Cell:

Cell structure and its organization:

- Thousands of tiny, box like structures are called cells
- Cells help in the forming of blood.
- Blood is a tissue because it has a combination of cells like red blood cell & white blood
cell (Plasma & platelets too)
- No Typical plant or animal cells because cells vary a lot in their size and shape
depending on their function
- Plant cells always have a green color because of a green pigment called chlorophyl
- There are two types of Cells: Animal Cells & Plant Cells
- All cells have cell membrane & cytoplasm. Most cells also have a nucleus.

Ways to study plant or animal cells:

- Animal or plant cells can be squashed on a microscope slide or treated with chemicals
to separate cells before studying them (1st Method)
- A transverse section (T.S.) is a slice cut horizontally across a structure, showing a
circular or oval view (in plants)
- A longitudinal section (L.S.) is a slice cut lengthwise, showing a side view of the
structure (in plants)
- These sections refer to thin slices that are cut to examine their internal parts under a
microscope (for plants) (2nd method)
- These sections help in the arrangement & study of cells and tissues like xylem, stomata
(in plants)
- The sections are often treated with dyes called stains in order to make the structure
inside cells show up more clearly

Animal Cells:
- Animal Cells contain: Mitochondria, Ribosomes, Rough Endoplasmic reticulum (E.R),
Nucleus, Nucleolus, Cell Membrane, Vacuole
- They don’t contain Cell Membrane, Chloroplast, Sap Vacuole
- Much smaller than plant cells (need to be magnified more)
- No Typical animal cells because cells vary a lot in their size and shape depending on
their function
Cell Membrane:
- is in both Plant & Animal Cells
- In ALL Cells
- Thin Layer Around the outside of the cell while It’s the thin layer before cytoplasm and
after the cell wall in the Plant Cell
- Around the Cytoplasm & A Living Material which makes up a cell
- is a thin & Delicate But also Flexible Selective permeable membrane
- selective permeable membrane can allow or block materials to exit or enter a cell

Nucleus:
- is in both Plant & Animal Cells
- Seen as a rounded structure fixed inside the cytoplasm
- Contains DNA
- Most cells contain only 1 nucleus
- is the command center of the cell with genetic materials inside it in the form of
chromosomes

Chromosomes:
- is in both Plant & Animal Cells
- are thread like structures located inside the nucleus of animal & plant cells.
- Can be seen most easily at the time when the cell is dividing
- Made up of protein, a Single Molecule of DNA and is passed around in the family tree

Cytoplasm:
- is in both Plant & Animal Cells
- In ALL CELLS
- is a jelly like substance inside a cell
- Cytoplasm is Enclosed By The Cell Membrane
- Most of the chemical processes occur inside the cytoplasm
- One of the chemical processes is metabolism which is divided into Anabolism &
Catabolism
- Anabolism is the synthesis of substances Which basically means they build molecules
for the body’s functionality. (Requires energy)
- Catabolism is the breaking down of substances which basically means they break
down big complex molecules into smaller, easier to absorb molecules. (Releases
energy)
Mitochondria:
- Is In Both Animal & Plant cells
- Is the powerhouse of the cell
- Respiration is a process in which glucose is oxidized (chemically reacts with oxygen)
and releases the amount of energy it was containing.
- Responsible for Cellular respiration which is a series of chemical reactions that break
down glucose into ATP (Adenosis Triphosphate) & Happens inside the cells
- Cellular respiration is the overall process by which cells produce energy & has two
main types
- Aerobic respiration is a part of Cellular respiration which uses air or oxygen to react
with cells (Using Oxygen to break down glucose into energy)
- This method of respiration is common & very efficient, producing alot of ATP (energy),
releasing maximum amount of energy
- Anaerobic respiration happens when there’s no oxygen available and produces much
less energy compared to aerobic respiration
- Example: When you’re exercising hard and out of breathe, your muscles use anaerobic
respiration temporarily

