Introduction

The skeletal system is the structural framework of the human body, essential for maintaining
shape, supporting movement, and protecting vital organs. It serves multiple purposes, such as
providing support, enabling movement, storing minerals, and producing blood cells. By
understanding its structure and functions, students can appreciate its critical role in overall health
and physiology.

Learning Objectives

After studying this document, students should be able to:

1. Identify and Explain the Functions of the Skeletal System:

o Understand the roles of support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood
cell production, and energy storage.
2. Describe the Components of Bone(Bone Composition):
o Identify the types of bones, cartilage, joints, ligaments, and tendons and their
specific functions.
3. Differentiate Between the Axial and Appendicular Skeletons:
o Recognize the bones that make up each division and their respective purposes.
o Distinguish between long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid bones with
examples.
4. Classify Bones Based on Their Structural Arrangement:
o Based on their developmental Origin
5. Discuss the Role of the Skeletal System in Movement:
o Explain how bones interact with muscles, joints, and tendons to facilitate
movement.
6. Understand The Process of Bone Formation (Osteogenesis):

Key Functions:

1. Support: The skeleton provides a rigid framework that supports the body’s tissues and
organs.
2. Protection: Bones protect delicate organs, such as the brain (protected by the skull),
heart, and lungs (protected by the rib cage).
3. Movement: Bones act as levers, working with muscles to facilitate movement.
4. Mineral Storage: Bones store essential minerals, such as calcium and phosphorus, which
can be released into the bloodstream as needed.
5. Blood Cell Production: Bone marrow, found in certain bones, produces red and white
blood cells and platelets (a process called hematopoiesis).
6. Energy Storage: Yellow bone marrow stores lipids, which serve as an energy reserve.
Components of the Skeletal System:

1. Bones: The primary organs of the skeletal system, there are 206 bones in an adult human
body.
2. Cartilage: A flexible, connective tissue that cushions joints and supports structures like
the ear and nose.
3. Joints: Points where two or more bones meet, enabling movement and flexibility.
4. Ligaments: Tough, fibrous tissues that connect bones to other bones at joints.
5. Tendons: Connective tissues that attach muscles to bones.

Divisions of the Skeleton:

1. Axial Skeleton:
o The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones which includes the skull, vertebral
column, and rib cage.
2. Appendicular Skeleton:
o While the appendicular consists of 126 bones which includes the bones of the
upper and lower limbs, shoulder girdle, and pelvic girdle.
o Facilitates movement and interaction with the environment.

Bone Classification:

Bones are classified based on their shape:

1. Long Bones: Found in limbs (e.g., femur, humerus).

2. Short Bones: Found in wrists and ankles (e.g., carpals, tarsals).
3. Flat Bones: Protect organs and provide surfaces for muscle attachment (e.g., skull,
sternum).
4. Irregular Bones: Have complex shapes (e.g., vertebrae, pelvic bones).
5. Sesamoid Bones: Small bones embedded in tendons (e.g., patella).

The skeletal system is crucial not only for maintaining physical structure but also for enabling
bodily functions essential for survival.

Bone Formation

Bone is a plastic tissue, highly sensitive to alteration. It’s normal mechanical functions “Wolf’s
law 1820 states that every change in form and functions of the bone or their functions alone is
followed by certain definite changes In their external configuration in accordance with
mathematical laws, that increased skeletal use is accomplished by bone hypertrophy with an
increase in bone mass.
Skeletal disease results in bone atrophy associated with a loss in substance”
A living bone is: -
a. Essentially highly vascularized i.e. it has a lot of blood supply.
b. Constantly changing in shape.
c. Mineralized
d. And ivory like connective tissue
e. It is remarkable for its hardness, resilience, characteristics growth mechanism and
regenerative capacity.

Composition of bone.

Bone is made-up of three basic divisions;

1. The organic matrix
2. Cells
3. The in-organic matrix

The Organic Matrix

This is formed by collagen fibers bond by mucopolysaccharide compound, resistant protein and citrate.

