SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9

Chemical Elements and the Periodic Table

(Atomic Types and Interactions)
BACKGROUND:
Discovery of an element rests on finding its free form, the substance that can neither be decomposed nor
synthesized because only the one atom type is present. Gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, mercury, sulfur and carbon
have been known and used since ancient times, but they were not recognized as free elements until the 17 th
century when the nature of matter had become sufficiently understood. The invisible gases, oxygen and
nitrogen, have always been around as components of the air, but they remained unnoticed until the next century.
Difficulty in obtaining a sample of the free form delayed the discovery of other natural elements, and
investigators had to learn how to decompose the available compounds or find material from which it could be
prepared. Atomic physics was far enough advanced after 1940 to allow the preparation of artificial elements
from natural atom types. In many cases, the drama in discovering a new element excited scientists around the
world but now lies buried in the early history of chemistry.
The properties of a free element including the chemical transformations it may undergo are correlated
with its atom type. Presented in this module is the theory that explains how atom types differ, resemble, and
interact with each other. Such theory provides the foundation for understanding the nature of chemical
substances, whether they be free elements or compounds.

Lesson 1: SURVEY OF COMMON CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

Of the more than 100 known elements, only those that have been more studied are considered in this
module as the ones likely to be encountered in daily living. A very brief survey is presented in Table 1. Only the
names and the atomic symbols are to be memorized; the rest is just to give some idea of their variety, and to
bring out general points for discussion.

Table 1: Survey of the More Studied Chemical Elements

Element Atomic Atomic Atomic Description of Free Form;

Name Symbol Number Mass (amu) Remarks on Compounds
light silver-white metal in basins, pots and pans; soil
Aluminum Al 13 26.98
and clay are rich in Al compounds
Argon Ar 18 39.95 colorless inert gas in lamp bulbs
Bromine Br 35 79.90 corrosive, dark, red liquid with orange fumes
reactive, soft, light metal; bones, chalk and lime are rich
Calcium Ca 20 40.08
in Ca compounds
non-metal occurring as coal, diamond and graphite; all
Carbon C 6 12.01
organisms contain many kinds of C compounds
reactive, pale greenish-yellow gas for disinfecting
Chlorine Cl 17 35.45
water; most common compound is table salt
Chromium Cr 24 52.00 bright, brittle metal used as decorative cover on Fe
reddish metal (tanso, kobre, gambang) in some coins,
Copper Cu 29 63.55
electric wire and special machinery
Fluorine F 9 19.00 pale, yellow gas; most reactive non-metal
durable, bright yellow metal (ginto, balitok) of high
Gold Au 79 196.97
density; universal symbol of wealth
Helium He 2 4.00 light, inert gas used in balloons, blimps, and airships
Element Atomic Atomic Atomic Description of Free Form;
Name Symbol Number Mass (amu) Remarks on Compounds
Hydrogen H 1 1.01 lightest known gas; most common compound is water
reactive blue-black crystals (yodo) that form a violet
Iodine I 53 126.90
vapor on heating; I compounds cure goiter
hard, gray metal (bakal, landok) abundant in steel; Fe
Iron Fe 26 55.85
compounds are widespread in soil
heavy, gray metal (tingga, boli) in anchors, pipes,
Lead Pb 82 207.19
solder and storage batteries; Pb compounds are poison
light, silver-white metal for airplane alloys;
Magnesium Mg 12 24.31
Mg compounds include fertilizer and medicine
hard, brittle metal; Mn compounds may be in dry cells
Manganese Mn 25 54.94
or used to color glass
heavy, liquid silvery metal (asoge) (quicksilver) in
Mercury Hg 80 200.59
some scientific instruments; Hg compounds are poison
Neon Ne 10 20.18 inert gas in “neon signs” for advertising
Nickel Ni 28 58.69 hard, grayish metal in special alloys for covering Fe
gas forming major portion of air; certain N compounds
Nitrogen N 7 14.01
are fertilizer
gas removed from air during breathing and by fire;
Oxygen O 8 16.00
many compounds of O are important in biology
yellow, red or black non-metallic solid; P compounds
Phosphorus P 15 30.97
in bones, etc. are fertilizer
precious, heavy, silver-white metal (white gold) in
Platinum Pt 78 195.08
expensive jewelry and special scientific instruments
reactive, soft, light metal; K compounds in soil and
Potassium K 19 39.10
wood ashes are fertilizer
natural radioactive metal; Ra compounds are used in
Radium Ra 88 226.05
cancer therapy
reactive, dark, gray crystals or powder; Si compounds
Silicon Si 14 28.09
are in sand, soil and clay
white, precious metal with brilliant luster; Ag
Silver Ag 47 107.87
compounds are used are used in photography
reactive, soft, white metal; most common compound is
Sodium Na 11 22.99
table salt
yellow powder (asupre) in medicines and pesticides;
Sulfur S 16 32.06
also used for vulcanizing rubber
semi-ductile silver-white metal covering Fe in metal
Tin Sn 50 118.71
food containers
grayish hard and brittle metal when impure; used as
Tungsten W 74 183.84
lamp filaments for its high melting point
natural radioactive metal used in compound form for
Uranium U 92 238.03
atomic bombs and nuclear reactors
Zinc Zn 30 65.38 Bluish-gray metal covering Fe in galvanized iron
Element Names and Atomic Symbols

