.

Fig. Approximate circuit model during transient period of short circuit

• During the initial period of the short circuit, the reactance presented by the machine is given by

1
𝑋𝐿 + = 𝑋𝑑′′
1ൗ + 1ൗ + 1ൗ
𝑋𝑎 𝑋𝑓 𝑋𝑑𝑤

𝑋𝑑′′ is called the subtransient reactance (direct-axis subtransient reactance in the case of salient pole
machines).
• The effective reactance after the damper winding currents have died out is given by

1
𝑋𝐿 + = 𝑋𝑑′
1ൗ + 1ൗ
𝑋𝑎 𝑋𝑓
𝑋𝑑′ is called the transient reactance (direct-axis transient reactance in the case of salient pole
machines)
 The currents and reactances of synchronous machine
during three-phase symmetrical short circuit are
defined by the following equations.
𝑜𝑎 |𝐸𝑔 |
|I|=√2 = 𝑋𝑑
𝑜𝑏 |𝐸𝑔 |
|I′ |=√2 = 𝑋𝑑′
𝑜𝑐 |𝐸𝑔 |
|I′′ |=√2 = 𝑋𝑑′′
where
|I| = rms value of steady-state current
|I′ |= rms value of transient current excluding dc
component
Fig Symmetrical short-circuit stator current in synchronous |I′′ |= rms value of subtransient current excluding dc
machine component.
𝑋𝑑 = direct axis synchronous reactance
𝑋𝑑′ = direct axis transient reactance
𝑋𝑑′′ = direct axis subtransient reactance
𝐸𝑔 = rms value of the per phase no-load voltage of
the generator.
oa, ob, oc = intercepts shown in Figure
Short-Circuit Capacity (SCC)
• When a fault (short circuit) occurs at a point in a power system, the corresponding fault (short-
circuit) MVA is referred to as the fault level or short-circuit capacity (SCC) at that point, and,
unless otherwise stated, it is taken to refer to a 3-phase symmetrical short-circuit.
• The short-circuit capacity (SCC) or short-circuit MVA at a specific point in a power system
indicates the maximum amount of fault current that can flow into the system at that point. It's a
crucial parameter for assessing the system's strength and for designing protective equipment like
circuit breakers and busbars.
• SCC is used for busbar dimensioning:
➢ Busbars must be able to withstand the high mechanical forces and thermal stresses caused by
fault currents.
➢ The SCC determines the required cross-sectional area and mechanical strength of the busbars.
• SCC is used for circuit breaker interrupting capacity:
➢ Circuit breakers must be able to safely interrupt the fault current without causing damage.
➢ The SCC determines the necessary interrupting capacity of the circuit breaker.
• The short-circuit capacity (SCC) or the short-circuit MVA (SC MVA) or the fault MVA or the fault
level is defined as
𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑓 = √3 × (pre-fault line voltage in kV) × fault current I𝑓 × 10−3
• As the system is assumed to be operating at no-load immediately before occurrence of the fault, the
pre-fault system voltage at all points is the nominal system voltage. Hence,
𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑓 = √3 × (nominal system voltage in kV) × I𝑓 × 10−3
= √3 × V𝑓 × I𝑓 × 10−3 (1)
where I𝑓 in amperes is the rms value of the fault current in a three-phase symmetrical fault at the fault
point, and V𝑓 is the nominal system voltage in kV.
Three-phase base mega voltamperes 𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑏 is related to line-to-line base kilo volts 𝑘𝑉 𝑏 and base
current I𝑏 by
𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑏 = √3 × (kV)𝑏 × I𝑏 × 10−3 (2)
Dividing Eq. (1) by Eq. (2) converts 𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑓 to per-unit, which is given as
𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑓.𝑝𝑢 = V𝑓.𝑝𝑢 × I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 (3)
where, V𝑓.𝑝𝑢 = V𝑓 /(kV)𝑏 is the nominal system voltage in per-unit, and I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 = I𝑓 /I𝑏 is the per-unit
fault current.
• If the base kilovolts (kV)𝑏 is equal to the nominal (rated) system voltage V𝑓 in kV, i.e., (kV)𝑏 = V𝑓
in kV, then V𝑓.𝑝𝑢 = 1.0 and from Eq. (3), (MVA)𝑓.𝑝𝑢 is given by
V𝑓.𝑝𝑢 1
(𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝑓.𝑝𝑢 = I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 = =
X𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 X𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢
where, X𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 = Thevenin’s equivalent reactance in per-unit.
• The actual value of the short-circuit MVA of short circuit capacity at any point in the system is
given by
𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑏
𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑓 = 𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑓.𝑝𝑢 × 𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑏 =
𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢
• At nominal system voltage the Thevenin equivalent circuit looking back into the system from the
fault point is a voltage source (emf) of 1.0∠0° per unit in series with the per-unit reactance X𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 .
Question:
Two generators rated 15 MVA, 11 kV, having 15% subtransient reactance are interconnected through
transformers and a 120 km long line as shown in Fig. below. The reactance of the line is 0.12
ohms/km. The transformers near the generators are rated 30 MVA, 11/66 kV with leakage reactance
of 10% each. A symmetrical three-phase fault occurs at a distance of 30 km from one end of the line
when the system is on no-load but at rated voltage. Determine the fault current and the fault MVA.
Solution:
Base MVA for the complete system = 30 MVA
Base kV for generator side = 11 kV
Base kV for the line circuit = 66 kV
The per-unit reactances of various components on the common MVA base of 30 MVA are calculated
below:
30
Generator 𝐺1 : 0.15× = 0.30 𝑝𝑢
15
30
Generator 𝐺2 : 0.15× = 0.30 𝑝𝑢
15
30
Transformer 𝑇1 : 0.10× = 0.10 𝑝𝑢
30
30
Transformer 𝑇2 : 0.10× = 0.10 𝑝𝑢
30
(30×0.12)×30
Line of 30-km length : = 0.0248 𝑝𝑢
662
(90×0.12)×30
Line of 90-km length : = 0.0744 𝑝𝑢
662
The per-unit reactance diagram is shown below

For fault calculation the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is drawn with respect to the fault point F.
The pre-fault voltage 𝑉𝑓 is the open-circuit voltage across 𝐹𝐹 ′
Hence, Thevenin’s per-unit voltage = 𝑉𝑓.𝑝𝑢 = 1.0 pu
The Thevenin’s equivalent reactance Xeq. pu as viewed from the fault point F with voltage sources
short-circuited is the equivalent reactance of two parallel branches whose reactances are
j 0.30 + j 0.10 + j 0.0248 = j 0.4248 pu
and j 0.30 + j 0.10 + j 0.0744 = j 0.4744 pu
Hence, the Thevenin’s equivalent reactance 𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 is given by
j 0.4744×j 0.4248
𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 = = j 0.224 pu
j 0.4744+j 0.4248
The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with fault path 𝐹𝐹 ′ showing the fault current I𝑓 is shown below

Per-unit fault current

𝑉𝑓.𝑝𝑢 1
I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 = = = −𝑗 4.46 pu
𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 𝑗 0.224
Base current in the line circuit is given by
(𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝑏 ×103 30×103
I𝑏 = A= = 262.7 𝐴
√3 𝑘𝑉 𝑏 √3×66
The actual fault current
I𝑓 = I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 × I𝑏 = 4.46 × 262.7 = 1172 A
Fault MVA = √3 × V𝑓 × I𝑓 × 10−3 = √3 × 66 × 1172 × 10−3 =
133.9 MVA
Circuit breaker capacity
Circuit breaker capacity refers to the maximum amount of current or power it can safely interrupt
without failing.
The key elements related to circuit breaker capacity are as follows:
1. Breaking Capacity:
• This is the maximum fault current (in kA) that a circuit breaker can interrupt at its rated voltage
without sustaining damage.
• It is crucial for safety and system protection, as it ensures the breaker can safely clear dangerous short
circuits.
2. Interrupting MVA Rating:
• The maximum apparent power (in MVA) that a circuit breaker can interrupt under specified conditions.
Interrupting MVA Rating = √3 × Rated voltage of the circuit breaker (kV) × Rated short-circuit
breaking current (kA)
3. Rated Making Current:
• This is the maximum current the circuit breaker can safely close on. It is expressed in kA.
• It is important for ensuring the circuit breaker can handle sudden surges of current when it's switched
on.
4. Continuous Current Rating:
• The maximum current that a circuit breaker can carry continuously without overheating or
degrading.
• It is essential for selecting a breaker that can handle the normal operating current of a circuit.
5. Thermal Capacity:
• The ability of a circuit breaker to withstand thermal stresses, such as those caused by continuous
overload or frequent switching.
• It ensures the breaker can handle occasional overloads without premature failure.
5. Voltage Rating:
• The maximum voltage that a circuit breaker can safely operate at.
• It is crucial for matching the breaker to the system voltage to prevent insulation breakdown.
6. Frequency Rating:
• The frequency (in Hertz) at which a circuit breaker is designed to operate.
• It is essential for compatibility with the power system's frequency.
Question:
Two 11-kV generators 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 are connected in parallel to a bus-bar. A 66 kV
feeder is connected to the bus-bar through a 11/66 kV transformer. Calculate fault
MVA for three-phase symmetrical fault: (a) at the high-voltage terminals of the
transformer, and (b) at the load end of the feeder. Find the fault current shared by 𝐺1
and 𝐺2 in each case. The ratings of the equipment are as follows:
′′
Generator 𝐺1 : 11 kV, 50 MVA, 𝑋𝐺1 = 15%
′′
Generator 𝐺2 : 11 kV, 25 MVA, 𝑋𝐺2 = 12%
Transformer T : 11/66 kV, 75 MVA, 𝑋𝑇 = 10%
Feeder : 66 kV, 𝑋𝐹 = 25 Ω
Assume the system to be operating on no load before the fault and neglect the
losses.
Solution:

Fig. One line-diagram for the system

A common base MVA of 75 MVA and base voltage of 11 kV on LV side and 66 kV on the HV side is
chosen.
The per-unit reactances of the various equipment on the chosen base values are:
′′ 75
Generator 𝐺1 : 𝑋𝐺1.𝑝𝑢 = 0.15× = 0.225 𝑝𝑢
50
′′ 75
Generator 𝐺2 : 𝑋𝐺2.𝑝𝑢 = 0.12× = 0.36 𝑝𝑢
25
Transformer T: 𝑋𝑇.𝑝𝑢 = 0.10 𝑝𝑢
𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑏 75
Feeder: 𝑋𝐹.𝑝𝑢 =𝑋𝐹 × = 25 × = 0.43 𝑝𝑢
(𝑘𝑉)2𝑏 662
The per-unit reactance diagram of the system is shown below:
The circuit model of the system for fault at the high voltage terminals of the transformer is shown
below, where 𝐹1 is the fault point and 𝐹1 𝐹1, is the fault path.
The pre-fault voltage at the fault point 𝐹1 is the rated voltage of the HV side of the transformer, (i.e.,
66 kV), which is the base voltage of that side.
Hence, the per-unit pre-fault voltage = 𝑉𝑓.𝑝𝑢 = 1.0∠0° pu, and Thevenin’s per-unit voltage = 𝑉𝑓.𝑝𝑢 =
1.0∠0° pu.
The Thevenin’s equivalent reactance 𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 of the system as viewed from the fault point 𝐹1 with the
voltage sources shorted is computed as follows:
𝑗0.225 × 𝑗0.36
𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 = 𝑗0.10 + = 𝑗0.238 𝑝𝑢
𝑗0.225 + 𝑗0.36
The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with the fault (short-circuit) path 𝐹1 𝐹1, showing the fault current I𝑓
is shown as
The per-unit fault current I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 is given by
𝑉𝑓.𝑝𝑢 1.0
I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 = = = −𝑗4.20 𝑝𝑢
𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 𝑗0.238
The base current I𝑏 is given by
(𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝑏 ×103 75×103
I𝑏 = A= = 656. 857 𝐴
3× 𝑘𝑉 𝑏 √3×66