Ribosomes:
- is In both Plant & Animal cells
- Small, circular structures attached to membranes or lying free inside the cytoplasm
- Attached with Rough Endoplasmic reticulum (Membrane)
- (Eukaryotic) Ribosomes may be free, meaning they are floating around the cytoplasm
- They Synthesize (make) protein

Vacuoles:
- is In both Plant & Animal cells
- Animal cells have small vacuoles that are temporary, performing specific functions
- Plant cells have larger vacuoles thus Small vacuoles aren’t as prominent
- They are temporary in Animal cells because they don’t have a stable structure like the
vacuoles in Plant Cells.
- In Plant Cells, Vacuoles are filled with Cell Sap (water dissolved with nutrients &
substances)
- In Animal Cells, Vacuoles are like storage compartments & don’t contain cell sap

Cell Wall:
- Is Present only in Plant Cell
 - Permeable membrane made up of Cellulose & Also known as Cellulose Cell Wall
- Tough non living layer surrounding the cell membrane & around the outside of plant
cells
- Cellulose are a carbohydrate made up from glucose

Sap Vacuole:
- is only in plant cells
- The Vacuole containing cell sap
- Cell saps is Water dissolved with nutrients & Substances
- This Cell Sap creates pressure generated by the water inside the vacuole against the
Cell wall
- This gives the plant cell a firm & regular shape
- When the plant cell loses the Cell Sap, the hard/turgid pressure is removed or
reduced, making the plant cell weak & soft causing an irregular shape
- This irregular shape is formed because there is no pressure against the cell wall

Chloroplast:
- A structure inside the plant cells
- Contains the pigment, Chlorophyll which traps sunlight for photosynthesis

Chlorophyll:
- A Pigment that gives plants their green color, helping plants create their own food
through photosynthesis

Photosynthesis:
- Process by which plants use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to create oxygen and
energy in the form of sugar
- 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 (Photosynthesis Equation)

Autotrophs:
- Organisms that produce their own food
- They use energy from sunlight (photosynthesis) or chemicals (chemosynthesis)
- Plants, algae and some bacteria’s (cyanobacteria) are autotrophs
- Producers in the food chain
- Heterotrophs depend on autotroph or some other organism for food (example:
Animals, fungi)

Plasma Membrane:
- is In Both Plant & Animal Cells
- The liquid part of blood
 - Makes up about 55% of bloods total volume
- Yellowish Fluid
- Consists of 90% of Water
- Acts as a vector
- Maintains blood pressure & Volume through the proteins, particularly albumin
- Plasma contains a protein produced by liver which is essential for blood clotting
process when injury occurs

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum:

- is In Both Plant & Animal Cells
- Network of membranes within a cell that is studied with ribosomes, giving it a rough
Appearance
- Responsible for synthesizing protein (when attached with Ribosomes)
- Can Modify Proteins, preparing them for specific functions
- Help in transporting newly made proteins through its network of membranes to other
parts of the cell
- Smooth E.R lacks ribosomes & are involved in functions like lipid synthesis

Nucleoid:
- In Bacteria Cells
- Inside Nucleus without being surrounded by nuclear membrane
- An irregularly shaped region inside a prokaryotic cell (old ancient cell) that contain
most or all of genetic materials
- Poorly organized & small

Nucleolus:
- is In Both Plant & Animal Cells
- Inside the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, covered by nuclear envelope
- Very small in size
- Doesn’t contain any chromosomes

Peptidoglycan:
- Measurement component of Cell Wall
- Maintains cell shape, protects cell from extreme conditions
- Prevents Bacteria from lysis due to turgid pressure

DNA:
- Stands for Deoxyribo nucleuc acid
- Isn’t Surrounded by Nuclear Membrane
Plasmid:
- A Small Circular piece of DNA separated from chromosomal DNA found in Bacterial
Cells
- Making it an Additional Circular DNA & acts as a vector
- Plasmid creates Insulin (An Example Of Bio Technology which Studies where organisms
we use for ourselves is beneficial)
- Once Insulin stops being produced; You become produced with diabetes
- Insulin helps in the change of glucose to glycogen