Certain elements are named after the most obvious characteristic of the free form. Thus, gold is
associated with its yellow color; the Latin name implies it to be like the color of the sky at dawn. The liquid
metal mercury rolls away with speed when its drops are scattered on the floor, for which it is named after the
god of Greek mythology who had wings on his heels; quicksilver is an alternative name.
What material the free form was first obtained from was another basis for names. Tungsten literally
means “heavy stone” in reference to its high density. Other examples are calcium from chalk, potassium from
ashes under the pot; carbon is the Latin name for coal.
On the other hand, hydrogen means “water former” in reference to its well-known reaction. Copper is
supposed to have been named for Cyprus, a place in Greece famous for its ancient copper mines. Most man-
made elements are named to commemorate their place of original production, or in honor of some famous
scientist.
While many elements have more than one name, atomic symbols are fixed by international agreement.
This is either a single capital letter or one followed by a small letter. Those elements whose atomic symbol is
derived from some other source are listed here for clarification purposes:

English Name Atomic Symbol Reference Name and Language

Copper Cu Cuprum Latin
Gold Au Aurum Latin
Iron Fe Ferrum Latin
Lead Pb Plumbum Latin
Mercury Hg Hydrargyrum Greek
Potassium K Kalium Latin
Silver Ag Argentum Latin
Sodium Na Natrium Latin
Tin Sn Stannum Latin
Tungsten W Wolfram German

Atomic Number and Atomic Mass; Isotopes

The atomic number of an element designates its place in the Periodic Table (Lesson 2) and is correlated
with the structure of its atoms (Lesson 3). Atomic mass is the contribution of a single atom to the mass of a
sample; because it is too small to measure directly, a relative value is assigned. As the lightest known gas, the
atoms in Hydrogen were assigned an atomic mass of 1 amu; from comparing their densities, Oxygen must have
an atomic mass of 16 amu. Then the density of carbon dioxide compared to oxygen gas gives a clue on the
atomic mass of Carbon, and so on. For some elements, determination of atomic mass required complicated
method of study.
That some listed atomic mass values are far from whole numbers is due to the existence of more than
one natural atomic species called isotopes that differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus (iso is Greek for
“same”, tope means “place” in reference to their location in the Periodic Table). The proportion of natural
isotopes and their corresponding atomic masses is what sets the average value for the element.

Radioactivity as a Special Property; Radioisotopes

An element is said to be radioactive if it sends out invisible rays of high energy, its atoms at the same
time changing into some other element. Many of the more rare or man-made atomic species of natural elements
show this property, to be designated as radioisotopes. The theory on atomic structure gives some explanation on
this topic.
To get some idea of the nature of radiation from radioisotopes, consider the use of X rays in photographing
bones, lungs and other internal parts of the body: such is possible because the rays are powerful enough to pass
through clothing and human flesh; such power also brings the danger of damage to living cells and tissues.
Three kinds of radiation coming from radioactive atoms are the alpha, beta, and gamma rays. Certain
radioisotopes are used in medicine to kill cancer cells and for other special purposes. To protect the people in
the workplace, the container should be stored behind materials of high density such as lead metal.