The actual fault current, I𝑓 = I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 × I𝑏 = 4.20 × 656.857 = 2758.8 A

(𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝑏 75
Fault MVA, (𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝑓 = = = 315.126 MVA
𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 0.238
66
Fault current on LV side = 2758.8 × = 16552.8 A
11
The fault current shared by the generators can be found as
X𝐺2.𝑝𝑢 0.36
I𝐺1.𝑝𝑢 = I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 × = 4.20 × = 2.585 𝑝𝑢
X𝐺1.𝑝𝑢 + X 0.225+0.36
𝐺2.𝑝𝑢
X𝐺1.𝑝𝑢 0.225
I𝐺2.𝑝𝑢 = I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 × = 4.20 × = 1.615 𝑝𝑢
X𝐺1.𝑝𝑢 + X 0.225+0.36
𝐺2.𝑝𝑢
 (𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝑏 ×103 75×103
Base current on LV side, I𝑏 = A= = 3941.145 𝐴
3× 𝑘𝑉 𝑏 √3×11
Hence, I𝐺1 , and I𝐺2 are given by
I𝐺1 = I𝐺1.𝑝𝑢 × I𝑏 = 2.585 × 3941.145 = 10187.86 A
I𝐺2 = I𝐺2.𝑝𝑢 × I𝑏 = 1.615 × 3941.145 = 6364.94 A

(b) The circuit model of the system for fault at the load end of the feeder is shown below:

The per-unit open circuit voltage across 𝐹2 𝐹2, = 𝑉𝑓.𝑝𝑢 = 1.0∠0° pu

 The Thevenin’s equivalent reactance 𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 is computed from the following circuit
shown below:

𝑋𝐺1.𝑝𝑢 ×𝑋𝐺2.𝑝𝑢
𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 = 𝑋𝐹.𝑝𝑢 + 𝑋𝑇.𝑝𝑢 + 𝑋
𝐺1.𝑝𝑢 +𝑋𝐺2.𝑝𝑢

j0.225×j0.36
= j 0.43+j 0.10 + j0.225+j0.36 = 𝑗0.668 𝑝𝑢
The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with the fault path 𝐹2 𝐹2, showing the fault current is shown as

1.0
The per-unit fault current, I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 = = −𝑗1.497 𝑝𝑢
𝑗0.668
Fault current,
I𝑓 (on HV side) = I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 × I𝑏 =1.497 × 656.857 = 983.315 A
(MVA)𝑏 75
Fault MVA (MVA)𝑓 = = = 112.275 MVA
𝑋𝑒𝑞.𝑝𝑢 0.668
The fault current shared by generators is given by
0.36
I𝐺1.𝑝𝑢 = 1.497 × = 0.9212 𝑝𝑢
0.225+0.36
0.225
I𝐺2.𝑝𝑢 = 1.497 × = 0.5758 𝑝𝑢
0.225+0.36
Base current on LV side, I𝑏 = 3941.145 𝐴
Hence, I𝐺1 , and I𝐺2 are given by
I𝐺1 = I𝐺1.𝑝𝑢 × I𝑏 = 0.9212 × 3941.145 = 3630.58 A
I𝐺2 = I𝐺2.𝑝𝑢 × I𝑏 = 0.5758 × 3941.145 = 2269.31 A
Total fault current I𝑓 on LV side = (I𝐺1 + I𝐺2 )
= I𝑓.𝑝𝑢 × I𝑏 = 1.497 × 3941.145 = 5899.89 A
Observation:
From the calculated values of the fault current and fault MVA, it is clear that these values reduce drastically as
the fault point moves further and further away from the source. This reduction is mainly due to more impedance
coming in the path of the fault current. The MVA rating of the circuit breaker to be placed at any location should
be more than the fault MVA (fault level) at that location.
Symmetrical components
• Different types of unsymmetrical faults in decreasing frequency of occurrence are single line-to-
ground (L-G) fault, line-to-line (L-L) fault, and double line-to-ground (2L-G) fault.
• The analysis of an unsymmetrical fault is difficult because an unbalanced 3-phase circuit has to be
solved.
• The method of symmetrical components which deal with unbalanced polyphase circuits is a
powerful technique for the analysis of unsymmetrical faults.
• The solution of unbalanced circuits is made easier by resolving the unbalanced system into
fictitious balanced systems using symmetrical components.
• The unbalanced three-phase network is resolved into three uncoupled balanced sequence
networks by the method of symmetrical components.
• The method of symmetrical components was introduced by C L Fortescue, an American Scientist,
in 1918.
• According to Fortescue’s theorem, three unbalanced phasors (voltages or currents) of a three-phase
system can be resolved into three balanced systems of phasors called positive, negative and zero
sequence phasors (components).
• The positive, negative and zero sequence components of the original unbalanced
phasors of the three-phase system are called the “Symmetrical Components”
which are defined as follows:
1. Positive-sequence components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude,
displaced from each other by 120° in phase, and having the same phase
sequence as the original phasors.
2. Negative-sequence components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude,
displaced from each other by 120° in phase, and having the phase sequence
opposite to that of the original phasors.
3. Zero-sequence components consists of three phasors equal in magnitude and in
phase with each other (i.e. with zero phase displacement from each other).
• When solving a problem by symmetrical components, the three phases of the system are
customarily designated as a, b, and c in such a manner that the phase sequence of the voltages and
currents in the system is abc.
• The phase sequence of the positive-sequence components of the unbalanced phasors is abc.
• The phase-sequence of the negative-sequence components is acb.
• The original phasors of voltages are designated as 𝑉𝑎 , 𝑉𝑏 , and 𝑉𝑐 ; and original phasors of current as
I𝑎 , I𝑏 and I𝑐 .
• The three sets of symmetrical components are designated by the additional subscript 1 for the
positive-sequence components, 2 for the negative sequence components, and 0 for the zero-
sequence components.
• The positive-sequence components of 𝑉𝑎 , 𝑉𝑏 , and 𝑉𝑐 are designated by 𝑉𝑎1 , 𝑉𝑏1 , and 𝑉𝑐1 .
• Similarly, the negative-sequence components are 𝑉𝑎2 , 𝑉𝑏2 , and 𝑉𝑐2 , and the zero-sequence
components are 𝑉𝑎0 , 𝑉𝑏0 , and 𝑉𝑐0 .
• The positive, negative and zero-sequence components of I𝑎 , I𝑏 and I𝑐 are designated by I𝑎1 , I𝑏1
and I𝑐1 , I𝑎2 , I𝑏2 and I𝑐2 , and I𝑎0 , I𝑏0 and I𝑐0 , respectively.
• The original phasors of voltage can be expressed in terms of their components as
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑉𝑎2 + 𝑉𝑎0
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏1 + 𝑉𝑏2 + 𝑉𝑏0
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐1 + 𝑉𝑐2 + 𝑉𝑐0

Fig. (a) Positive sequence component (b)

Negative sequence component (c) Zero
sequence component
Operator a
• By convention, the direction of rotation of the phasors is taken to be counterclockwise.
• The operator 𝒂 is defined as an operator which when multiplied to a phasor causes its rotation by
120° in the counterclockwise (positive) direction without changing the magnitude.
• Operator 𝒂 is a complex number of unit magnitude with an angle of 120° and is defined as
𝒂 = 1 ∠ 120° = 1𝒆𝒋𝟐𝝅Τ𝟑 = – 0.5 + j 0.866
• If the operator 𝒂 is applied to a phasor twice in succession, the phasor is rotated by 240°. Three
successive applications of a to a phasor rotate the phasor through 360°.
• Thus,
𝒂𝟐 = 𝟏 ∠ 240° = 1 ∠ -120° = 1𝒆−𝒋𝟐𝝅Τ𝟑 = – 0.5 - j 0.866 = 𝒂∗
𝒂𝟑 = 𝟏 ∠ 360° = 1
And 1+ 𝒂 + 𝒂𝟐 = 0
• The components of phasors b and c can be expressed in terms of the components of phasor a taken
as reference, by using the operator 𝒂.
• The set of positive, negative and zero sequence phasors are written as

𝑉𝑎1 , 𝑉𝑏1 = 𝒂𝟐 𝑉𝑎1 , 𝑉𝑐1 = 𝒂𝑉𝑎1

𝑉𝑎2 , 𝑉𝑏2 = 𝒂𝑉𝑎2 , 𝑉𝑐2 = 𝒂𝟐 𝑉𝑎2

𝑉𝑎0 , 𝑉𝑏0 = 𝑉𝑎0 , 𝑉𝑐0 = 𝑉𝑎0

Thus,
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑉𝑎2 + 𝑉𝑎0
𝑉𝑏 = 𝒂𝟐 𝑉𝑎1 + 𝒂𝑉𝑎2 + 𝑉𝑎0
𝑉𝑐 = 𝒂𝑉𝑎1 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑉𝑎2 + 𝑉𝑎0
 −1
Computing 𝐴 and utilizing relations of operator 𝒂, we get
• From the above equation,

These equations are giving the necessary

relationship for obtaining symmetrical
components of the original phasors

• All the above equations of symmetrical component transformations are valid for a set of currents
also.
For obtaining current phasors from the symmetrical components

For obtaining symmetrical components of the original current phasors

Following observations can be made regarding a three-phase system with neutral return as shown in
Fig. below

(i) The sum of the three line voltages will always be zero. Therefore, the zero sequence component of
line voltages is always zero, i.e.,

On the other hand, the sum of phase voltages (line to neutral) may not be zero so that their zero
sequence component 𝑉𝑎0 may exist.
(ii) The sum of the three line currents equals the current in the neutral wire, we get

Hence, the current in the neutral is three times the zero sequence line current.