The Cells
Osteoblast – this is a specialized cell that form bone or osteoid, disease which will result from osteoblast
producing a defective product includes:
 Osteogenesis imperfect – said to be a result of defective matrix in which the collagen fibers have
a wrong amino acid sequence resulting in a defective organization and excessive fragility.
 Marfan Syndrome – Abnormally long and slender bones of the extremities
 Ehlers’s – Danlos Syndrome
 Hurler’s Syndrome – Defect in skeletal deep in the skull, is grossly deformed, digital bones are
bulbous
 Mucopolysaccharidosis
Osteocytes – a cell derived from osteoblast. It has cytoplasmic processes which projects into Canaliculi
of bone and inter-connect with similar processes from other osteocytes. They are found in the lacunae
of bone. The main function of the osteocyte is the transportation of substances in and out of the bone
matrix. No known disease is directly associated with the malfunctioning of the osteocytes but they may
be linked with diseases of bone maintenance such as osteoporosis.
Osteoclast – is the largest of the three bone cells. Its function is of molding the bone. It absorbs bone
matrix and releases calcium and phosphorous content’s the process. Failure of osteoclastic function
would result in failure of skeletal molding.

Inorganic Matrix of bone

Minerals containing calcium and phosphorous are also laid down. This makes the bone to be hard,
ridged and ratio-aspect consists of crystalline hydroxyapatite of calcium and phosphorous complex, with
these the bone contains the following salt:
1. Calcium
2. Magnesium
3. Phosphate
 4. Carbonate
5. Hydroxyl
6. Chloride
7. Fluoride
8. Citrate
All these combines to form the crystalline hydroxyapatite. On the whole about 25 – 30% is H 2O,
approximately 60 – 70% is composed of minerals which makes the bone hard and ridged and
radiopaque. This hardness and rigidity give the bone the ability to resist compressions.
Whatever percent that is remained is made up to collagen tissue which provides the bone with the
ability to resist tension

Ossification / Osteogenesis

Before the end of embryo period, the human skeleton consists of ‘bone’ which are not really bones but
models of hyaline cartilage and fibrous membrane shaped like bones. The process whereby the pre bone
structures are gradually replaced by bones is known as ossification or osteogenesis.

Before birth, 7-8 festal weak primary centers of ossification are formed while secondary centers develop
at their individual specific time, some appear before birth and some as late as adolescent.

Ossification of these structures begins with the appearance of special bone forming cells known as
osteoblast. Like every other cell in the body, osteoblast processes organelles which include the Golgi
apparatus and the endoplasmic reticulum.

The golgi apparatus in osteoblast specializes in synthetizing and secreting a protein carbohydrate
compound called mucopolysaccharide or (cement substance). The endoplasmic reticulum meet and
secrets collagen fibers, within a period large amount of mucopolysaccharide accumulates around each
osteoblast and osteocytes produce by it. And numerous boundless of collagen fibers become embedded
in them.

Together these constitute the organic intercellular substance of organic matrix. As fast as this bone
matrix, inorganic matrix substance of complex salt begins to deposit in the organic matrix. Ossification
progresses in all directions from the primary centers. At the same time the outside diameter of the line
bone is defined by intramembranous ossification under the periosteum.

At the secondary centers, ossification continues circumferentially until the original cartilage model is
replaced except for a very thin epiphysial plate which is also known as growth plate, epiphysial cartilage,
epiphysial disk which separate the shaft or the diaphysis from epiphysial.

This process is peculiar to long bones, flat bones or irregular bones do not have epiphysial plate. But the
same process of ossification occurs in them. The area of most recently formed bones in the shaft of a
long bone is known as metaphysis. Each bone takes accurate timing to complete replacement of
cartilage bones. This process could be slow or fast depending on so many factors such as:

1. State of endocrine secretion

2. Racial geography
3. Hereditary tendency
 4. Nutrition
5. Sex
6. Health

It is said that the growth in length of bones in female will stop 1-3 years earlier than in male. It is also
noted that trauma and over strain may cause pre-mature stoppage of growth, but ill treatment and
malnutrition delay growth of bones. Normally bones stop growing at twenty one years.

Classification of Bone

Bones may be classified in the following ways.