The container should also be labeled to

warn of the danger from radiation.

Fig. 1 Warning Sign for Radioactivity

Radioactive substances are used in modern warfare; after being scattered by an atomic bomb explosion,
invisible rays continue to be emitted which harm the people in the area. A peaceful use is in the production of
energy in the so-called nuclear power plants, but the big problem is on how to dispose of the waste material,
which is also radioactive. Explosion of the power plant itself is a man-made disaster that has happened several
times in the history of nuclear power.

Lesson 2: CLASSIFICATION OF THE ELEMENTS; THE PERIODIC TABLE

Three contrasting classes of chemical elements may be recognized from Table 1 to give the following
diagram:

CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

properties and appearance

of the free form

METALS NOBLE GASES ORDINARY NONMETALS

Metals in the free form are shiny, opaque, cohesive solids that conduct heat and electricity; exceptions
include the liquid state of Mercury and the brittleness of Chromium. Those that can be hammered into thin
sheets are said to be malleable. Ductile metals can be made into wire by melting then pulling out of small
circular holes. Metals also share a common behavior pattern during chemical change.
The Noble Gases occur only as odorless and colorless free elements that do not form compounds under
natural conditions; very small amounts are present in the air. Inert or Rare Gases are alternative labels for this
type of element.
Any element that does not fit into the class of Metals or Noble Gases is automatically an Ordinary Non-
Metal. Those that appear metallic but behave differently during chemical change are sometimes called
Metalloids. Ordinary Non-Metals vary widely so no general group description is possible.
 The Periodic Table
An alphabetical listing does not bring out the relations of the elements to each other. The Periodic Table
is an orderly arrangement whereby those that have close similarity are aligned into the same vertical column.
Many versions are possible, usually incorporating some other information of interest.
Most helpful to the beginning student would be a picture of the free element near each atomic symbol.
Such version of the Periodic Table would however require a large chart too big to fit into the module. Our
version on instead presents information on what atom types are present in living organisms and their relative
abundance therein, which elements are radioactive, and which are artificial or man-made. Annotation brings out
this information at a glance, as well as the classification of each element.
There are many regularities in the Periodic Table which help in the study of the individual elements.

Lesson 3: ELEMENT IDENTITY AND THE THEORY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE

To explain why elements are different from each other is the theory on atomic structure. Also clarified
are the significance of the atomic number, the source of atomic mass, the existence of isotopes and the
phenomenon of radioactivity. The theory provides a basis for interpreting the chemical behavior of the elements.
Main Parts of the Atom
Every element has its own atomic number different from the others. Using Z to stand for this number,
two main parts of the atom are distinguished by the following general representation; see the table below on the
smaller particles present.

Nucleus
central compact body containing Z protons
together with a number of neutrons
charge = + Z

Electron Cloud
made up of fast-moving electrons orbiting
about the nucleus
Fig. 2 General representation of an Atom

Sub-atomic particles indicated

Particle Symbol Mass Electric Charge charge
letter
proton 1 p+ or p+ 1 amu +1 mass
neutron 1
0
𝑛 or 𝑛 0
1 amu 0 is the pattern for representing the sub-atomic
particle once understood, the mass may be
electron 0 𝑒 − or 𝑒 − near o ‒1 omitted for convenience

Easiest to imagine is the electron as the smallest particle of electricity. Electric charge refers to the power to
attract or repel: the greater the charge, the stronger the power involved. (Some idea of this interaction may be
had by considering a pair of magnets: if aligned so the north pole of one is close to the south pole of the other,
attraction pulls them together; but if like poles are near each other, the two repel or push each other away.) Since
the neutron has no electric charge, its main significance is its contribution to atomic mass. Expressing the
interrelation among the three sub-atomic particles:
𝑝 + + 𝑒 − = 𝑛0
Importance of the Nucleus; Nuclear Power

The nucleus is the seat of element identity from the number of protons it contains; it also carries the
atomic mass which comes from the combination of protons and neutrons. Binding the protons and neutrons
together is a mysterious form of energy called nuclear power. So great is the magnitude that the repulsion
among like charges of the protons is overcome, and the nucleus always remains the same except in the case of
radioactivity. This special phenomenon is interpreted as emission of the rays from the nucleus which results in a
change in the number of the protons present.