Prokaryotes:
- Organisms that don’t have nucleus
- Small & Simple
- Cell wall made up of peptidoglycan (in bacteria), maintaining their shape and provides
protection

Eukaryotes:
- Organisms that have a defined nucleus
- Larger & more Complex (in structure)
- Have Membrane bound organelles

3 Similarities & Differences between plant &

animal cells:
Similarities:
- Both The Cells have cytoplasm, nucleus & mitochondria

Differences:
- Plant cells have a cell wall, Animal Cells Don’t have a Cell Wall
- A Chloroplast exists in the Plant Cells, Animal Cells don’t have or require Chloroplast
- Plants have Sap Vacuoles, Animal Cells don’t have sap vacuoles

Plant Cells Contain:

- Cell Wall
- Cell Membrane
- Cytoplasm
 - Sap Vacuole
- Cell Sap
- Nucleus
- Nucleolus
- Chloroplast
- Mitochondria
- Ribosomes
- DNA

Animal Cells Contain:

- Cell Membrane
- Mitochondria
- Cytoplasm
- Rough E.R
- Nucleus
- Nucleolus
- Vacuole
- DNA

Bacteria Cells:
- Cell Wall
- Cell Membrane
- DNA (Inside the Nucleoid)
- Pili (shorthair like structures on the Capsule, attaches bacterial cell to specific surfaces)
- Ribosomes (tiny multiple circle shaped figures near together In the cytoplasm)
- Plasma Membrane (The Layer Surrounding the Cytoplasm, regulates transport)
- Nucleoid (Circle Shaped embedded In the Cytoplasm, regulatory center of the cell)
- Capsule (The Layer Outside on which the Pili is attached to, protects bacteria from
toxic impounds)
- Plasmid (Circle Shaped Figure embedded in the Cytoplasm, antibiotic resistance)
- Bacteria Flagellum (Look like legs of Bacteria cell, enables movement)
- Ribosomes (Help with Producing Protein-synthesis)

Level Of Organization:
- Cell is a basic unit of life. Cells help in the making of blood
- Example: Red Blood Cell, White Blood Cell
- All organisms are made up of Cells
- Tissues: Group of Cells combined to Form Tissues
- Example: Blood, Xylem Vessels, Muscle, Epidermis, Nerve
- Organs: Group of Tissues performing Specific Functions
 - Example: Heart, Liver, Brain, Skin, Kidney, Pancreas (Tadpole shaped gland deep in the
belly)
- Organ Systems: Group of Organs with a specific Purpose
- Example: Skeletal System, Reproductive, excretory & muscular system
- Organisms: Group of Organ Systems

Cell Division:
- Whenever a Cell is about to divide, the nucleus divides first within the cell and then
the cell is being divided between two identical daughter cells as the cytoplasm pinches
off the nuclei. The Two Cells are formed, contacting each other.
- One Cell may keep the ability to divide and the other may become a specialized cell

Specialization of Cells:
- When cells have finished dividing and growing, most become specialized and have
specific functions.
- Specialized cells have one specific function and develop a distinct shape. Special kinds
of chemical reactions take place in their cytoplasm. Platelets help clotting.
- Example: RBC & RHC (Example of Specialized cells)
- Specialization of cells to carry out specific functions in an organism is also known as
“Division of Labor”

Cell Differentiation // How Do Cells Become Specialized:

- Cells Divide To Make More Cells
- When Cell Division Occurs, The New Cell is called a raw cell (stem cell) which doesn’t
have any purpose hence an unspecialized cell
- But Every cell creates two new cells, One Cell continues to divide
- while the other adapts to its structural changes. This Is Called Cell Differentiation.
- The Process By which unspecialized cells become a specialized cell with a specific
function by adapting to its structural changes

Red Blood Cells:

- Specialized cells
- Make up half of our blood by volume
- They Transport Oxygen from our lungs to our body’s tissues so the cells can use it in
Cellular Respiration
- To Do This, RBC contain Haemoglobin which combines with oxygen to form
OxyHaemoglobin and once those RBC have travelled around the body to the tissues, it
splits back into Haemoglobin and oxygen again so that the oxygen is free to diffuse
into our tissues
Adaptation:
- They don’t have nucleus so they have more storage/space for Oxygen & Haemoglobin
- Their Shape is Biconcave which gives them a large surface area to absorb oxygen &
efficient transportation. This makes them flexible

White Blood Cells:

- Make up less than 1% of our blood
- Essential part of our immune system, Attack Bacteria
- Defend us against Pathogens (infectious micro-organisms such as virus, fungi or
bacterium)
- Have a nucleus

Xylem Vessels:
- Vessels are a tube
- Xylem Vessels are tissues made up of xylem vessel cells
- Plants require xylem vessel to transport water and mineral ions from rock to leaves or
the area its required in
- Xylem vessel supports the plant and doesn’t have proto-plasm to offer resistance
- Nucleus, Cytoplasm and cell membrane are example of Proto-plasms.

Adaptation:
- Constant supply of water required (to maintain pressure
- No Resistance in the tube since there is no cell wall or obstruction, allowing water to
move freely
- The tubes should be follow, extending from the root to leaves, creating a continuous,
uninterrupted path for water movement
- There are no cross walls to obstruct the water flow through lumin (a structure of
xylem vessel cell)
- Their cells are thickened with ligin which provide strength so they don’t collapse hence
lignified.

Root Hair Cell:

- Contains Cell Membrane, Cell Wall, Cytoplasm & Vacuole
- Each Epidermal cell produces only one root hair which is part of its tabular outgrowth.
- Epidermal cells are a cell that are a part of the outer layer of the organism
- Root hair cell absorb more mineral salts and water from soil solution.

Adaptations: (Structural features)

- Surface area being long, thin & narrow helps increasing surface area to volume ratio
for a cell
 - The Hair Like Projection on each cell extends into the small gaps between the soil
particles and offers a increase in surface area, a larger surface area means the soil
contacts more, allowing it to absorb water and mineral salts at a time
- The point of contact is the surface area
- More surface area : more volume ratio
- It doesn’t require or have chloroplast since its under the soil and doesn’t receive light
either
- More mitochondria present

Magnification:
- Image Size Divided By Actual Size => Formula for Magnification
- Image Size divided by Magnification => Formula for Actual Size
- x10 Eye Piece Lens & x40 Objective lens => 400 Magnification

Research about the surface area & Surface area to

volume ratio:
- Surface area is the area of the outside of cell, called the plasma membrane
- Volume is how much space is inside the cell
- The ratio is the surface area divided by the volume
- SA : VR compares how much Surface area is available compared to how big the cell is
- If Surface area To Volume ratio is small, the cell is big

Converting Measurements:
- Water Molecule = 10x10-4 micron
- Sugar Molecule = 10x10-3 micron
- Antibody = 10x10-2 micron
- Virus = 10x10-1 micron
- Bacterium = 1 micron
- Amoeba = 10x101 micron
- Full stop = 10x103 micron
- Orange = 10x105
- 1,000,000 micrometer in a meter, 10,000 micron in a cm, 1000 micron in a mm

Movement into and out of cell:

Why do we Study Cell?
- All chemical reactions occur in the cell
- Helps us understand the biological processes that sustain life
- Identifies abnormalities & diseases
Diffusion:
- Movement of Particles, Ions & Molecules from higher concentration to lower
concentration down to concentration gradient until equilibrium is maintained
- Concentration gradient means difference in concentration
- Diffusion can occur with or without membrane (happen in gas & leaflet)
- For Example: Cooking smell, perfume smell, etc.
- Spreading of particles (simplified answer)
- Net movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration to a region of
their lower concentration down the concentration gradient as a result of their random
movement
- Particles, Gas & Ions spread towards regions with lower concentration

Diffusion in leaves:
- When a plant carries out photosynthesis carbon dioxide needs to move from air into
the leaf
- It does this by diffusing through stomata
- Oxygen moves out of the leaf and this movement is called gas exchange (movement of
gas in opposite direction)