1. Classification based on developmental origin. Bone may develop by direct transformation from
mesenchymal form or preceded by cartilaginous form later replaced by bone itself. Therefore
there are:
a) Intramembranous bone e.g. scapula and a number of the cranial bone and the ribs and
clavicle. These bones are first represented in the fetus as two layers of membranes before
the layer of bone minerals and other substances are laid down.
 Intra-cartilaginous or Endochondral bones. Long bones such as femur, fibula, tibia, humerus
radius ulna phalanges are first represented in the fetus as base of soft cartilage before these
bone substances and minerals are layed down.
b) Sesamoid bone: these bones are formed in muscle tendon usually in places where the
tendon is in contact with an articular surface. They resemble short bones. Though invested
in fibrous tissue they articulate with adjacent long bones e.g. the patella, the adductor
pollicis and flexor policies braves . these are the two short muscles of the tombs. They have
in their combine tendon two sesamoid bone which modify the action of the tomb. The
tendon of the short flexor muscle of the great toe also contains two sesamoid bone which
are situated beneath the head of the first metatarsal. In most cases irregular bones such as
vertebra, ethmoid, sacrum, coccyx and mandible, and short bones such as the carpal and
tarsal in the wrist and ankle in the body are intramembranous.
 2. Classification based on Structural arrangement.
a. Compact or Dense bone: the adjacent haversian unit of the bone fit closely together with
spaces between them filled with interstitial lamella. These give the ivory like appearance of
the bone.
b. Cancellous bone: in this bone there are many open spaces between thin beams of bone
called trabeculae which are formed together. Trabeculae is said to be laid down in response
to stress of strain and weight bearing. The arrangement therefore differs in different bones.
The gross structure of long bones are found mostly in the limbs. They are designed primarily
for weight bearing swiping, speedy movements.

Gross structure of a long bone

Gross Structure and Functions of the Long Bone

A long bone consists of:

1. A long bone tubular part called the shaft, the body or the diaphysis which contains hollow cavity
called the medullary cavity filled with bone marrow and surrounded with compact bones.
2. Two ends which may be distal and proximal or media and lateral known as epiphysis. This
epiphysis may display protrusions called condyles, tubercles tuberosities or trochanters which
may serve as point of attachment or pulling for tendons and ligament. The epiphysis also
present articular surfaces which are covered by hyaline cartilage or articular cartilage.

The functions of these are:

 a. Increased fitness of fit
b. Prevents excessive wear.
c. Distribute weight across the joint surface.
d. Absorb shock.
e. Prevent dislocation of the joint.

Between the shaft and the epiphysis of both ends and the epiphyseal plates which may also be
known as epiphyseal disc, cartilage or growth plate. The articular cartilage is responsible for the
wide gap between two articular ends of the bone as seen in an x-ray.

Growth in length of bone tales place at the epiphyseal plate. This may be affected adversely by
trauma. One single force or repeated forces can stop the bone growth or dislocate it at the
metaphyseal epiphyseal junction which may be known as slipped epiphysis.

The strength of muscle fibrous capsule against a surrounding joint is 100 to 5 times greater than
the strength of the junction. (The obsessed child of frolic syndrome type) is most susceptible to
epiphysis disc.

Towards the end of the long bone, the medullary cavity give way to spongy or cancellous bone
which are arranged in a complex grill work called trabeculae and are as hard as compact bone.

3. Metaphysis: The area of recently formed bone in the shaft of a long bone before the epiphyseal
plate is known as the metaphysis. These has the largest number of capillary stuff and the
circulation is rich and sluggish. The larger the bone, the higher the growth rate and the larger
the volume of filtrate blood at the metaphysis. Bacteria from distal focus such as furuncle,
tonsilitis, ordinary sore that boil or infected skin wound form colonies in the metaphysis because
of the sluggish circulating process can cause acute hematogenous bone infection (Osteomyelitis)
this area is also a common site for bone tumurs.
4. Membranes of the bones:
a. The Periosteum: this is the fibrous connective tissue which covers the outside of the bone
surfaces except the articular surfaces is known as periosteum. It develops from the
perichondrium membranous covering of the cartilage which precedes the developments of
bone. It has two layers, the outer collagenous fiber and the deeper layer which is osteogenic
(capable of producing osteoblast). This is responsible for the growth in diameter of the long
bone (periosteal osteogenic or ossification).