Drawings to Represent Neutral Atoms

Chemical elements are contrasted by comparing their free form. In this substance type, the atoms are
assumed to be neutral or having no net charge because the number of electrons is exactly equal to that of the
protons. Imaginary drawings for such atoms may be made to be even more enlarged than those in module 1 of
the second quarter. The identity of an isotope is indicated by its atomic symbol accompanied by its mass.
Starting point for the drawing is the atomic number for the number of protons in the nucleus and of electrons
outside; atomic mass minus atomic number gives the number of neutrons.

Table 2: Drawings to Represent Neutral Atoms

Element and Atomic Number Most Common Natural Isotope Other Natural Isotope
1p+ 1p+, 1n
Hydrogen
1e- 1e-
Z=1
Helium 2p+, 2n
Z=2 2e-
Carbon 6p+, 6n 6p+, 7n
Z=6 6e- 6e-

Nitrogen 7p+, 7n 7p+, 8n

7e- 7e-
Z=7

Oxygen 8p+, 8n 8p+, 10n

Z=8 8e- 8e-

26p+, 28n 26p+, 31n

Iron 26e- 26e-
Z = 26

Lesson 4: CHEMICAL BEHAVIOR AND THE ELECTRON CLOUD

Atoms near each other interact to affect their electron clouds, specifically in the outermost portion. The
chemical behavior of the element is associated with the tendency to improve the electron cloud through such
interaction.

Electron Cloud Stability in the Noble Gas

As a class of elements, those in Group VIII or the Noble Gases are characterized by inertness or
resistance to change from the free form; they are also unlike other gases in that their molecules are single atoms.
That the atoms of the Noble Gases do not pair up or combine with other atom types is interpreted to mean that
their electron cloud is already of the most favorable formation. Such stability comes with the electron number of
2, 10, 18, 36 and 54 for He, Ne, Ar, Kr and Xe respectively (90 for Rn is omitted because this element is
radioactive).

Loose Electrons in the Neutral Metal Atoms; Positive Ion Formation

Compared to the nearest Noble Gas in the Periodic Table, the neutral Metal atom has a number of excess
electrons that are easily lost. For Al and the Metals of Groups I and II, this is equal to the group number; loss
during compound formation occurs to give an electron cloud that resembles that of a Noble Gas.
Examples:
minus 1e-
for Na, Z = 11 Na Na +
11p+ 11p+
11e- 10 e- as in Ne

minus 2e-
for Ca, Z = 20 Ca Ca +2
20p+ 20p+
20e- 18e- as in Ar

Such electron loss results in a net charge so the metallic atom becomes a positive ion, or charged fragment of a
molecule. Note that the number of electrons lost is equal to the group number.

Metals outside of Groups I and II also lose electrons during compound formation, but other than aluminum,
they cannot achieve the cloud formation of a Noble Gas; some other factor must be involved to also account for
the chemical behavior of the Transition Metals

Electron Deficiency in Ordinary Non-metals; Gain by Acceptance or Sharing

In contrast to Metals, the neutral atoms of Ordinary Non-metals lack a number of electrons to achieve
the stable cloud formation of the nearest Noble Gas. Except for H, those that lack only 1 or 2 electrons may
accept them from neutral metal atoms during compound formation.
Examples:
add 1 e-
for Cl, Z = 17 Cl Cl –
17p+ 17p+
17e- 18e- as in Ar
add 2 e-
For O, Z = 8 O O-2
8p+ 8p+
8e- 10e- as in Ne
Such electron gain results in a negatively charged ion.

Sharing of electrons between non-metallic atoms is another way to improve their electron clouds. In the
usual case where two adjacent atoms are bound together in a molecule, each one contributes an electron to have
a pair that becomes part of both clouds; in other cases, 2 or even 3 pairs of electrons may be shared.

