MACHAKOS UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

AGE 401: Environmental Conservation

LECTURER: DR. ANDREW C KWONYIKE

Copyright@Machakos University, 2022

All Rights Reserved

May 2022
LECTURERS PROFILE Name: Dr. Andrew C Kwonyike
Education:DPhil (Environmental
Planning & Management),
MPhil (Environmental Planning &
Management),PGDip(Project Planning
& Management;Bed (Geo/See)
DipEd (Geo/Hist)
Specialization: Environmental
Planning & Management
Department: Environmental science
Office: Department of Environmental
science
Email:[email protected]
Phone: 0717568675
LECTURE SIX
Introduction and definition of terms
1.1 Introduction
This lecture provides an introduction to concept of wetland
conservation, definition of wetlands, restoration of wetlands,
steps to restore wetlands, levels of wetland restoration, and
threats to wetlands.
The lecture covers:
1. Lecture objectives 2. Definition of terms 3. Wetland
conservation concept 4. Restoration of wetlands 5. Levels of
wetland restoration 6. Threats to wetlands 7. Further activities
8. summary 9. suggestions for further reading.
1.2 Lecture objectives
By the end of this course the learner should be able to:
(i) Explain the various terms used in wetland conservation.
(ii) Discuss the threats to wetlands and restoration.
1.3 e-tivity
introduction to wetland conservation
Numbering, sequencing: 1.3
Title: introduction to wetland conservation
Brief summary of task:
- read the document below at Url
- read the online documents below and open the links provided to
watch you tube videos (section 1.13)
Spart or simulator: wetland conservation
Individual task: using bullet points/paragraphs,
a) discuss the different terms used in wetland conservation
b) Outline the historical background of wetland conservation and
restoration
Interaction begins:
a) post two questions related to wetland conservation
b) provide feedback to learners views.
E-moderator interventions:
a) ensure learners are focused on discussions.
b) stimulate further learning.
c) provide feedback on learning progress.
d) Close e-tivity.
Schedule and time: this should take 30 minutes.

1.4 Wetland conservation

Wetland conservation is aimed at protecting and preserving areas where water exists at
or near the Earth's surface, such as swamps, marshes and bogs. Wetlands cover at
least six per cent of the Earth and have become a focal issue for conservation due to
the ecosystem services they provide. More than three billion people, around half the
world’s population, obtain their basic water needs from inland freshwater wetlands. The
same number of people rely on rice as their staple food, a crop grown largely in natural
and artificial wetlands. In some parts of the world, such as the Kilombero wetland in
Tanzania, almost the entire local population relies on wetland cultivation for their
livelihoods.
Fisheries are also an extremely important source of protein and income in many
wetlands. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, the total
catch from inland waters (rivers and wetlands) was 8.7 million metric tonnes in 2002. In
addition to food, wetlands supply fibre, fuel and medicinal plants. They also provide
valuable ecosystems for birds and other aquatic creatures, help reduce the damaging
impact of floods, control pollution and regulate the climate. From economic importance,
to aesthetics, the reasons for conserving wetlands have become numerous over the
past few decades.

1.5 Wetland definition

Wetland definition: those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or

groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal
circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in
saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs and
similar areas. Wetlands vary widely in their salinity levels, climatic zones, supported
flora, surrounding geography, whether they are coastal or inland and so on.

What are the different types of wetlands?

Marsh - Marsh is the predominant wetland found at Wye Marsh and is often
characterized by the presence of cattails and other reeds, rushes and sedges. Marshes
are also characterized by slow or standing water.

 Swamp - Swamps are wetlands that are characterized by seasonally standing or

moving water as well as occasional trees and shrubs.
 Fen - Fens are peatlands dominated by grasses, sedges, reeds, black spruce
and tamarack.
 Bog - Bogs are also peatlands, but are dominated by peat mosses and black
spruce trees.
 Open Water - Shallow or open water is characterized by water depths less than 2
metres and are usually transitions stages between lakes and marshes.