The peristrum is out held to the outside of the compact bone by tiny processes called the
sherpys fiber. The periosteum therefore has important functions to perform:

1. Protection (bones may not repair once the periosteum is destroyed).

2. It is a means of attachment of muscles ligament or joint capsules. These structures are
not allowed to bond directly.
3. It holds blood vessels unto the surface of the bone to maintain blood supply and
vernous return to and for the bone surface.
4. It is osteogenic.
5. It holds nerve branches o the bone. It is therefore extremely sensitive to injury (most
pain and bone brusies originate from the periosteum) because it is extremely sensitive.
 b. The Endosteum: living the medullary cavity and the haversian canal and the intra-frabicular
spaces is the enfosteum. A similar membrane to the periosteum. This is also osteogenic.
5. Bone Marrow: At birth red bone marrow fills both the medullary cavity and the intra-fribicular
spaces of long bone. By puberty, red bone marrow refract from the medullary cavity to the
intralrabicula spaces. The l, f, s and irregular bones leaving the medullary cavity filled with filthy
yellow bone marrow. Red bone marro can therefore be found in part of the ribs sterium, skull,
vertebrae. And its primary function is haemopoesies.

Microscopic Structure of compact bone.

Like other connective tissues in the body, the bone is made up of living cells and non-living cells. Unlike
other tissues, the intercellular substance of the bone is calcified. Therefore when a piece of compact
bone is viewed under the microscope, this calcified matrix are seen layed down concentrically around a
central longitudinal canal aligned with the long axis of the bone. This calcified matrix are refered to as
lamelle while this central canal id known as haversian canal. The haversian canal is cross connected by a
smaller canal known as volksmania channels. These are seen to contain blood, lymph uess and name
fibers. Below the lamelle are found many small cavities called lacurie each of which contains bone cell.
The lacune are made irregular by the existance of mumerous minute channels known as canaliculi which
communicate with other lacure and with the haversian canal. The bone cells in the lacure obtains their
nourishment from the haversian canal through the canaliculi. A small piece of bone may caontain up to
4 haversian system i.e. the lamella lacro haversian canal and canaliculi withbone cells and nerve fibers
blood or lymph vessels.

Blood Supply to the Bone.

Bones derive their blood supply through nutrient arteries and veins which are distributed to them e.g.
the epiphyseal artery, metaphysis artery and periosteal artery are the main nutrient arteries and the
haversian system. The blood supply to the bone or any other parts of the bone may be impaired through
the Volkmann’s channel if the nutrient artery is blocked or cut as a result of diseases proceses such as
sickle cell, paths disease, and osteomyelitis. This leads to AVW.

The Skeleton

The skeleton forms the frame work of the body comprising 206 bones arranged in a way that in an
upright position the force of gravity falls between the two feet’s on a base. In other words the weight of
the body is distributed in two equal parts from the head to the feet.

Any alteration in this arrangement may result in one deformity or the other and major concern in the
field of growth. The skeleton is divided into

 Axial skeleton,
 Appendicular skeleton.

Axial Skeleton

The axial skeleton contribute more to the erect position in man. It is centrally located and compromises
of 80 bones, the skull (cranial vault and facial bone) 22 bones, the spinal column 266 in adult 33 in
children, the ribs and the stemum. 25 bones of the thorax.

The axial skeleton protects the most delicate and essentials structures of the body. While the skull
protects the brain eyes and ears, the thoracic protects the heart, liver and lungs the vital organs which
provide other tissues and organs in the body with the essential functional substance. The spinal column
protects the spinal cord, the only link between the brain and other parts of the body.

The axial skeleton is made up of 80 bones

o The skull – 29 bones these include 6 bonesof the middle ear and thyoid bone
o The spinal column – 26 bones
o The thorax – 25 bones this include the stenuim and the ribs.

Bones of the Skull

The bones of the skull are 22 bones, 21 fused together by sutuine while the remaining one lower jaw
bone forms the only movable joint of the skull. The tempo mandibular joint
Vertebra Column

The longitudinal axis of the trunk. The back bone is known as the vertebra column. It consists of 33
(typically in infants) series of segmental irregular bones called the vertebra.

Through out its length there is a longitudinal canal (vertebra or spinal canal). The walls of which enclose
and protect the spinal cord. These bones are arranged in a way that the smaller ones are at the top,
while the larger one’s bellow. In other words, the higher the column, the smaller the vertebra vice versa.

This structural arrangement is because each vertebra bears the weight of the body above it including the
weight of the vertebra on top of it. Hence lower bones bear the weight of the whole upper half of the
body as it is being transmitted to the legs.
Division of the Vertebra Column.

The upper 14 vertebra are separated from each other by fibro cartelegenous disk called
intercatelegenous disc. The inter vertebrae disc consist of :

1. Annular Fibrosis
2. Nucleus Polyposis Nuclopolposis:

This disc plays an important role in equal distribution of weight along the axis and the absorption of
shock. Poor alignment of the spine may rupture the annular fibrous and with the nucleus polyposis
squeezed out through it like tooth paste from its bulks leading to slipped disc or prolapse disc.