(iii) If the neutral connection is absent,

i.e., in the absence of neutral connection, the zero sequence line current is
always zero.
Question:
The line-to-ground voltages on the high voltage side of a step-up transformer are 100 kV, 33 kV and
38 kV on phases a, b and c respectively. The voltage of phase a leads that of phase b by 100° and lags
that of phase c by 176.5°. Find the symmetrical components of voltage.
Solution :
𝑉𝑎 = 100∠0∘
𝑉𝑏 = 33∠ −100∘
𝑉𝑐 = 38∠176.5∘

1
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎𝑉𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑐
3
1
= 100∠0∘ + 33∠−100∘ . ∠120∘ + 38∠176.5∘ . ∠ −120∘
3
1
= 100∠0∘ + 33∠20∘ + 38∠56.5∘
3
1
= 151.97 + 𝑗42.97 = 50.65 + 𝑗14.32
3
 1
𝑉𝑎2 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑎𝑉𝑐
3
1
= 100∠0∘ + 33∠ −220∘ +38∠296.5∘
3
= 30.55 − 𝑗4.26

1
𝑉𝑎0 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐
3
1
= 100∠0∘ + 33∠ −100∘ +38∠176.5∘
3
1
= 56.37 − 𝑗30.18 = 18.79 − 𝑗10.06
3
Sequence impedances and sequence networks
• The sequence impedances of an equipment or a component of power system are
the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances.
• The positive sequence impedance of an equipment is the impedance offered by the
equipment to the flow of positive sequence current and is represented by 𝑍1 .
• The negative sequence impedance and zero sequence impedance of the equipment
is the impedance offered by the equipment to the flow of negative sequence
current and zero sequence current, and is denoted by 𝑍2 and 𝑍0 , respectively.
• The single-phase equivalent circuit composed of the impedances to the current of
any one sequence only is called the sequence network for that particular sequence.
The sequence network contains any generated emfs of like sequence.
• Three-sequence networks can be formed for every power system. Sequence
networks carrying the currents I𝑎1 , I𝑎2 , and I𝑎0 are interconnected to represent
the different unbalanced fault conditions.
Sequence Networks of Unloaded Synchronous Machines
• An unloaded synchronous machine (generator or
motor) grounded through an impedance 𝑍𝑛 is
shown in Fig.
• 𝐸𝑎 , 𝐸𝑏 and 𝐸𝑐 are the induced emfs of the three
phases.
• When a fault occurs at the terminals of the
machine, currents I𝑎 , I𝑏 and I𝑐 flow in the lines.
• If the fault involves ground, the current flowing
into the neutral from ground through 𝑍𝑛 is
I𝑛 = I𝑎 + I 𝑏 + I𝑐 .
• Unbalanced line currents due to fault can be
Fig. Three-phase synchronous generator resolved into their symmetrical components I𝑎1 ,
with grounded neutral I𝑎2 and I𝑎0 .
• A synchronous machine is designed with
symmetrical windings to generate balanced three
phase voltages, it generates voltages of positive
sequences only.
Positive Sequence Network
• As the synchronous machine generates balanced three-phase voltages of positive
sequence only, the positive-sequence network consists of an emf (voltage source)
in series with the positive-sequence impedance of the machine.
• The reactance in the positive-sequence network is 𝑋𝑑′′ , 𝑋𝑑′ or 𝑋𝑑 , depending on
whether subtransient, transient, or steady-state conditions are to be studied.
• The positive-sequence impedance (𝑍1 ) of the machine in the positive sequence
network is
𝑍1 = j 𝑋𝑑′′ (if subtransient condition is of interest)
= j 𝑋𝑑′ (if transient condition is of interest)
= j 𝑋𝑑 (if steady-state condition is of interest)
 Fig 1. Positive sequence network of
synchronous machine

(a) (b)

• The above Fig. 1(a) shows the three-phase positive sequence network model of the synchronous
machine through which the positive-sequence components (I𝑎1 , I𝑏1 and I𝑐1 ) of the unbalanced
currents (I𝑎 , I𝑏 and I𝑐 ) are considered to flow.
• Z𝑛 does not appear in this model as I𝑛 = (I𝑎1 + I𝑏1 + I𝑐1 ) = 0.
• As this network is balanced, it can be represented by the single-phase network model as shown in
Fig. 1(b) for analysis purposes.
• The reference bus for a positive-sequence network is at neutral potential. Further, since no current
flows from ground to neutral, the neutral is at ground potential.
ZPB - Zero power bus
• The positive sequence voltage is given by
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝐸𝑎 − I𝑎1 𝑍1
Negative Sequence Network

(b)
(a)
Fig 2. Negative sequence network of synchronous machine

• The negative sequence voltage is given by

𝑉𝑎2 = −I𝑎2 𝑍2
as the negative sequence emf generated is zero.
Zero Sequence Network

Fig 3. Zero sequence network

of synchronous machine

• The zero sequence voltage is given by

𝑉𝑎0 = 𝑉𝑛 − I𝑎0 𝑍𝑔0 = -3 I𝑎0 𝑍𝑛 − I𝑎0 𝑍𝑔0 = −I𝑎0 𝑍𝑔0 + 3𝑍𝑛
where 𝑍𝑔0 is the zero sequence impedance of the generator and 𝑍𝑛 is the neutral impedance.
• The three sequence network equations are, therefore,
𝑽𝒂𝟏 = 𝑬𝒂 − I𝒂𝟏 𝒁𝟏

𝑽𝒂𝟐 = −I𝒂𝟐 𝒁𝟐

𝑽𝒂𝟎 = −I𝒂𝟎 𝒁𝟎 , where 𝑍0 = 𝑍𝑔0 + 3𝑍𝑛

The sequence network equation in matrix notation will be
Single line–to-ground fault

Fig. A solidly grounded, unloaded alternator: L-G

fault on phase a

Let the fault take place on phase a. The boundary conditions are
𝑉𝑎 = 0 (1)
I𝑏 = 0 (2)
I𝑐 = 0 (3)
and the sequence network equations are
𝑉𝑎0 = −I𝑎0 𝑍0 (4)

𝑉𝑎1 = 𝐸𝑎 − I𝑎1 𝑍1 (5)

𝑉𝑎2 = −Ia2 Z2 (6)

 1
I𝑎1 = I𝑎 + 𝑎I𝑏 + 𝑎2 I𝑐
3
1
I𝑎2 = I𝑎 + 𝑎2 I𝑏 + 𝑎I𝑐
3
1
I𝑎0 = I𝑎 + I𝑏 + I𝑐
3
Substituting the values of I𝑏 and I𝑐 from equations (2) and (3)
I
I𝑎1 = I𝑎2 = I𝑎0 = 𝑎 (7)
3
Equation (1) can be written in terms of symmetrical components
𝑉𝑎 = 0 = 𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑉𝑎2 + 𝑉𝑎0 (8)
Now substituting the values of 𝑉𝑎0 , 𝑉𝑎1 and 𝑉𝑎2 from the sequence network equation,
𝐸𝑎 − I𝑎1 𝑍1 − I𝑎2 𝑍2 − I𝑎0 𝑍0 = 0 (9)
Since, I𝑎1 = I𝑎2 = I𝑎0
Equation (9) becomes
𝐸𝑎 − I𝑎1 𝑍1 − I𝑎1 𝑍2 − I𝑎1 𝑍0 = 0

𝑬𝒂
or, I𝒂𝟏 = (10)
𝒁𝟏 +𝒁𝟐 +𝒁𝟎
• Since, the currents are all equal in magnitude and phase angle, therefore, the three sequence
networks must be connected in series.

Fig. Interconnection of sequence networks for L-G

fault

𝑉𝑎1 = 𝐸𝑎 − I𝑎1 𝑍1
𝑉𝑎2 = −Ia1 Z2
𝑉𝑎0 = −Ia1 Z0

Now in case of line-to-ground fault the neutral current

• In case the neutral is not grounded the zero sequence impedance 𝑍0 becomes infinite and,
therefore, from equation (10),

𝐸𝑎
I𝑎1 = =0
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + ∞

• The same result can be envisaged by looking at the system when the neutral is isolated; there is no
return path for the current and, therefore, I𝑎1 = I𝑎2 = I𝑎0 = 0. This means that for this system the
fault current I𝑎 = 0.

• Question:
A 50 MVA, 13.2 kV alternator with solidly grounded neutral has a subtransient reactance of 0.3 p.u.
The negative and zero sequence reactances are 0.4 p.u. and 0.15 p.u. respectively. A single line to
ground fault occurs at the terminals of an unloaded alternator; determine the fault current and the
line-to-line voltages. Neglect resistance.
• Solution:
Let the line-to-neutral voltage at the fault point before the fault be
1.0 + j0 p.u.
For a line to-ground fault, the fault impedance is
j0.3 + j0.4 + j0.15 = j0.85 p.u.
𝐸𝑎 1+𝑗0
I𝑎1 = = = −𝑗1.176 p.u.
𝑍1 +𝑍2 +𝑍0 𝑗0.85
For a L-G fault
I𝑎1 = I𝑎2 = I𝑎0 = −𝑗1.176 p.u.
The p.u. fault current I𝑎 = I𝑎1 + I𝑎2 + I𝑎0 = 3 I𝑎1 = −𝑗3.529 p.u.

Let the base quantities be 50 MVA, 13.2 kV, and hence

50×1000
the base current = = 2187 𝐴
√3×13.2
∴ The fault current in amperes = 2187 × 3.529 = 7718 A

𝑉𝑎1 = 𝐸𝑎 – I𝑎1 𝑍1 = 1 + j0 – (– j1.176)(j0.3) = 1.3528 p.u.