Diffusion in Humans:
- Diffusion occurs in the alveoli, as oxygen diffuses from higher concentration in the
alveoli into the blood across the capillaries
- Carbon Dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli along the concentration
gradient
- Oxygen diffuses from blood to cells, CO2 diffuses from cells to blood

Role of Water in the Body of the living organism:

- Carries nutrients to all cells in our body and oxygen to our brain
- It forms the basis of blood, urine, digestive juices, etc.
- Contained in lean, muscle, fat & bones
- Helps create saliva, regulates body temperature & protects your tissue, spinal cords & joints.
- Helps excrete waste through urine, defecation and etc.

Factors Affecting Rate of Diffusion:

- Temperature: An Increase in temperature gives molecules and ions more kinetic
energy. This allows them to move faster
- Surface Area: The More the surface area, the higher the rate of diffusion
- Distance: the lesser the distance, the faster the rate of diffusion
- Concentration gradient: the more steeper the concentration gradient, the faster the
rate of diffusion
- The Smaller the cell, the faster rate of
 diffusion
- The rate of diffusion is faster in The Blue
Line because its rising faster

Osmosis:
- The Net movement of the water molecules
From a higher water potential to a lower
Water potential through a partially perm-
-eable membrane is called Osmosis.
- The Tendancy of water molecule to move is
Called as Water Potential.
- Osmosis must have a partial permeable
Membrane
- More Water = Less concent-
Ration.
- Concentration means how
Much of a substance is in a
Solution. More Salt in a so-
lution = High Concentration
- In Osmosis, Water moves
From lower concentration
To a place where there is
Higher concentration
- Happens through a partially permeable membrane.
- Osmosis happens in a living organism unlike Diffusion
- Dilute Solution -> Concentrated => Through partially permeable membrane
- Water Movement from high water potential to lower water potential through cell
membranes is called osmosis

Effects of Osmosis In RBC:

- Isotonic Solution: Concentration inside and outside the cell are equal Hence the water
potential and the net movement is 0. Making no difference to the cell in terms of its
size and is much more likely to survive
- Dilute Solution: The Concentration outside the RBC is greater than inside the cell,
because of this, water moves into the RBC. Since RBC don’t have a cell wall, they can’t
withstand the extra water. This makes the RBC Burst.
 - Concentrated solution: The Concentration outside the RBC is lower than inside the cell,
because of this, Water moves out of the RBC. The Water Potential will be less & the
cell shrinks as water leaves. The RBC will become dehydrated as a result.

Active Transport:
- Process in Which Molecules or ions move from lower concentration to higher
concentration against the concentration gradient by using energy in form of ATP
- ATP: Adenosis triphosphate, a molecule that carries energy within cells and releases
cells that cells can use to perform specific functions.
- Osmosis & Active Transport require Cell Membrane
- C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O : Formula for Aerobic Respiration
- Absorption of Ions From Soil Solution to Root Hair Cells are an example of Active
Transport
- Osmosis & Active Transport happen with the help of a carrier protein, who’s job is to
transport protein within an organism and are the protein channels present on the cell
membrane

Appearance of Cell in Distilled Water:

- Water enters cell by osmosis
- Vacuole swells, presses cytoplasm against the wall
- Cells appear larger and more swollen
- Cells become turgid

Appearance of Cell in the concentrated solution of sodium

chloride:
- Water leaves cell by osmosis
- Cytoplasm and vacuole shrink
- Cell becomes plasmolyzed
- Gap between cell wall and cytoplasm become visible & cell appears shrunken