1.6 Importances of wetlands

Water storage (flood control)
Storage reservoirs and flood protection: The wetland system of floodplains is formed
from major rivers downstream from their headwaters. "The floodplains of major rivers
act as natural storage reservoirs, enabling excess water to spread out over a wide area,
which reduces its depth and speed. Wetlands close to the headwaters of streams and
rivers can slow down rainwater runoff and spring snowmelt so that it doesn't run straight
off the land into water courses. This can help prevent sudden, damaging floods
downstream." Notable river systems that produce large spans of floodplain include the
Nile River, the Niger river inland delta, the Zambezi River flood plain, the Okavango
River inland delta, the Kafue River flood plain, the Lake Bangweulu flood plain (Africa),
Mississippi River (USA), Amazon River (South America), Yangtze River (China),
Danube River (Central Europe) and Murray-Darling River (Australia).
Converting wetlands to upland through drainage and development forces
adjoining or downstream water channels into narrower corridors. This accelerates
watershed hydrologic response to storm events and this increases the need in some
cases for alternative means of flood control. That is because the newly formed channels
must manage the same amount of precipitation, causing flood peaks to be [higher or
deeper] and floodwaters to travel faster.Water management engineering developments
in the past century have degraded these wetlands through the construction of artificial
embankments. These constructions may be classified as dykes, bunds, levees, weirs,
barrages and dams but serve the single purpose of concentrating water into a select
source or area. Wetland water sources that were once spread slowly over a large,
shallow area are pooled into deep, concentrated locations. Loss of wetland floodplains
results in more severe and damaging flooding. Catastrophic human impact in the
Mississippi River floodplains was seen in death of several hundred individuals during a
levee breach in New Orleans caused by Hurricane Katrina.

Groundwater replenishment

The surface water which is the water visibly seen in wetland systems only represents a
portion of the overall water cycle which also includes atmospheric water and
groundwater. Wetland systems are directly linked to groundwater and a crucial regulator
of both the quantity and quality of water found below the ground. Wetland systems that
are made of permeable sediments like limestone or occur in areas with highly variable
and fluctuating water tables especially have a role in groundwater replenishment or
water recharge. Sediments that are porous allow water to filter down through the soil
and overlying rock into aquifers which are the source of 95% of the world's drinking
water. Wetlands can also act as recharge areas when the surrounding water table is low
and as a discharge zone when it is too high. Karst (cave) systems are a unique example
of this system and are a connection of underground rivers influenced by rain and other
forms of precipitation. These wetland systems are capable of regulating changes in the
water table on upwards of 130 m (430 ft). Groundwater is an important source of water
for drinking and irrigation of crops. Over 1 billion people in Asia and 65% of the public
water sources in Europe source 100% of their water from groundwater. Irrigation is a
massive use of groundwater with 80% of the world's groundwater used for agricultural
production. Unsustainable abstraction of groundwater has become a major concern. In
the Commonwealth of Australia, water licensing is being implemented to control use of
water in major agricultural regions.

Shoreline stabilization and storm protection

Tidal and inter-tidal wetland systems protect and stabilize coastal zones. Coral reefs
provide a protective barrier to coastal shoreline. Mangroves stabilize the coastal zone
from the interior and will migrate with the shoreline to remain adjacent to the boundary
of the water. The main conservation benefit these systems have against storms and
storm surges is the ability to reduce the speed and height of waves and floodwaters. he
sheer number of people who live and work near the coast is expected to grow
immensely over the next fifty years. From an estimated 200 million people that currently
live in low-lying coastal regions, the development of urban coastal centers is projected
to increase the population by fivefold within 50 years.The United Kingdom has begun
the concept of managed coastal realignment.

Water purification

Nutrient retention: Wetlands cycle both sediments and nutrients balancing terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems. A natural function of wetland vegetation is the up-take,
storage, and (for nitrate) the removal of nutrients found in runoff from the surrounding
soil and water. In many wetlands, nutrients are retained until plants die or are harvested
by animals or humans and taken to another location, or until microbial processes
convert soluble nutrients to a gas as is the case with nitrate.