The herniated nucleus polyposis may compress the adjacent nerve root causing pain and other
neurological signs. The vertebra separated by ……….. disc are referred to as the true vertebra while the
lower a vertebrae which fuse into the bones or inter vertebrae disc between them, are known as the
false vertebrae.

True Vertebrae

The true vertebrae consist of:

1. Savical Vertebrae (cervical region or spine): this is made up of 7 vertebrae which form the bony
frame work of the neck the only weight of the body carried by the neck is the head with its
organs balanced at the first cervical vertebrae called the atlas.
2. Axis Vertebrae: this vertebrae is designed to allow the pivot movement of the head at the
lando-epistropheal joint. Because of the lower amount of weight carried by the cervical spine ,
the movement carried out by the head and the blood supply to the brain.

The cervical vertebrae are smaller with a number of dissimilarities including less dense bodies

The atlas and the axis has no body. The axis is replaced by ceclontoid processes.

 The transverse processes posses foramina for the passage of cerebal arteries (branches of
subclavian arteries to the brain)
 The spinus processes are pointed backwards to allow pivot movement of the neck.they are
bifid for accommodation of the trance of ligament binding them together.

The Thoraxic Vertebrae or Dorsal Vertebrae.

The thoraxic spine consists of 12 vertebrae which gives attachment to 12 pairs of ribs to form the
thoraxic cage. The attachment of ribs to the part of the column restricts movement in the region. The
bones of this vertebrae are larger than those of the cervical spine because this region bears the weight
of the head, neck and other parts of the body above it.
Movement in this region is further restricted by the downwards direction of the spinus process and the
manner in which they interlock themselves. This restriction aids in its protective ability, hence injury to
the spinal cord at this region is not common.

The Lumber Vertebrae (Lumber Spine).

Lumber region: this region is made up of 5 much larger vertevrae as it bears all the weight of the body
above it. The spinus processes are directed backwards. This contributes to the amount of mout seen in
this region which predisposes its underlying structures to injuries.

The False Vertebrae.

False vertebrae are fused vertebrae located in the lower segments of the vertebral column and include
the sacrum and coccyx. These vertebrae are crucial for structural support, weight-bearing, and providing
attachment points for muscles and ligaments. And the consists of:

1. Sacrum

The sacrum is a large, triangular bone at the base of the spine, formed by the fusion of five sacral
vertebrae (S1–S5). It serves as a critical junction between the spine and the pelvis, articulating superiorly
with the L5 vertebra at the lumbosacral joint and inferiorly with the coccyx. Laterally, it articulates with
the iliac bones of the pelvis through its auricular surfaces, forming the sacroiliac joints. The sacrum
provides attachment points for numerous muscles, ligaments, and tendons. Posteriorly, the rough
surface of the sacrum serves as the attachment site for the erector spinae muscles, which are essential
for maintaining posture and spinal movement. The sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments, which
stabilize the pelvis and prevent excessive movement, also attach to the sacrum. Additionally, the pelvic
floor muscles, including parts of the levator ani and coccygeus muscles, attach to the anterior and
lateral surfaces of the sacrum, contributing to pelvic organ support and continence. The sacral canal, a
continuation of the vertebral canal, transmits the cauda equina, and the anterior and posterior sacral
foramina allow for the exit of sacral spinal nerves. Notable features include the sacral promontory, an
important landmark in obstetrics, and the sacral hiatus, a U-shaped opening at the posterior apex used
clinically for caudal epidural anesthesia. These features highlight the sacrum’s structural and functional
significance in providing stability, weight transfer, and integration of the spine and pelvis.

Key Features of the Sacrum:

 Shape: Triangular, with a broader superior base and a narrower inferior apex.
 Fusion Timeline: Begins during adolescence and is typically complete by the age of 30.
 Weight-Bearing Role: Transmits body weight from the lumbar spine to the pelvic girdle.

Functions of the Sacrum:

 Provides stability to the pelvis.