𝑉𝑎2 = – I𝑎2 𝑍2 = – (– j1.176) (j0.4) = – 0.4704 p.u.
Similarly, 𝑉𝑎0 = – I𝑎0 𝑍0 = – (– j1.176) (j0.15) = −0.1764 p.u.
𝑉𝑎 = 0
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏1 + 𝑉𝑏2 + 𝑉𝑏0 and 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐1 + 𝑉𝑐2 + 𝑉𝑐0
𝑉𝑏1 =𝑎2 𝑉𝑎1 = (– 0.5 – j0.866) (1.3528) = – 0.6764 – j1.1715 p.u.
𝑉𝑏2 = 𝑎 𝑉𝑎2 = (– 0.5 + j0.866)(– 0.4704) = 0.2352 – j0.4074 p.u.
𝑉𝑏0 = 𝑉𝑎0 = 𝑉𝑐0 = −0.1764 p.u
𝑉𝑐1 = 𝑎 𝑉𝑎1 = (– 0.5 + j0.866)(1.3528) = – 0.6764 + j1.1715 p.u.
𝑉𝑐2 =𝑎2 𝑉𝑎2 = (– 0.5 – j0.866) (– 0.4704) = 0.2352 + j0.4074 p.u.
𝑉𝑏 = – 0.6764 – j1.1715 + 0.2352 – j0.4074 −0.1764 = – 0.6176 – j1.5789 p.u.
𝑉𝑐 = – 0.6764 + j1.1715 + 0.2352 + j0.4074 – 0.1764 = – 0.6176 + j1.5789 p.u
The line-to-line voltages are
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 – 𝑉𝑏 . Since 𝑉𝑎 = 0, 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = – 𝑉𝑏 = 0.6176 + j1.5789 p.u = 1.6954∠68.64∘ p.u.
𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏 – 𝑉𝑐 = – j3.1578 p.u.= 3.1578 ∠270∘ p.u.
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑐 = - 0.6176 + j1.5789 p.u = 1.6954∠111.36∘ p.u.
Line-to-line voltages in kV are
13.2
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 1.6954 × = 12.92 ∠68.64∘ kV
√3
13.2
𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 3.1578 × = 24.06 ∠270∘ kV
√3
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 12.92 ∠111.36∘ kV
 Line-to-line Fault
Assume the line-to-line fault takes place on phases b and
c. The boundary conditions are
I𝑎 = 0 (1)
I𝑏 + I𝑐 = 0 (2)
V𝑏 = V𝑐 (3)
and the sequence network equations are given by
equations
𝑉𝑎0 = −I𝑎0 𝑍0 (4)
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝐸𝑎 − I𝑎1 𝑍1 (5)
𝑉𝑎2 = −Ia2 Z2 (6)
Using the relations
1
I𝑎1 = I𝑎 + 𝑎I𝑏 + 𝑎2 I𝑐
3
1
I𝑎2 = I𝑎 + 𝑎2 I𝑏 + 𝑎I𝑐
3
1
Fig. LL fault on an unloaded and neutral I𝑎0 = I𝑎 + I𝑏 + I𝑐
grounded alternator 3
and substituting for I𝑎 , I𝑏 and I𝑐
1 I
I𝑎1 = 0 + 𝑎I𝑏 − 𝑎2 I𝑏 = 𝑏 (𝑎 − 𝑎2 )
3 3
1 I
I𝑎2 = 0 + 𝑎2 I𝑏 − 𝑎I𝑏 = 𝑏 (𝑎2 − 𝑎)
3 3
 1
I𝑎0 = 0+0 =0
3
which means for a line-to-line fault the zero-sequence component of current is absent and positive-
sequence component of current is equal in magnitude but opposite in phase to negative sequence
component of current, i.e.
I𝑎1 = −I𝑎2 (5)
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑎 𝑉𝑎2 + 𝑉𝑎0
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑎𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑎2 + 𝑉𝑎0
Substituting these relations in equation (3)
𝑎2 𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑉𝑎2 + 𝑉𝑎0 = 𝑎𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑎2 + 𝑉𝑎0
(𝑎2 − 𝑎)𝑉𝑎1 = (𝑎2 − 𝑎)𝑉𝑎2
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝑉𝑎2 (6)
𝐸𝑎 − I𝑎1 𝑍1 = −Ia2 Z2 = Ia1 Z2
or
𝑬𝒂
I𝒂𝟏 =
Fig. Interconnection of sequence networks for 𝒁𝟏 + 𝒁𝟐
L-L fault As I𝑎0 =0, V𝑎0 = 0
• Question:
A 50 MVA, 13.2 kV alternator with solidly grounded neutral has a
subtransient reactance of 0.3 p.u. The negative and zero sequence
reactances are 0.4 p.u. and 0.15 p.u. respectively. A line-to-line fault
occurs at the terminals of the unloaded alternator; determine the fault
current and the line-to-line voltages. Neglect resistance.
• Solution:
Assuming (1 + j0) prefault per unit voltage,
𝐸𝑎 1+𝑗0
I𝑎1 = = = −𝑗1.428 p.u.
𝑍1 +𝑍2 𝑗0.7
I𝑎1 = −I𝑎2 = −𝑗1.428 p.u.
I𝑎2 = 𝑗1.428 p.u
And I𝑎0 = 0
I𝑏 = −I𝑐
I𝑏 = I𝑏1 + I𝑏2 + I𝑏0 = I𝑏1 + I𝑏2 =𝑎2 I𝑎1 + 𝑎I𝑎2
= (– 0.5 – j0.866)(−𝑗1.428 ) + (– 0.5 + j0.866)(𝑗1.428 ) = -1.237+j0.714 -
1.237-j0.714= – 2.474 p.u.
50×1000
the base current = = 2187 𝐴
√3×13.2
∴ Fault current = 2187 × 2.474 = 5411 A
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝐸𝑎 – I𝑎1 𝑍1 = 1 + j0 – (−𝑗1.428 )(j0.3) = 0.5716 p.u.
𝑉𝑎2 = 0.5716 p.u.
𝑉𝑎0 =0
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑉𝑎2 + 𝑉𝑎0
= 0.5716+ 0.5716+0 =1.1432 p.u.
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑎 𝑉𝑎2 = = (– 0.5 – j0.866) (0.5716) + (– 0.5 + j0.866) (0.5716) = – 0.5716 p.u.
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏 = – 0.5716 p.u
The line-to-line voltages are
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 – 𝑉𝑏 = 1.1432 – (-0.5716) p.u = 1.7148∠0∘ p.u.
𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏 – 𝑉𝑐 = 0
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑐 – 𝑉𝑎 = – 0.5716 – 1.1432 p.u = 1.7148∠180∘ p.u.
Line-to-line voltages in kV are
13.2
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 1.7148 × √3
= 13.07 ∠0∘ kV
𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 0
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 13.07 ∠180∘ kV
Double Line to Ground Fault
Assume double line to ground fault takes place on phases b
and c.
The boundary conditions are
I𝑎 = 0 (1)
V𝑏 = 0 (2)
V𝑐 = 0 (3)
and the sequence network equations are given by equations
𝑉𝑎0 = −I𝑎0 𝑍0 (4)
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝐸𝑎 − I𝑎1 𝑍1 (5)
𝑉𝑎2 = −Ia2 Z2 (6)
Fig. A solidly grounded, unloaded alternator:
L-L-G fault
 1
𝑉𝑎0 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎 /3
3
1
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎𝑉𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑐 =𝑉𝑎 /3
3
1
𝑉𝑎2 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑎𝑉𝑐 =𝑉𝑎 /3
3
𝑉𝑎0 = 𝑉𝑎1 = 𝑉𝑎2
Using this relation of voltages and substituting in the sequence network equations
𝑉𝑎0 = 𝑉𝑎1
– I𝑎0 𝑍0 = 𝐸𝑎 – I𝑎1 𝑍1
𝑬 –I 𝒁
I𝒂𝟎 = − 𝒂 𝒂𝟏 𝟏 (7)
𝒁𝟎
Similarly, 𝑉𝑎2 = 𝑉𝑎1
– I𝑎2 𝑍2 = 𝐸𝑎 – I𝑎1 𝑍1
𝑬 –I 𝒁
I𝒂𝟐 = − 𝒂 𝒂𝟏 𝟏 (8)
𝒁𝟐
From eq. (1)
I𝑎 = I𝑎1 + I𝑎2 + I𝑎0 = 0
Substituting values of I𝑎2 and I𝑎0 from eq.
(7) and (8),
𝐸 –I 𝑍 𝐸 –I 𝑍
I𝑎1 − 𝑎 𝑎1 1 − 𝑎 𝑎1 1 = 0
𝑍2 𝑍0
Rearranging the terms gives
𝑬𝒂
I𝑎1 = 𝒁 𝒁
𝒁𝟏 +𝒁 𝟎+𝒁𝟐
𝟎 𝟐

The neutral current

I𝑛 = I𝑏 + I𝑐 Fig. Interconnection of sequence
networks for L-L-G fault
= 𝑎2 I𝑎1 + 𝑎I𝑎2 + I𝑎0 + 𝑎I𝑎1 + 𝑎2 I𝑎2 + I𝑎0
= (𝑎2 + 𝑎)I𝑎1 + (𝑎+ 𝑎2 )I𝑎2 +2I𝑎0
= − I𝑎1 − I𝑎2 +2I𝑎0
= I𝑎0 +2I𝑎0 = 3I𝑎0
• Question:
A 50 MVA, 13.2 kV alternator with solidly grounded neutral has a
subtransient reactance of 0.3 p.u. The negative and zero sequence
reactances are 0.4 p.u. and 0.15 p.u. respectively. A double line-to-
ground fault occurs at the terminals of the alternator; determine the fault
current and the line-to-line voltages. Neglect resistance.
Solution:
Assume double line to ground fault takes place on phases b and c.
Assuming Pre-fault voltage = 1.0 + j0 p.u.

𝑬𝒂 1+𝑗0 1+𝑗0
I𝑎1 = 𝒁 𝒁 = 𝑗0.15×𝑗0.4 = = −𝑗2.444 p.u.
𝒁𝟏 + 𝟎 𝟐 𝑗0.3+
𝑗0.15+𝑗0.4
𝑗0.3+𝑗0.1091
𝒁𝟎 +𝒁𝟐

For a L-L-G fault

V𝑎1 = V𝑎2 = V𝑎0

𝑉𝑎1 = 𝐸𝑎 – I𝑎1 𝑍1 = 1 + j0 – (−𝑗2.444 )(j0.3) = 0.2668 p.u.

𝑉𝑎2 = 𝑉𝑎0 = 0.2668 p.u.

𝑉𝑎2 0.2668
I𝑎2 = − =− =j0.667 p.u.
𝑍2 𝑗0.4

𝑉𝑎0 0.2668
I𝑎0 = − =− =j1.7787 p.u.
𝑍0 𝑗0.15
Fault current= I𝑏 + I𝑐 = 3I𝑎0 = 𝑗5.3361p.u.

50×1000
the base current = = 2187 𝐴
√3×13.2

∴ The fault current in amperes = 2187 × 5.3361 = 11670 A

𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑉𝑎2 + 𝑉𝑎0 = 3𝑉𝑎1

= 3 × (0.2668) = 0.8004 p.u.
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑐 = 0
The line-to-line voltages are
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 – 𝑉𝑏 = 0.8004 – 0 = 0.8004∠0∘ p.u.
𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏 – 𝑉𝑐 = 0
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑐 – 𝑉𝑎 = 0 – 0.8004 = 0.8004∠180∘ p.u.
Line-to-line voltages in kV are
13.2
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 0.8004 × = 6.10 ∠0∘ kV
√3
𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 0
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 6.10 ∠180∘ kV
 3-phase Fault
The boundary conditions are
I𝑎 + I𝑏 + I𝑐 = 0
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑐
Since | I𝑎 | = | I𝑏 | = | I𝑐 | and if I𝑎 is taken as reference I𝑏 = 𝑎2 I𝑎
and I𝑐 = 𝑎I𝑎
Using the relation
1
I𝑎1 = I𝑎 + 𝑎I𝑏 + 𝑎2 I𝑐
3
and substituting the values of I𝑏 and I𝑐
1
I𝑎1 = I𝑎 + 𝑎3 I𝑎 + 𝑎3 I𝑎 = I𝑎
3
Similarly, Fig. A 3-phase neutral grounded and
1
I𝑎2 = I𝑎 + 𝑎2 I𝑏 + 𝑎I𝑐 =0 unloaded alternator 3-phase shorted
3
1
I𝑎0 = I𝑎 + I𝑏 + I𝑐 =0
3
which means that for a 3-phase fault zero-as well as negative-
sequence components of current are absent and the positive-
sequence component of current is equal to the phase current.
Now using the voltage boundary relation,
1 1
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎𝑉𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑎 = 0
3 3