Sediment and heavy metal traps: Precipitation and surface runoff induces soil
erosion, transporting sediment in suspension into and through waterways. These
sediments move towards larger and more sizable waterways through a natural process
that moves water towards oceans. All types of sediments which may be composed of
clay, sand, silt, and rock can be carried into wetland systems through this process.
Wetland vegetation acts as a physical barrier to slow water flow and trap sediment for
short or long periods of time. Suspended sediment often contains heavy metals that are
retained when wetlands trap the sediment. In some cases, certain metals are taken up
through wetland plant stems, roots, and leaves. Many floating plant species, for
example, can absorb and filter heavy metals. The capacity of a wetland to store
sediment, nutrients, and metals can be diminished if sediments are compacted such as
by vehicles or heavy equipment, or are regularly tilled. Unnatural changes in water
levels and water sources also can affect the water purification function. If water
purification functions are impaired, excessive loads of nutrients enter waterways and
cause eutrophication
Reservoirs of biodiversity

Wetland systems' rich biodiversity is becoming a focal point at International Treaty

Conventions and within the World Wildlife Fund organization due to the high number of
species present in wetlands, the small global geographic area of wetlands, the number
of species which are endemic to wetlands, and the high productivity of wetland systems.
Hundred of thousands of animal species, 20,000 of them vertebrates, are living in
wetland systems. The discovery rate of fresh water fish is at 200 new species per year.
The impact of maintaining biodiversity is seen at the local level through job creation,
sustainability, and community productivity. A good example is the Lower Mekong basin
which runs through Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Supporting over 55 million people,
the sustainability of the region is enhanced through wildlife tours. The U.S. state of
Florida has estimated that US$1.6 billion was generated in state revenue from
recreational activities associated with wildlife. Biodiversity loss occurs in wetland
systems through land use changes, habitat destruction, pollution, exploitation of
resources, and invasive species. Vulnerable, threatened, and endangered species
number at 17% of waterfowl, 38% of fresh-water dependent mammals, 33% of
freshwater fish, 26% of freshwater amphibians, 72% of freshwater turtles, 86% of
marine turtles, 43% of crocodilians and 27% of coral reef-building species. Introduced
hydrophytes in different wetland systems can have devastating results. The introduction
of water hyacinth, a native plant of South America into Lake Victoria in East Africa as
well as duckweed into non-native areas of Queensland, Australia, have overtaken entire
wetland systems suffocating the wetlands and reducing the diversity of other plants and
animals. This is largely due to their phenomenal growth rate and ability to float and grow
on the surface of the water.

Wetland products

Wetlands naturally produce an array of vegetation and other ecological products that
can be harvested for personal and commercial use. The most significant of these is fish
which have all or part of their life-cycle occur within a wetland system. Fresh and
saltwater fish are the main source of protein for one billion people and comprise 15% of
an additional two billion people's diets. In addition, fish generate a fishing industry that
provides 80% of the income and employment to residents in developing countries.
Another food staple found in wetland systems is rice, a popular grain that is consumed
at the rate of one fifth of the total global calorie count. In Bangladesh, Cambodia and
Vietnam, where rice paddies are predominant on the landscape, rice consumption reach
70%. Some native wetland plants in the Caribbean and Australia are harvested
sustainably for medicinal compounds; these include the red mangrove (Rhizophora
mangle) which possesses antibacterial, wound-healing, anti-ulcer effects, and
antioxidant properties.

Food converted to sweeteners and carbohydrates include the sago palm of Asia
and Africa (cooking oil), the nipa palm of Asia (sugar, vinegar, alcohol, and fodder) and
honey collection from mangroves. More than supplemental dietary intake, this produce
sustains entire villages. Coastal Thailand villages earn the key portion of their income
from sugar production while the country of Cuba relocates more than 30,000 hives each
year to track the seasonal flowering of the mangrove Avicennia. Other mangrove-
derived products:Fuelwood, Salt (produced by evaporating seawater), Animal fodder,
Traditional medicines (e.g. from mangrove bark), Fibers for textiles, Dyes and tannins.