Electron Deficiency in Ordinary Non-metals; Gain by Acceptance or Sharing

The simplest example of electron sharing is in the H 2 molecule; using the dash to represent the shared
pair of electrons as a single bond, the structure of the molecule is shown as:
 H – H corresponding to the picture 1p+ 1p+

2 e- as in He

For another example, consider HCl where H contributes its lone electron and Cl shares 1 out of its 17:

H – Cl corresponds to 1p+ 17p+

16 e-

2e- (shared)
Lesson 5: TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS; EFFECT ON SUBSTANCE PROPERTIES

All compounds containing Metal atoms are ionic, their molecules existing as charged fragments. The strong
electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions is called ionic bond, and may simply be indicated by
writing atomic symbols together with their charges. Examples are the bonds holding the indicated ions together
to form a molecule of the corresponding compounds:

Na+Cl- Ca+2 O-2 Ca+2 (Cl-)2 or Cl-Ca+2 Cl-

sodium chloride calcium oxide calcium chloride

All ionic substances are solids of very high melting point: each ion in the solid sample is surrounded by
oppositely charged partner ions and can not break out of their fixed arrangement without great amount of heat.
For the same reason, ionic substances dissolve only if the solvent molecules have enough attraction for their
charges.
A pair of shared electrons holding non-metallic atoms together constitute a single covalent bond, and may
be indicated by a dash or straight line between the symbols of the atoms involved. Double and triple bonds are
also possible, to correspond to 2 and 3 pairs of shared electrons respectively. Examples:

H H O O O N N H C N
H H
hydrogen gas water oxygen gas nitrogen gas hydrogen cyanide

If the electron sharing is equal, the bond is said to be non-polar. Besides those between pairs of identical atoms,
a very common non-polar bond in organic compounds is the C-H linkage where the C has 4 single bonds.
Unequal electron sharing in a covalent bond makes it polar: the atom with the greater power to pull the
bonding electrons carries a partial negative charge, and a partial positive one exists on the other atom.
Illustrating with the very common example of a polar bond:
δ- δ+
O–H the O atom being more electronegative, the bonding electrons are pulled away from H

Such polarity may be increased by interaction with neighboring bonds.

Attraction between molecules at their oppositely charged sites results in higher values for the melting
and boiling points. Contrasts the figures for H 2 O and O 2 , considering that more energy should be needed to
move he molecules of greater mass.
 O O O
H H
(mass = 18 amu) (mass = 32 amu)
MP = 0° C MP = - 218° C
BP = 100° C BP = - 183° C
Attraction between opposite charges may also be involved in solubility. Thus, gasoline cannot mix with
water or dissolve ionic substances because only C – C and C – H bonds are present for a complete lack of
electric charges. On the other hand, water dissolves many ionic substances by its molecules orienting
themselves for maximum attraction between opposite charges:

contrasting arrangements of water

molecules around the oppositely
charged ions of table salt

SUMMARY:

• The atomic number (Z) of an element designates its place in the Periodic Table and is correlated with
the structure of its atoms.
• The atomic mass is the contribution of a single atom to the mass of a sample.
• Isotopes of an element have the same atomic number Z but different atomic mass due to different
number of neutrons.
• An element is said to be radioactive if it sends out invisible rays of high energy, its atoms at the same
time changing into some other element.
• Metals in the free form are shiny, opaque, cohesive solids that conduct heat and electricity.
• Noble Gases are odorless, colorless free elements that do not form compounds under natural conditions.
• Any element that does not fit into the class of Metals or Noble Gases is automatically an Ordinary Non-
metal.
• The nucleus is the central compact body in the atom containing Z protons together with a number of
neutrons.
• The electron cloud is made up of fast-moving electrons orbiting around the nucleus.
• Metals loose electrons to ordinary non-metals to become positively charged.
• Ordinary Non-metals gain electrons from metals to become negatively charged or share electron(s) with
other ordinary non-metals to copy the electron cloud of the nearest Noble Gas.
• Noble Gases are monoatomic because their electron cloud is already of the most favorable formation.