1 1
𝑉𝑎2 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑎𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎𝑉𝑎 = 0
3 3

𝑉𝑎0 = 0
𝑉𝑎1 = 0 = 𝐸𝑎 – I𝑎1 𝑍1
𝐸𝑎
I𝑎1 = Fig. Interconnection of sequence
𝑍1 networks for 3-phase fault
From the analysis of the various faults, the following observations
are made:
1. Positive sequence currents are present in all types of faults.
2. Negative sequence currents are present in all unsymmetrical
faults.
3. Zero sequence currents are present when the neutral of the
system is grounded and the fault involves the ground, and
magnitude of the neutral current is equal to 3I𝒂𝟎 .
Line–to-ground fault with 𝒁𝒇

Fig. A 3-phase unloaded alternator with

Fig. Interconnection of sequence
neutral grounded through impedance 𝑍𝑛
networks for L-G fault
and fault impedance 𝑍𝑓
The boundary conditions are
V𝑎 = I𝑎 Z𝑓 (1)
I𝑏 = 0 (2)
I𝑐 = 0 (3)
and the sequence network equations are
𝑉𝑎0 = −I𝑎0 (𝑍𝑔0 + 3𝑍𝑛 ) (4)
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝐸𝑎 − I𝑎1 𝑍1 (5)
𝑉𝑎2 = −Ia2 Z2 (6)
I𝑎
I𝑎1 = I𝑎2 = I𝑎0 =
3
𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑉𝑎2 + 𝑉𝑎0 = 𝑉𝑎 = I𝑎 Z𝑓 =3I𝑎1 Z𝑓
𝐸𝑎 − I𝑎1 𝑍1 − I𝑎1 𝑍2 − I𝑎1 (𝑍𝑔0 + 3𝑍𝑛 ) =3 I𝑎1 Z𝑓
𝑬𝒂
I𝒂𝟏 =
𝒁𝟏 + 𝒁𝟐 + (𝒁𝒈𝟎 +𝟑𝒁𝒏 ) + 𝟑𝒁𝒇
Line–to-line fault with 𝒁𝒇

The boundary conditions are

I𝑎 = 0 (1)
I𝑏 + I𝑐 = 0 (2)
V𝑏 = V𝑐 + I𝑏 Z𝑓 (3)
and the sequence network equations are given by
equations Fig. L-L fault
𝑉𝑎0 = −I𝑎0 𝑍0 (4)
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝐸𝑎 − I𝑎1 𝑍1 (5)
𝑉𝑎2 = −Ia2 Z2 (6)
I𝑎1 = −I𝑎2
I𝑎0 = 0

𝑬𝒂
I𝒂𝟏 =
𝒁𝟏 + (𝒁𝟐 +Z𝒇 )
Fig. Interconnection of sequence networks for L-L fault
Double Line to Ground Fault with 𝒁𝒇
The boundary conditions are
I𝑎 = 0 (1)
V𝑏 = (I𝑏 + I𝑐 )Z𝑓 (2)
V𝑐 = (I𝑏 + I𝑐 )Z𝑓 (3)
and the sequence network equations are given by
equations
𝑉𝑎0 = −I𝑎0 (𝑍𝑔0 +3𝑍𝑛 ) (4)
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝐸𝑎 − I𝑎1 𝑍1 (5)
Fig. L-L-G fault with neutral impedance 𝑍𝑛
𝑉𝑎2 = −Ia2 Z2 (6) and fault impedance 𝑍𝑓

I𝑏 + I𝑐 =3I𝑎0

𝑬𝒂 – I𝒂𝟏 𝒁𝟏
I𝒂𝟎 = −
𝒁𝒈𝟎 +𝟑𝒁𝒏 +𝟑𝒁𝒇
 𝑬𝒂 – I𝒂𝟏 𝒁𝟏
I𝒂𝟐 =−
𝒁𝟐

𝑬𝒂
I𝒂𝟏 = 𝒁𝟐 (𝒁𝒈𝟎+𝟑𝒁 +𝟑𝒁 )
𝒏 𝒇
𝒁𝟏 +
𝒁𝟐 +(𝒁𝒈𝟎+𝟑𝒁 +𝟑𝒁 )
𝒏 𝒇

Fig. Interconnection of sequence

networks for L-L-G fault
Zero-sequence Networks
• Zero-sequence currents flow in the network if a return path which provides a completed circuit
exists.
• In case of Y connected circuit with isolated neutral, the sum of the currents flowing into the neutral
in the three-phases is zero. Since there is no zero-sequence components of the currents whose sum
is zero, the impedance to zero-sequence current is infinite beyond the neutral point.
• An open circuit between the neutral of the Y-connected circuit and reference bus in the zero-
sequence network indicates this fact, i.e., infinite impedance to zero-sequence current.
• A zero-impedance connection is inserted between the neutral point and the reference bus of the
zero sequence network, if the neutral of the Y-connected circuit is grounded through zero
impedance.
• If the neutral of the Y-connected circuit is grounded through the impedance 𝒁𝒏 , an impedance of
3𝒁𝒏 must be inserted between the neutral and reference bus of the zero-sequence network.
• A ∆-connected circuit provides no return path for zero-sequence currents, it offers infinite
impedance to zero-sequence line currents.
• Hence the zero-sequence network is open in the ∆ −connected circuit. However, zero-sequence
currents may flow in the legs of a delta since it is a closed series circuit for circulating single-phase
currents.
Zero-sequence Networks of 3-phase Loads

Fig. Zero-sequence networks for Y and ∆ connected loads.

Zero-sequence Diagrams of Generators
Zero-sequence Networks of Transformers

• 𝑍0 is the zero sequence impedance of

the windings of the transformer.
• There are two series and two shunt
switches. One series and one shunt
switch each for both the sides.
• The series switch of a particular side is
closed if it is star grounded and the
shunt switch is closed if that side is
delta connected, otherwise they are left
open.

Fig. (a) Switching arrangements for a transformer

(b) Equivalent of ∆/ Y
Fig. Zero sequence equivalent circuits of transformer
Formation of Sequence Networks of a Power System
• A power system network consists of various components such as synchronous machines, transformer and
lines.
• The complete sequence network of a power system can be drawn by combining the sequence networks of the
various components.
• The positive sequence network is drawn by examination of the one line diagram of the system. This network
contains the positive sequence voltages of synchronous machines (generators and motors) and positive
sequence impedances of various components.
• The negative-sequence network can be easily drawn from positive-sequence network.
• The negative and positive-sequence impedances for static components (transformers and lines) are identical
and each machine is represented by its negative-sequence impedance.
• As synchronous machines don’t generate voltages of negative-sequence, the negative-sequence network
contains no voltage source, i.e. negative-sequence voltage is zero.
• The reference bus for both positive and negative-sequence networks is the system neutral.
• Any impedance connected between a neutral and ground is not included in these networks as neither of these
sequence currents can flow through such an impedance.
• Complete zero-sequence network of the system can be easily drawn by combining zero sequence subnetworks
for various parts of the system.
• No voltage sources are present in the zero-sequence network. Any impedance included between generator or
transformer neutral and ground becomes three times its value in a zero sequence network.
• Question
Figure below shows the one-line diagram of a power system. Draw positive, negative, and zero
sequence networks of the system. The system data is given as follows:
Generator 𝐺1 : 30 MVA, 11 kV, 𝑋1 = 0.20 p.u., 𝑋2 =0.20 p.u., 𝑋0 = 0.05 p.u.
Transformer 𝑇1 : 30 MVA , 11/220 kV, 𝑋1 = 𝑋2 = 𝑋0 = 0.07 p.u.
Transformer 𝑇2 : 50 MVA, 11/220 kV, 𝑋1 = 𝑋2 = 𝑋0 = 0.08 p.u.
Generator 𝐺2 : 50 MVA, 11 kV, 𝑋1 = 𝑋2 = 0.25 p.u., 𝑋0 = 0.06 p.u.
Line : 𝑋1 = 𝑋2 = 150 Ω, 𝑋0 = 500 Ω.
• Solution:
Let the selected base MVA be 50 and the base kV in the generator circuit and LV side of the
transformer be 11. Then base voltage for HV side of the transformer and the line will be 220 kV.
50
Generator 𝐺1 : 𝑋1 = 𝑋2 = 0.20 × = 0.33 p.u.
30
50
𝑋0 = 0.05 × = 0.083 p.u.
30
50
Transformer 𝑇1 : 𝑋1 = 𝑋2 = 𝑋0 = 0.07 × = 0.117 p.u.
30
Generator 𝐺2 : 𝑋1 = 𝑋2 = 0.25 p.u., 𝑋0 =0.06 p.u.
Transformer 𝑇2 : 𝑋1 = 𝑋2 = 𝑋0 = 0.08 p.u
150×50
Line: 𝑋1 = 𝑋2 = = 0.155 p.u.
2202
500×50
𝑋0 = = 0.516 p.u.
2202
2×50
Pu value of neutral reactor, 𝑋𝑛 = = 0.826 p.u.
112
Fig. Positive-sequence network

Fig. Negative-sequence network

Fig. Zero-sequence network

• Question:
A 3-phase, 30 MVA, 6.6 kV generator having 20% reactance is connected through a
30 MVA 6.6/33 kV delta-star connected transformer of 10% reactance to a 33 kV
transmission line having a negligible resistance and a reactance of 5 ohms. At the
receiving end of the line there is a 30 MVA 33/6.6 kV delta-star connected
transformer of 10% reactance stepping down the voltage to 6.6 kV. The neutrals of
both the transformers are solidly grounded. Draw the one-line diagram, and the
positive, negative and zero sequence networks of this system and determine the fault
currents for the following types of fault at the receiving station L.V. busbars.
(a) Three-phase symmetrical fault (b) A single line-to-ground fault (c) Line-to-line
fault
For a generator, assume –ve sequence reactance to be 75% that of +ve sequence.
• Solution:

Fig. One-line diagram

The fault occurs at point F. Let the selected common base MVA be 30 MVA and base voltage be 6.6
kV on LV side of the transformer. Then the base voltage on HV side, i.e., of transmission line is 33
kV.
Generator G: 𝑍𝑔1 =j0.20 p.u., 𝑍𝑔2 = j0.20× 0.75 =j0.15 p.u.
Transformers: 𝑍𝑇1 = 𝑍𝑇2 = 𝑍𝑇0 = 𝑗0.10 p.u.
30
Transmission line: 𝑍𝐿1 = 𝑍𝐿2 = 𝑗5 × 2 =j0.138 p.u.
33
𝑍1 = 𝑍𝑔1 + 𝑍𝑇1 + 𝑍𝐿1 + 𝑍𝑇1
= j0.20 + j0.10 + j0.138 + j0.10 = j0.538 p.u.
𝑍2 = 𝑍𝑔2 + 𝑍𝑇2 + 𝑍𝐿2 + 𝑍𝑇2 = j0.15 + j0.10 + j0.138 + j0.10) = j 0.488 p.u.
𝑍0 = 𝑍𝑇0 = j0.10 p.u.
Pre-fault voltage at F = 𝐸𝑎 = 1.0 pu
(a) When 3-phase symmetrical fault occurs at F
𝐸 1
I𝑓 = 𝑍𝑎 = 𝑗0.538 = −𝑗1.86 p.u.
1
30×1000
base current = = 2624 𝐴
√3×6.6
Actual fault current in amperes = 1.86 × 2624 = 4880 A
(b) For single line-to-ground (L-G)
(Assuming ‘a’ phase to be faulted)
3𝐸𝑎 3×1
I𝑓 = I𝑎 = 𝑍 = = – j 2.66 pu
1 +𝑍2+𝑍0 j (0.538 + 0.488 + 0.10)
Fault current in amperes I𝑓 = 2.66 × 2624 = 6980 A
(c) For line-to-line fault
(Assuming fault between ‘b’ & ‘c’)
𝐸𝑎 1
I𝑎1 = = = −𝑗0.975 p.u.
𝑍1 +𝑍2 j (0.538 + 0.488)
Fault currents are
I𝑏 = (– 0.5 – j0.866)(−𝑗0.975 ) + (– 0.5 + j0.866)(𝑗0.975 ) = -1.688 p.u.
I𝑐 = −I𝑏 = 1.688 p.u.
Fault current in amperes
I𝑐 = −I𝑏 = 1.688 × 2624 = 4429 A
Power System stability
• A power system is in a steady-state operating condition if all the measured (or calculated) physical
quantities describing the operating condition of the system can be considered constant for purposes of
analysis.
• When operating in a steady-state condition if a sudden change or sequence of changes occurs in one or more
of the parameters of the system, or in one or more of its operating quantities, we say that the system has
undergone a disturbance from its steady-state operating condition.
• Disturbances can be large or small depending on their origin.
• A large disturbance is one for which the nonlinear equations describing the dynamics of the power system
cannot be validly linearized for purposes of analysis. Transmission system faults, sudden load changes, loss of
generating units, and line switching are examples of large disturbances.
• If the power system is operating in a steady-state condition and it undergoes change which can be properly
analyzed by linearized versions of its dynamic and algebraic equations, we say that a small disturbance has
occurred. A change in the gain of the automatic voltage regulator in the excitation system of a large generating
unit, small changes in generation or load are examples of small disturbances.
• The power system is steady-state stable for a particular steady-state operating condition if, following a small
disturbance, it returns to essentially the same steady-state condition of operation.
• However, if following a large disturbance, a significantly different but acceptable steady-state operating
condition is attained, we say that the system is transiently stable.
• Power system stability is the ability of an electric power system to return to
normal operation after being disturbed..
• The steady state stability is the stability of the system under conditions of gradual
or relatively slow change in load.
• The transient stability refers to the maximum flow of power possible through a
point without losing the stability with sudden and large changes in the network
conditions such as brought about by faults, by sudden large increment of loads.
• Steady state stability limit is the maximum possible power that can be transferred
at a given point of the system without loss of synchronism, with very gradual
increase of power.
• Transient stability limit refers to the maximum power that can be transferred at a
given point of the system without loss of synchronism for given sudden large
change in power.
The Power flow

Fig. Power flow in a 1-phase line

Now α is a function of the impedance of the line; therefore, the power 𝑃2 received is maximum when α + δ = 90° or
δ = (90 – α) and the value is given by

This shows that the maximum

power can be transferred from end
1 to end 2 when the reactance of
the line is 3 times its resistance.
For a lossless line r = 0 and the transmitted power
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
𝑷𝟐 = sin δ
𝒙
The above equation shows that the power transmitted depends upon the system
reactance and the angle between the two rotors. The curve drawn between 𝑃2 and δ
is known as the power angle curve and is shown in Fig. below.
• The maximum power transmitted is given by
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
𝑷𝒎 =
𝒙
• for a given 𝑽𝟏 , 𝑽𝟐 and x and occurs at an angle of 90°.
• 𝑷𝒎 is known as the steady state stability limit of the system which means that it is the maximum
power that can be transmitted and synchronism will be lost if an attempt is made to transmit power
more than this limit.
• The maximum value of power transmitted can be varied by varying 𝑽𝟏 , 𝑽𝟏 and x, the circuit
reactance.
• The torque angle δ is positive for generator action and negative for motor action.
• The system is stable if and only if for an increase in rotor angle δ, the transmitted power also
increases, i.e., the dP/dδ should be positive. It can be seen from power angle curve that the range
where dP/dδ is positive lies between 90 and –90°.
• The steady state stability limit can be increased by (i) increasing the excitation of the motor or
generator or both so that the internal e.m.fs. are increased, and (ii) reducing the reactance. This is
done by either running parallel lines or by using the series capacitors.
Swing equation
• The swing equation describes the dynamics of a synchronous machine's rotor in response to changes in
mechanical power and electrical power.
• It is used to analyze transient stability following disturbances.
• Under normal operations, the relative position of the rotor axis and the stator magnetic field axis is fixed.
• The angle between the two is known as the load angle or torque angle denoted by δ and depends upon the
loading of the machine.
• Larger the loading, larger is the value of the torque angle δ.
• If some load is added or removed from the shaft of the synchronous machine, the rotor will decelerate or
accelerate respectively with respect to the synchronously rotating stator field and a relative motion begins.
• It is said that the rotor is swinging with respect to the stator field.
• The equation describing the relative motion of the rotor (load angle δ) with respect to the stator field as a
function of time is known as swing equation.
• If 𝑇𝑠 represents the shaft torque and 𝑇𝑒 , the electromagnetic torque and if these are assumed positive for a
generator, the net torque causing acceleration is
𝑇𝑎 = 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑒 (1)
• For a motor if 𝑇𝑒 , the electromagnetic torque input is greater than the shaft torque output 𝑇𝑠 , the motor rotor
will accelerate.
• When expressed in terms of power,
𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑒
where 𝑃𝑎 is accelerating power.
• It is known that power is equal to torque times the angular velocity and torque is moment of inertia
times the angular acceleration.
𝑃𝑎 = 𝑇𝑎 ω = Jαω = Mα (2)
• Here ω is the angular velocity in mechanical radian per sec, i.e.
2𝜋𝑛𝑠
𝜔=
60
where 𝑛𝑠 is the synchronous speed of the machine in r.p.m. and α is the acceleration in mechanical
radians/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 . J is the moment of inertia in kg-𝑚2 .
From eq. (2),
M = Jω
where M is in joule-sec/mechanical radian.
No. of electrical radians or degrees = No. of mechanical radians or degrees × Number of pairs of
poles
• If M is to be expressed in joule-sec/electrical radian when ω is in mechanical radians/ sec, then
M = Jω/Number of pairs of poles
and if M is to be expressed in joule-sec/electrical degree, then
M = Jω/(Number of pairs of poles × 57.32)
as 1 radian = 57.32°.
Here M is known as the angular momentum and is expressed in terms of megajoules seconds per
electrical degree if 𝑃𝑎 is expressed in megawatts and α is in electrical degrees per second squared.
The acceleration α can be expressed in terms of the angular position of the rotor as
𝑑2𝜃
α= 2 (3)
𝑑𝑡
The angle θ changes continuously with respect to time when a sudden change occurs in the system.
The value of θ is given by
θ = 𝜔𝑟 t + δ (4)
where, 𝜔𝑟 is the angular velocity of the reference synchronously rotating axis and δ is the angular
displacement in electrical degrees from the synchronously rotating reference axis.
 Fig. Angular position of rotor with respect to
reference axis.

Taking the derivative of eq. (4),

𝑑𝜃 𝑑δ
= 𝜔𝑟 + (5)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝜃 𝑑 δ
2
and = 2 (6)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
From eq. (2), (3) and (6),
𝒅𝟐 δ
𝑴 𝟐 = 𝑷𝒂 = 𝑷𝒔 − 𝑷𝒆 (7)
𝒅𝒕
• Eq. (7) is known as the swing equation.
• If it is a two machine system, two swing equations are required, one for each machine. The
torque angle between the two machines depends upon the angles between each machine and
the synchronously rotating reference frame.
• H, called as inertia constant is defined as the ratio of the kinetic energy at rated speed to the rated
apparent power of the machine, i.e.,
Stored energy in megajoules
H=
Rating in MVA
A relation between M and H is derived as follows:
Let G be the rating of the machine in MVA and f the frequency of the system.
Then by definition
G × H = Stored energy in megajoules
1 1
= Mω= M. 2πf
2 2
𝐺𝐻
M= megajoule-second/radian
πf
𝐺𝐻
M= megajoule-second/ elect. degree
180f
• Referring back to swing equation,
𝒅𝟐 δ
𝑴 𝟐 = 𝑷𝒔 − 𝑷𝒆
𝒅𝒕
𝑷𝒔 is fixed and substituting for 𝑷𝒆 for a lossless system the swing equation becomes
𝒅𝟐 δ 𝑽 𝑽
𝑴 𝟐 = 𝑷𝒔 − 𝟏 𝟐 sin δ
𝒅𝒕 𝒙
𝒅𝟐 δ
𝑴 𝟐 =𝑷𝒔 − 𝑷𝒎 sin δ
𝒅𝒕
When the swing equation is solved, an expression for δ as a function of time is obtained. A graph of
the solution is called the swing curve of the machine and inspection of the swing curves of all the
machines of the system will show whether the machines remain in synchronism after a disturbance.
Machines Swinging Coherently
Consider the swing equations of two machines or a common system base
𝐻1 𝒅𝟐 δ𝟏
= 𝑷𝒔𝟏 − 𝑷𝒆𝟏 p.u. (1)
πf 𝒅𝒕𝟐

𝐻2 𝒅𝟐 δ𝟐
= 𝑷𝒔𝟐 − 𝑷𝒆𝟐 p.u. (2)
πf 𝒅𝒕𝟐
Since the machine rotors swing together (coherently or in unison)
δ𝟏 = δ𝟐 = δ
Adding eq. (1) and (2)
𝑯𝒆𝒒 𝒅𝟐 δ
= 𝑷𝒔 − 𝑷𝒆 (3)
πf 𝒅𝒕𝟐
where
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑠1 + 𝑃𝑠2
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃𝑒1 + 𝑃𝑒2
𝑯𝒆𝒒 = 𝑯𝟏 + 𝑯𝟐 (4)
• The two machines swinging coherently are thus reduced to a single machine as in
eq. (3). The equivalent inertia in eq. (4) can be written as
𝑯𝒆𝒒 = 𝑯𝟏 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝑮𝟏 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉 /𝑮𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 + 𝑯𝟐 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝑮𝟐 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉 /𝑮𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 (5)
where 𝑮 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉 = machine rating (base)
𝑮𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 = system base
The above results are easily extendable to any number of machines swinging
coherently.
Question:
A cylindrical rotor synchronous generator is connected the infinite bus and is delivering current of 1
p.u. at 0.91 p.f. lag., the bus bar voltage is 1.00 p.u. The direct axis sub-transient reaction 𝑋𝐷′ =0.37.
Determine the equation for power angle curve. Calculate the steady state stability limit.
Solution:
Power equation for a cylindrical rotor machine:
𝐸𝑉
P= 𝑠i𝑛𝛿 for steady state
𝑋𝑑
𝐸′𝑉
P= 𝑠i𝑛𝛿 for transient state
𝑋𝑑′