 Transmits the weight of the upper body to the lower limbs via the pelvic girdle.
 Serves as a site for muscle and ligament attachment.
2. Coccyx

The coccyx, or tailbone, is a small, triangular bone at the terminal end of the vertebral column, formed
by the fusion of three to five rudimentary coccygeal vertebrae. It articulates superiorly with the apex of
the sacrum and is anchored in place by several ligaments, including the sacrospinous and sacrotuberous
ligaments, which stabilize the pelvis. The coccyx provides essential attachment points for muscles and
ligaments involved in pelvic support and movement. Key muscles attaching to the coccyx include the
coccygeus and parts of the levator ani, which together form the pelvic floor, supporting the pelvic
organs and contributing to continence. Additionally, the gluteus maximus, a major muscle for hip
extension and locomotion, has fibers attaching to the coccyx. The anterior and posterior surfaces of the
coccyx serve as attachment sites for ligaments such as the anococcygeal ligament, which connects the
coccyx to the rectum and plays a role in maintaining the position of pelvic organs. Despite its small size,
the coccyx supports the body during sitting, particularly when leaning backward, and provides structural
integrity to the pelvis. Clinically, the coccyx is susceptible to injury, such as fractures or dislocations,
which can cause chronic pain (coccydynia). Though vestigial, the coccyx retains significant functional
importance in maintaining pelvic stability and supporting lower body movements.

Key Features of the Coccyx:

 Fusion Timeline: Begins around puberty and is complete in adulthood.

 Shape: Curved, with the concave surface facing anteriorly.

Functions of the Coccyx:

 Provides attachment for ligaments and muscles of the pelvic floor.

 Supports and stabilizes the body when sitting, especially when leaning backward.

Functional Importance of False Vertebrae

The false vertebrae, comprising the sacrum and coccyx, play a crucial role in the structural stability of
the human skeleton. The sacrum acts as a keystone in the pelvic girdle, distributing the weight of the
upper body to the lower limbs through the sacroiliac joints. This weight transmission is essential for
maintaining balance and posture during standing, walking, and other physical activities. Additionally, the
sacrum forms the posterior boundary of the pelvis, contributing to its stability and providing attachment
points for various muscles and ligaments involved in movements of the lower back, pelvis, and thighs.

The coccyx, although small, is equally important for supporting the body, especially during sitting. It
provides attachment sites for ligaments and muscles of the pelvic floor, such as the legator and
coccygeus muscles, which are essential for maintaining pelvic organ support and continence. The coccyx
also stabilizes the body when leaning backward, acting as a minor but significant point of balance.
Together, the sacrum and coccyx ensure both structural support and functional integration between the
spine and pelvis, facilitating mobility and stability.

The Spinal Curve

The human spine has four natural curves that are essential for balance, flexibility, and shock absorption.
These curves are categorized into primary and secondary curves based on their development. The first-
degree curves, also called primary curves, are present at birth and include the thoracic and sacral
curves. These are concave anteriorly and play a crucial role in providing stability to the trunk and pelvis,
supporting the body during activities like standing and walking. The second-degree curves, or secondary
curves, develop postnatally as the body adapts to upright posture. The cervical curve forms as an infant
begins to lift its head, and the lumbar curve develops as the child starts to walk and bear weight. These
curves are convex anteriorly and enhance mobility and balance, allowing for efficient weight distribution
and reduced stress on the vertebral column during movement. The third-degree curves are adaptive
curves that may develop in response to habitual posture or pathological conditions, such as scoliosis,
kyphosis, or lordosis. These curves are generally considered abnormal and may impair the spine’s
mechanical efficiency. Together, the spinal curves function to distribute mechanical forces, protect the
spinal cord, and facilitate efficient movement by aligning the body’s center of gravity.

C curve in-utro

 Primary curve – concave

forward
 1st Secondary curve – convex
backward
 2nd secondary curve – concave
backward, convex forward

The Skeletal System

The bones of the upper limbs are higher, more movable and smaller than the bones of the lower limbs.
The upper limbs are half of the appendicular skeleton. They consist of

 Bones of the shoulder or pictorial gridle

 The arm, forearm, wrist and hand.

The upper limb constitute a prestation instruments in response to instruction from the brain. It serves as
a prehensile unit capable of being placed in any required position. It is used for carrying out ADL; such as
eating cooking washing bathing working etc. it is also used for protecting the head from injuries.

All these are essential for independent existence and loss of ability to do these things results in severe
hardship to perform basic activities to the individual. The bones in the upper limbs are lighter in weight
and easier to move than the lower limbs