Climate change mitigation and adaptation

Wetlands perform two important functions in relation to climate change. They have
mitigation effects through their ability to sink carbon, converting a greenhouse gas
(carbon dioxide) to solid plant material through the process of photosynthesis, and also
through their ability to store and regulate water. Wetlands store approximately 44.6
million tonnes of carbon per year globally. In salt marshes and mangrove swamps in
particular, the average carbon sequestration rate is 210 g CO2 m−2 y−1 while
peatlands sequester approximately 20–30 g CO2 m−2 y−1. Coastal wetlands, such as
tropical mangroves and some temperate salt marshes, are known to be sinks for carbon
that otherwise contributes to climate change in its gaseous forms (carbon dioxide and
methane). The ability of many tidal wetlands to store carbon and minimize methane flux
from tidal sediments has led to sponsorship of blue carbon initiatives that are intended
to enhance those processes.
 However, depending on their characteristics, some wetlands are a significant
source of methane emissions and some are also emitters of nitrous oxide which is a
greenhouse gas with a global warming potential 300 times that of carbon dioxide and is
the dominant ozone-depleting substance emitted in the 21st century. Excess nutrients
mainly from anthropogenic sources have been shown to significantly increase the N2O
fluxes from wetland soils through denitrification and nitrification processes (see table
below). A study in the intertidal region of a New England salt marsh showed that excess
levels of nutrients might increase N2O emissions rather than sequester them.

1.7 Restoration of wetlands

Restoration and restoration ecologists intend to return wetlands to their natural

trajectory by aiding directly with the natural processes of the ecosystem. These direct
methods vary with respect to the degree of physical manipulation of the natural
environment and each are associated with different levels of restoration. Restoration is
needed after disturbance or perturbation of a wetland. Disturbances include exogenous
factors such as flooding or drought. Other external damage may be anthropogenic
disturbance caused by clear-cut harvesting of trees, oil and gas extraction, poorly
defined infrastructure installation, over grazing of livestock, ill-considered recreational
activities, alteration of wetlands including dredging, draining, and filling, and other
negative human impacts. Disturbance puts different levels of stress on an environment
depending on the type and duration of disturbance. There is no one way to restore a
wetland and the level of restoration required will be based on the level of disturbance
although, each method of restoration does require preparation and administration.

1.8 Levels of restoring wetlands

Prescribed natural regeneration

There are no biophysical manipulation and the ecosystem is left to recover based on the
process of succession alone.The focus of this method is to eliminate and prevent further
disturbance from occurring. In order for this type of restoration to be effective and
successful there must be prior research done to understand the probability that the
wetland will recover with this method. Otherwise, some biophysical manipulation may
be required to enhance the rate of succession to an acceptable level determined by the
project managers and ecologists. This is likely to be the first method of approach for the
lowest level of disturbance being that it is the least intrusive and least costly.

Assisted natural regeneration

There are some biophysical manipulations however they are non-intrusive. Example
methods that are not limited to wetlands include prescribed burns to small areas,
promotion of site specific soil microbiota and plant growth using nucleation planting
whereby plants radiate from an initial planting site, and promotion of niche diversity or
increasing the range of niches to promote use by a variety of different species. These
methods can make it easier for the natural species to flourish by removing competition
from their environment and can speed up the process of succession.

Partial reconstruction

Here there is a mix between natural regeneration and manipulated environmental

control. These manipulations may require some engineering and more invasive
biophysical manipulation including ripping of subsoil, agrichemical applications such as
herbicides and insecticides, laying of mulch, mechanical seed dispersal, and tree
planting on a large scale. In these circumstances the wetland is impaired and without
human assistance it would not recover within an acceptable period of time determined
by ecologists. Again these methods of restoration will have to be considered on a site
by site basis as each site will require a different approach based on levels of
disturbance and ecosystem dynamics.