Where E and 𝐸 ′ =voltage behind reactance

V=Terminal voltage
𝛿=Angle between E and V
Considering V as reference vector
V=V ∠0∘ = 1 ∠0∘ = 1 + 𝑗0 p.u.
I= 1 ∠ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0.91 = 1 ∠ −24.5∘ p.u.
𝐸 ′ =V+j I𝑋𝑑′ = 1 ∠0∘ + (1 ∠ −24.5∘ )(0.37 ∠90∘ )= 1.20 ∠16.3∘ p.u.
Power angle curve is given by
𝐸′𝑉 1.20
P= 𝑠i𝑛𝛿 = 𝑠i𝑛𝛿 p.u.
𝑋𝑑′ 0.37
𝐸 ′ 𝑉 1.20×1
The steady state stability limit = = = 3.24 p.u.
𝑋𝑑′ 0.37

Question:
A 4 pole , 50 Hz ,12.5 kV turbogenerator is rated 200MVA. Its inertia constant H is
8 MJ/MVA. Determine
(a) Stored energy in rotor at its synchronous speed.
(b) If mechanical input to shaft suddenly raised from 100 to 160 MW, find rotor
angle acceleration neglecting electrical and mechanical losses.
(a) Stored energy = GH = 200× 8 = 1600 𝑀𝐽
(b) 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑒 =160-100=60 MW
From swing eq.
𝑑2 δ
𝑀 2 = 𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑒 =60
𝑑𝑡
𝐺𝐻 1600 8
M= = = MJ sec/elec. deg.
180f 180×50 45
8 𝑑2 δ
Hence, =60
45 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 δ 60×45
=Angular acceleration= = 337.5 elec. deg. /𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑑𝑡 2 8
Equal Area Criterion
• The Equal Area Criterion is a method used in power system stability analysis to determine the
stability of a power system following a disturbance, such as a fault or a sudden change in load. It
helps to assess whether a system will return to a stable operating condition or if it will oscillate
indefinitely or diverge.
• It is a graphical method used to determine the transient stability of a power system by comparing
the areas under the power-angle curve during a disturbance.
• One machine swinging with respect to an infinite bus. The swing equation of the finite machine is
𝑑2δ
𝑀 2 = 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃i − 𝑃𝑢
𝑑𝑡
where 𝑃i = shaft power input, 𝑃𝑢 =electrical power output
Multiplying both the sides of the equation by 2dδ/Mdt,
𝑑2 δ 𝑑δ 𝑃 𝑑δ
2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝑀𝑎 𝑑𝑡

2
𝑑 𝑑δ 𝑃𝑎 𝑑δ
or =2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑀 𝑑𝑡

Next multiply each side by dt, obtaining differentials instead of derivatives,

2
𝑑δ 𝑃
𝑑 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝑀𝑎 𝑑δ

And integrate.
2
𝑑δ 2 𝛿
= න 𝑃𝑎 𝑑𝛿
𝑑𝑡 𝑀 𝛿0

𝑑δ 2 𝛿
= 𝜔′ = න 𝑃 𝑑𝛿
𝑑𝑡 𝑀 𝛿0 𝑎
• When the machine comes to rest with respect to the infinite bus – a condition which may be taken
to indicate stability
𝜔′ =0
requiring that
𝛿𝑚
න 𝑃𝑎 𝑑𝛿 = 𝟎
𝛿0
This integral may be interpreted graphically as shown in Fig.1 as the area under a curve of 𝑃𝑎 plotted
against 𝛿 between limits 𝛿0 , the initial angle, and 𝛿𝑚 , the final angle; or, since
𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃i − 𝑃𝑢
the integral may be interpreted also as the area between the curve of 𝑃i versus 𝛿 and the curve of 𝑃𝑢
versus 𝛿.
.
• The curve of 𝑃i versus 𝛿 is a horizontal line,
since 𝑃i is assumed constant. The curve of
𝑃u versus 𝛿, known as a power angle curve,
is a sinusoid when the network is linear and
the machine is represented by a constant
reactance.
• The area, to be equal to zero, must consist of
a positive portion 𝐴1 , for which 𝑃i > 𝑃u , and
an equal and opposite negative portion 𝐴2 ,
for which 𝑃i < 𝑃u .
• Hence originates the name, equal-area
criterion for stability.
Applications of the equal-area criterion.
1. A sustained line fault.
2. A line fault cleared after the lapse of a certain time by the simultaneous opening of the circuit
breakers at both ends of the line.

The fault is assumed to occur at point X of the simple system as shown in Fig 2, which consists of a
generator connected through a double circuit line to an infinite bus. The input to the generator and the
voltage behind transient reactance are assumed constant.

Fig. 2 Power system consisting of a generator connected through a double

circuit line to an infinite bus.
1. Sustained line fault
• The power-angle curves, giving the generator output versus displacement angle, are shown in Fig. 3 for
two conditions: (1) normal, and (2) faulted.

Fig. 3 The equal-area criterion applied to a sustained fault on the power system The generator swings from the initial angle 𝛿0 to the maximum angle 𝛿𝑚
determined by equality of areas 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 . The system is stable when transmitting power 𝑃i .

• The horizontal line at distance 𝑃i above the axis represents the constant input.
• The initial operating point is a at the intersection of the input and normal output curves.
• The initial displacement angle output is 𝛿0 , and the initial relative angular velocity is zero.
• When the fault is applied, the operating point drops to b, directly below a on the fault output curve.
• The displacement angle remains 𝛿0 at the instant of fault application.
• The accelerating power, 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃i - 𝑃u ; represented by the length ab.
• As a consequence, the generator is accelerated, the displacement angle increases, and the operating point
moves along the curve from b towards c.
• As it does so, the accelerating power and the acceleration decrease, becoming zero at c.
• At this point, however, the speed of the generator is greater than that of the infinite bus, and the angle 𝛿
continues to increase.
• As it does so, 𝑃𝑎 becomes negative, representing retarding power.
• The speed diminishes until at point d, determined by the equality of area 𝐴1 = abc and area 𝐴2 = cde, it
becomes zero.
• Here, the maximum angular displacement 𝛿𝑚 is reached.
• There is still a retarding torque; therefore, the speed of the generator continues to decrease, becoming less
than that of the infinite bus.
• The displacement angle 𝛿 decreases, and the operating point moves from d
through c toward b. The system is stable.
• The operating point would continue to oscillate between b and d, if there were no
damping.
• With damping present, the oscillations diminish, and the operating point finally
becomes established at c.
• If input 𝑃i were greater than 𝑃m2 , the maximum output with the fault on, there
would be no retardation and, the system would be unstable with a sustained fault.
• If the initial load on the generator were increased, as represented by raising the input line, areas 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 and
the maximum angle 𝛿𝑚 would increase.
• The greatest value which 𝑃i could have without the machine going out of step during the existence of the fault
would be that value which makes 𝛿𝑚 occur at the intersection of the input curve and the fault output curve, as
shown in Fig below.
• This is the critical condition in which both the speed and the acceleration become zero simultaneously at angle
𝛿𝑚 .
• The value of 𝑃i which makes this condition occur is the transient stability limit.
• If the initial load were still larger, then area 𝐴2 would be smaller than area 𝐴1 .
• The generator would reach point e on the curve where the acceleration is zero, with the speed above normal.
Consequently, 𝛿 would continue to increase, and, as it did so, the accelerating power would again become
positive. The system would be unstable. In this case, there is some retardation (between c and e), but not enough
to prevent loss of synchronism.

Fig. 4 Application of the equal-area criterion to finding the power

limit of the power system of Fig. 2 with a sustained fault. The input
line is raised from its position in Fig. 3 until 𝛿𝑚 reaches the
intersection of the input line with the curve of output, fault on.
2. Line fault with subsequent clearing
• In this case three power-angle curves are needed (1) for the normal or pre-fault condition with the
system intact, (2) for the fault condition, and (3) for the post-fault or cleared condition with the
faulted line disconnected. These curves are shown below.

Fig. 5 The equal-area criterion applied to the power system for a fault cleared at angle 𝛿𝑐 .
• As in case 1, the initial angle 𝛿0 is determined by the intersection of the input line and the pre-fault
output curve (point a).
• Application of the fault causes the operating point to drop from a to b on the fault output curve,
and the accelerating power causes it to move along the curve from b towards c.
• It may be assumed that, when point c is reached, the circuit breakers open, clearing the fault.
• The operating point then jumps up to e on the post-fault output curve and travels along that curve
to f, where area 𝐴2 = defg equals area 𝐴1 = abcd.
• With a cleared fault, as with a sustained fault, a higher input (and initial output) would cause point f
to move to the right until at the stability limit f would coincide with h. A still higher value of 𝑃i
would lead to instability.
• The point f will move to the right if there is an increase in the time of clearing the fault, resulting in
a larger clearing angle 𝛿𝑐 .
• For any given initial load there is a critical clearing angle. If the actual clearing angle is smaller
than the critical value, the system is stable; if larger, the system is unstable.
• The critical clearing angle is the maximum allowable value of the rotor angle (δ)
at which a fault must be cleared for the system to remain stable.
• It's a crucial parameter in power system stability analysis. If a fault is cleared
before the rotor angle exceeds this critical value, the system will return to a stable
operating condition. Exceeding the critical clearing angle leads to instability.
Point-by-point method
• The solution of the swing equation helps to determine the critical clearing time corresponding to
the critical clearing angle (i.e., the time when the rotor would have moved to the critical clearing
angle) and allows for the proper setting of relay and circuit breaker operation time, ensuring the
stability and security of the power system.
• The non-linear nature and trigonometric terms in the swing equation make it challenging to obtain
analytical solutions.
• That's why numerical methods are commonly employed to solve the swing equation. These
methods involve discretizing the time domain and iteratively calculating the rotor angle and speed
at each time step.
• The point-by-point method is a widely used numerical technique for solving the swing equation.
It involves breaking down the time domain into discrete intervals and calculating rotor angle and
speed at each interval.
Steps involved:
1. System Initialization
• Set initial conditions: Initial rotor angle, Initial rotor speed, System parameters (M, 𝑃i , initial load
conditions)
2. Discretization:
• Choose a suitable time step Δt (i.e., Divide the time axis into small intervals of size Δt)
3. Numerical Integration:
• Use a numerical integration method (e.g., Euler's method, Runge-Kutta methods) to solve the
swing equation iteratively.
4. Power Calculations:
• At each time step, calculate the electrical power output based on the current rotor angle and system
conditions (load, network impedance, etc.). This involves solving power flow equations.
5. Stability Assessment:
• Monitor the rotor angle δ and its rate of change ω over time.
• If the rotor angle exceeds a critical value, the system is deemed unstable.
• If the rotor angle oscillates and converges to a steady-state value, the system is stable.
Methods to Improve Transient Stability in Power Systems
• Higher system voltage.
• Use of parallel lines to reduce the series reactance.
• Use of high-speed circuit breakers and auto-reclosing breakers.
• Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS): Devices like STATCOMs and SVCs can
improve system stability by controlling voltage and reactive power.
• High-Speed Valve Control: Rapidly adjust turbine valve positions to control
mechanical input power.
• Fast-acting governors: Quickly adjust mechanical input power to the generator.
• Fast-acting excitation systems: Quickly adjust generator voltage to stabilize the
system.
Voltage stability: concept, causes and counter measures
• Some of the definitions of power system voltage stability are
1. A power system at a given operating state is small disturbance voltage stable if,
following any small disturbance, voltages near loads are identical or close to the
pre-disturbance values.
2. A power system at a given operating state and subject to a given disturbance is
voltage stable if voltages near loads approach post disturbance equilibrium
values
3. A power system at a given operating state and subject to a given disturbance
under goes voltage collapse if post-disturbance equilibrium voltages are below
acceptable limits. Voltage collapse may be total (black out) or partial.
 Voltage Instability vs. Voltage Collapse
Voltage Instability
Definition: A condition where a small disturbance in the power system can lead to a significant
decline in voltage levels.
Characteristics:
• A gradual decrease in voltage levels.
• The system may recover if the disturbance is removed quickly.
• Often associated with load increase or generator outages
Voltage Collapse
Definition: A catastrophic event where voltage levels continue to decline rapidly, leading to a
blackout.
Characteristics:
• A rapid and uncontrolled decrease in voltage levels.
• The system is unable to recover, resulting in a widespread blackout.
• Often occurs after a voltage instability event if corrective actions are not taken.
Key Differences:

Feature Voltage Instability Voltage Collapse

Severity Less severe More severe
Possible with timely corrective Difficult or impossible to
Recovery
actions recover
Timeframe Gradual decline Rapid decline
Impact Localized outages Widespread blackouts
Causes of Voltage Instability and Collapse:
1. Heavy Loading: Excessive load on the system can lead to voltage drops.
2. Reactive Power Deficiency: Insufficient reactive power can cause voltage sags.
3. Transmission Network Constraints: Weak or congested transmission lines can
limit power transfer.
4. Generator Outages: Loss of generation can lead to voltage drops, especially in
weak systems.
5. Fault Conditions: Faults on the system can trigger voltage instability and
collapse.
Mitigation techniques or counter measures:
1. Reactive Power Support: Using devices like STATCOMs and SVCs to provide
reactive power.
2. Voltage Control: Employing voltage control devices like transformers and tap
changers.
3. Load Shedding: Reducing load during emergencies to relieve stress on the
system.
4. Fast-Acting Protection Systems: Rapidly isolating faults to minimize their
impact.
5. Advanced Control Strategies: Implementing sophisticated control algorithms
to improve system stability.
Load Frequency Control (LFC)
• Load Frequency Control (LFC) is a crucial control strategy in power systems to maintain system
frequency within acceptable limits. It ensures that the power generated matches the power
demanded by the load.
• Maintaining system frequency is essential for the reliable operation of power systems.
• How LFC Works:
1. Frequency Deviation Detection: Sensors monitor the system frequency and detect deviations
from the nominal value.
2. Control Signal Generation: A control signal is generated based on the frequency deviation.
3. Generator Speed Adjustment: The control signal is sent to the generator's governor, which
adjusts the steam valve opening or fuel input to the turbine.
4. Power Output Adjustment: The generator’s electrical power output is adjusted to compensate
for the frequency deviation.
5. Frequency Restoration: The system frequency is restored to its prescribed limits.
P-f versus Q-V Control
• P-f Control and Q-V Control are fundamental control strategies employed in power systems to
maintain system stability and quality.
P-f Control (Real Power-Frequency Control):
Objective: To regulate the system frequency by controlling the real power output of generators.
• When the system frequency decreases, the generator's real power output is increased.
• Conversely, when the frequency increases, the real power output is decreased.
Mechanism:
1. Frequency Deviation Detection: Sensors monitor the system frequency and detect deviations
from the nominal value.
2. Control Signal Generation: A control signal is generated based on the frequency deviation.
3. Generator Speed Adjustment: The control signal is sent to the generator's governor, which
adjusts the steam valve opening or fuel input to the turbine.
4. Power Output Adjustment: The generator’s electrical power output is adjusted to compensate
for the frequency deviation.
Purpose:
• To maintain system frequency within acceptable limits.
• To balance real power generation and load demand.
Q-V Control (Reactive Power-Voltage Control)
Objective: To regulate the system voltage magnitude by controlling the reactive power output of
generators and reactive power sources.
• When the system voltage decreases, the generator's reactive power output is increased.
• Conversely, when the voltage increases, the reactive power output is decreased.
Mechanism:
Voltage Magnitude Detection: Sensors monitor the system voltage magnitude and detect deviations
from the nominal value.
Control Signal Generation: A control signal is generated based on the voltage deviation.
Excitation System Adjustment: The control signal is sent to the generator's excitation system,
which adjusts the field current.
Reactive Power Output Adjustment: The generator's reactive power output is adjusted to
compensate for the voltage deviation.
Purpose:
To maintain system voltage levels within acceptable limits.
To control voltage profiles and power factor.
𝒁𝒃𝒖𝒔 formulation
I𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑠
or, 𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 −1 I𝑏𝑢𝑠 = Z𝑏𝑢𝑠 I𝑏𝑢𝑠 (1)
or, Z𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 −1
Current Injection Technique
Eq. (1) can be written in expanded form as
𝑉1 = 𝑍11 I1 + 𝑍12 I2 + ⋯ + 𝑍1𝑛 I𝑛
𝑉2 = 𝑍21 I1 + 𝑍22 I2 + ⋯ + 𝑍2𝑛 I𝑛
⋮ (2)
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑍𝑛1 I1 + 𝑍𝑛2 I2 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑛𝑛 I𝑛
From Eq. (2),
𝑉
𝑍i𝑗 = I i , with I1 = I2 = ⋯ = I𝑛 = 0 and I𝑗 ≠ 0 (3)
𝑗

Also, 𝑍i𝑗 = 𝑍ji (Z𝑏𝑢𝑠 is a symmetrical matrix).

As per Eq. (3), if a unit current is injected at bus (node) j, while the other buses are kept open circuited, the
bus voltages yield the values of the 𝑗 𝑡ℎ column of Z𝑏𝑢𝑠 .
• Question:
Consider the network given below with three buses, one of which is a reference.
Evaluate Z𝑏𝑢𝑠 .
• Solution:

Injecting a unit current at bus 1 keeping bus 2 open

circuit, i.e., I1 = I and I2 = 0 as shown in Fig.
𝑍11 = 𝑉1 = 7
𝑍21 = 𝑉2 = 4

Now let I1 = 0 and I2 = 1

𝑍12 = 𝑉1 = 4 = 𝑍21
𝑍22 = 𝑉2 = 6

So, the Z𝑏𝑢𝑠 is

7 4
Z𝑏𝑢𝑠 =
4 6
𝒁𝒃𝒖𝒔 building algorithm
• It has the advantage that any modification of the network does not require complete rebuilding of
Zbus .
• Consider that Zbus has been formulated up to a certain stage and another branch is now added.
Then

• Upon adding a new branch, one of the following situations is presented.

➢ Zb is added from a new bus to the reference bus (the dimension of Zbus goes up by one). This is
type-1 modification.
➢ Zb is added from a new bus to an old bus (the dimension of Zbus goes up by one). This is type-2
modification.
➢ Zb is added from an old bus to the reference bus (dimension of Zbus does not change). This is
type-3 modification.
➢ Zb connects two old buses (dimension of Zbus does not change). This is type-4 modification.

Notation: i, j - old buses; r - reference bus; k - new bus.

Type- 1 Modification
Fig. 1 shows a passive (linear) n-bus network in which branch with impedance Zb is added to the new
bus k and the reference bus r. Now

Fig. 1 Type- 1 Modification

Type- 2 Modification
𝑍𝑏 is added from new bus k to the old bus j as in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Type- 2 Modification

Type- 3 Modification
𝑍𝑏 connects an old bus (j) to the reference bus (r) as in Fig. 3. This case follows from Fig. 2 by
connecting bus k to the reference bus r, i.e. by setting 𝑉k = 0.

(4)

Eliminating I𝑘 in the set of equations contained in the

matrix operation (4).
0= 𝑍𝑗1 I1 + 𝑍𝑗2 I2 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑗𝑛 I𝑛 + (𝑍𝑗𝑗 +𝑍𝑏 )I𝑘
1
Fig. 3 Type- 3 Modification or, I𝑘 = − (𝑍𝑗1 I1 + 𝑍𝑗2 I2 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑗𝑛 I𝑛 ) (5)
𝑍𝑗𝑗 −𝑍𝑏
Now, 𝑉i = 𝑍i1 I1 + 𝑍i2 I2 + ⋯ + 𝑍i𝑛 I𝑛 + 𝑍i𝑗 I𝑘 (6)
Substituting Eq. (6) in Eq. (5)

(7)

𝒁𝟏𝒋
𝟏
𝐙𝐛𝒖𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒁𝒃𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒍𝒅 − ⋮ 𝒁𝒋𝟏 ⋯ 𝒁𝒋𝒏 (8)
𝒁𝒋𝒋 +𝒁𝒃
𝒁𝒏𝒋
Type- 4 Modification
𝑍𝑏 connects two old buses as in Fig. 4 . Equations can be written as follows for all the
network buses(9)

Similar equations follow for other buses. (9)

The voltages of the buses i and j are, however,

constrained by the equation

(10)

Fig. 4 Type- 4 Modification

(11)
Collecting equations similar to Eq. (9) and Eq. (11) we can write

(12)

Eliminating I𝑘 in Eq. (12) on lines similar to what was done in Type-2 modification, it follows that

𝒁1i − 𝒁𝟏𝒋
𝟏
𝐙𝐛𝒖𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒁𝒃𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒍𝒅 − ⋮ (𝒁i1 − 𝒁𝒋𝟏 ) ⋯ (𝒁in − 𝒁𝒋𝒏) ) (13)
𝒁𝒃 + 𝒁ii + 𝒁𝒋𝒋 − 𝟐𝒁i𝒋 𝒁 𝒁𝒏𝒋
ni −

• In order to eliminate a link between two nodes (impedance between two nodes), the same value of
impedance with negative value is to be added as a link between the corresponding nodes.
• Question:
For the 3-bus network shown in Fig. below, (a) build 𝑍𝑏𝑢𝑠 (b) Find 𝑍𝑏𝑢𝑠 (new) if line 3-2 is opened.
• Solution:
b) If line 3-2 is opened , then
𝐙𝐛𝒖𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒘
= 𝒁𝒃𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒍𝒅
𝟏 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟑
− 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟕 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟕 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓
−𝟎. 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟕 − 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓
Question:
• The Thevenin passive network for this system
 𝐙𝐛𝒖𝒔 =

a)

b)
 d)

c)