Enzymes:-
- Enzymes are proteins that functions as biological catalysts and are involved in all
metabolic chemical reactions. They help to speed up chemical reactions
- Catalysts are a substance that increase the rate of a chemical reaction and isn’t
changed by the reaction
- Biological catalysts are substances that increase the rate of chemical reaction without
being changed or consumed in the reaction.
- The substance on which an enzyme works/acts on is called its substrate
Enzymes Characteristics:-
- Proteins Are proteins in nature made up by long chains of Amino Acids Called
polypeptide chains.
- They Can Be Affected By Temperature & pH
- Required in minute quantities (small amount needed to be effective) to catalyze
(speed up) reactions efficiently
- They Remain Unchanged at the end of the reaction (not consumed by the reaction)
Because during the reaction, the enzyme temporarily binds with the reactant
(substrates) to form a complex called “Enzyme-substrate-complex”, helping the
reaction occur more easily. However once the reaction is complete and the products
are formed, they’re released & the enzyme is free to speed up another reaction.
- Important Because They Control The reactions in the cell
- Make Sure These reactions occur quickly enough for the cell to function

Lock & Key Model:-

- Substrate ⟶ Product
Enzyme
- Enzymes are a lock and substrates are keys to enzymes, together enzyme-substrate-
complex.
- Active Site of the enzyme binds with the complementary substance
- Substrate(s) leave the enzyme as a new product
- Enzyme is ready for use again
- Hydrolysis reaction is the break down of large molecules into smaller components (An
Example Of What An Enzyme does) E.G:- Protein To A.A With the help of water
- Condensation reactions are joining of smaller molecules to form large molecules (An
Example of What An Enzyme does). Example:- Joining Amino Acids To Form A Protein.
Effects Of pH on enzymes activity:-
1 Mouth pH: 7 -> Salivary Amylase -> Carbohydrate
- Explanation: The Mouth’s Optimum pH is 7 Which is Neutral, and Contains Salivary
Amylase Which is responsible for the breaking down of carbohydrates (starch) into
maltose and then into glucose.
2 Stomach Ph: 1-2 -> Pepsin -> protein
- Explanation: The Stomach’s Optimum Ph is 1-2 Which is Strongly acidic, and contains
Pepsin which is responsible for the breaking down of Proteins (polypeptides) into
smaller peptides (which are further broken down into amino acids in the small
intestine)
3 Small Intestines pH: 8-9 -> many enzymes (lipase, protease, maltase and trypsin)
- Explanation: The Small Intestines pH is 8-9, which is slightly alkaline, and contains
many enzymes (lipase, protease, maltase, and trypsin) responsible for breaking down
fats, proteins, and carbohydrate.
- 1-6: Acidic pH (1-3 Strong Acid, 4-6 Weak Acid)
- 7: Neutral
- 8-14: Alkaline pH (12-14 Strong Alkaline, 8-11 Weak Alkaline)

What Is Emulsification?:-
- Emulsification is the process of breaking down large fat globules into smaller droplets,
making it easier for digestive enzymes to work on them.

An Example Of Physical Digestion:

- The small intestine requires bile to digest fat.
- The Bile, which is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, released into the
small intestine.
- Bile, then breaks down fat into smaller droplets, a process known as Emulsification.
- Smaller Fat Molecules increase surface area, Making it easier for digestive enzymes to
further break down the fat.
1) Amylase (enzyme) breaks down the Starch (Carbohydrate:- Substrate) To Glucose.
 2) Protease (enzyme) breaks down the Protein (Substrate) with the help of Protase To
Amino Acids
3) Lipase (enzyme) breaks down fat (substrate) with the help of bile to 3 Fatty Acids & 1
Glycerol
4) Cellulase doesn’t exist in the human body because we don’t contain cellulose, and it’s
primary job is to break down cellulose. Cellulose isn’t present in Humans because we
have No Cell Wall But It Is Present in Plants.
5) Enzymes Are Made up of Long Chains Of Amino Acids Forming The Enzymes structure,
allowing it to perform its specific catalytic function.
6) Enzymes have an active site where the substrate binds. This is where the substrate fits
the active site like a ‘Lock And Key’.