Complete reconstruction

The most expensive and intrusive method of reconstruction requiring engineering and
ground up reconstruction. Because there is a redesign of the entire ecosystem it is
important that the natural trajectory of the ecosystem be considered and that the plant
species will eventually return the ecosystem towards its natural trajectory.
1.9 Process/steps of wetland restoration

1. Treatment of Invasive Species

Even before excavation work occurs, the steps to remove invasive species begin. This
is often done with herbicide treatment, controlled burning, or even mowing and
trimming. Herbicide applications are the most common and should be performed in a
manner that has the least environmental impact to native species.When treating areas,
minimizing any particle drift and off-target damage to local fauna and flora is essential.
By utilizing tactics such as modifying spray droplet size and selecting nozzle tips
appropriate for specific environmental factors such as wind speed, wind direction,
temperature, and humidity, you drastically reduce damage to non-invasive plants. Also,
consider posting public notices indicating areas of recent herbicide application, including
information that clearly delineates the treatment area, the date of treatment, appropriate
precautions to be taken, the date when re-entry is safe, and a phone number for
additional information.

2. Placement of Clean Sand and Sediment

After the excavation and removal of impacted sediments has been completed, we begin
rebuilding the wetland using clean materials. Rebuilding efforts can include the
installation of clean sand, engineered caps, and organic black dirt. This material can
come from nearby borrow sites, or is brought in from distant locations. Placement of
clean material can be facilitated in several ways. It can be brought in by dump truck, by
barge, by amphibious equipment, or it can even be pumped in hydraulically. Each
project must be evaluated to determine which method is the most economical, and the
least damaging to undisturbed areas.

3. Seeding and Planting

After the new material has been placed and graded, it is imperative to seed the area
and plant native vegetation and trees quickly. This will ensure a quicker recovery, and it
will help prevent erosion. Much like a surgical procedure, wetland restoration requires
time for recovery. Grasses and shrubbery may take a year or two, while the
reintroduction of trees, such as willows, may take several years.
4. Maintenance and Monitoring

Once restoration is complete, there is typically a period of time where the contractor,
engineer, or owner is required to monitor the wetland. Periodic maintenance is needed
to replace plants that don’t grow or invasive species that move in while the native plants
are taking root. Maintenance includes, but is not limited to, selective herbicide
application, mowing, reseeding, replanting, and watering. Controlling any leftover or
regrown invasive species can be accomplished through physical removal, mowing, and
spot herbicide application. Maintaining the wetland areas is a continuous process
throughout the growing period until the vegetation takes hold.

1.10 Threats to wetlands

Wetlands near urban centres are under increasing developmental pressure for
residential, industrial and commercial facilities. Urban wetlands are essential for
preserving public water supplies. Due to unplanned urban and agricultural development,
industries, road construction, impoundment, resource extraction and dredge disposal,
wetlands have been drained and transformed, causing substantial economic and
ecological losses in the long term. Following the Green Revolution of the 1970s, vast
stretches of wetlands have been converted to paddy fields. Construction of a large
number of reservoirs, canals and dams to provide for irrigation significantly altered the
hydrology of the associated wetlands. Construction of canals and diversion of streams
and rivers to transport water to lower arid regions for irrigation has altered the drainage
pattern and significantly degraded the wetlands of the region. Removal of vegetation in
the catchment leads to soil erosion and siltation Unrestricted dumping of sewage and
toxic chemicals from industries has polluted many freshwater wetlands. Over withdrawal
of groundwater has led to salinization. Demand for shrimps and fishes has provided
economic incentives to convert wetlands and mangrove forests to develop pisciculture
and aquaculture ponds. Indian wetlands are threatened by exotic introduced plant
species such as water hyacinth and salvinia. They clog waterways and compete with
native vegetation. increased air temperature; shifts in precipitation; increased frequency
of storms, droughts, and floods; increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration;
and sea level rise could also affect wetland.