Biological Molecules:-
- Carbohydrates & Fats are made up Of Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen (C,H,O)
- Proteins Are Made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen & Nitrogen (C,H,O,N)
- DNA Are made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen & Phosphorus (C,H,O,N,P)
- Glucose Is A Monomer Of Carbohydrates (Glucose Forms Carbohydrates)
- Amino Acids is a Monomer of Proteins (A.A Forms Proteins)
- (3) Fatty Acids, Glycerol (1) Are A Monomer Of Fat (3 F.Acids & 1 Glycerol Form Fat)
- Nucleotide is a Monomer of DNA (Nucleotide forms DNA)

Test For Reducing Sugars Like Glucose, Fractose &

Lactose:-
Benedicts Test:-
1) Place 2cm3 of food sample into a test tube
2) Add 2cm3 of Benedicts Solution
3) Shake the mixture and place the test tube in boiling water for 2-3 minutes.
- If The Solution Turns Red, The Result Is Positive (Present)
- If The Solution Remains Blue, The Result is Negative (Absent)
- If The Solution turns Green, Traces of reducing sugar are left in the sample
- If It Turns Yellow, There are moderate traces present.

Test For Proteins:-

Biuret Test:-
1) Take 2cm3 of food sample and mix in a test tube with the same amount of volume.
2) If Protein isn’t present, the colour will remain blue.
3) If the Protein is present, colour will turn violet
Test For Fat:-
Ethanol Test/Emulsion Test:-
- Add food sample, ethanol and water in equal volume in a boiling tube
- If the appearance changes to a cloudy appearance/emulsion form, the fat is present.

Balanced Diet:-
- We eat to consume energy.
- Balanced diet is the diet in which everything is eaten in its correct proportion.
- Carbohydrates, Fat, Protein, Fiber, Water, Vitamins & Minerals are basic Units Which
we Must Consume (7)
- Diet depends on our age, sex & activity

Functions of Carbohydrates:
- Main Source of body for energy
- Broken down into glucose which is used for cells by respiration

Functions of Proteins:
- Essential for building, maintaining & repairing tissues including muscles, organs and
skin
- Contain amino acids which are necessary for our body

Functions of Fat:
- Provide a concentrated source of energy

Functions of Vitamin D:
- Essential for strong bones and teeth
- Helps absorb calcium

Functions of Vitamin C:
- Important for the repair of tissues, healing of wounds & absorption of ion
- Strengthens the immune system

Functions of Iron:
- Essential for production of haemoglobin in RBC, which carries oxygen around the body

Functions of Calcium:
- Strengthens bone & teeth
- Supports muscle contradictions
- Helps in blood clotting
Functions of Fibre:
- Prevents constipation
- Promotes a healthy digestive system

Sources of Food:
Carbohydrates/Starch:
- Wheat, rice, noodles

Protein:
- Milk, Meat

Fat:
- Red meat, oil

Vitamin D:
- Milk, Exposure to sunlight

Vitamin C:
- Citrus Fruits

Iron:
- Liver

Calcium:
- Milk, Cheese, Eggs

Fibre:
- Fruits & Vegetables

Importance of Food:
Carbohydrates:
- Main source of energy

Protein:
- Production of protoplasm for growth and repair of worn out tissues
- Production of enzymes and hormones
- Formation of Anti-bodies
Fat:
- Production of membranes
- Solvent for fat soluble vitamins
- Storage of energy
- Insulating Material

Vitamin C:
- Promote absorption of calcium

Vitamin D:
- Needed for formation of intercellular substances to hold together
- Maintain healthy epithelial tissues

Iron:
- Component of haemoglobin

Calcium:
- Needed for building bones
- Normal functioning of muscles
- Blood clotting processes

Fibre:
- Keeps intestine healthy
- Provides bulk to undigested material
- Promotes peristalsis

Water:
- Medium for various enzymatic reactions
- Main component of blood plasma

Deficiency diseases:
Vitamin C:
- Scurvy (disease)
- Symptoms: Swollen bleeding gums, loosening of teeth

Vitamin D:
- Rickets (weakening of bones)
 - Symptoms: Poor teeth and bone formation, Deformities such as bowed legs in children
& Soft Bones

Calcium:
- Rickets (weakening of bones)
- Symptoms: Poor teeth and bone formation, Deformities such as bowed legs in children
& Soft Bones

Iron:
- Anaemia/Anemia (not having enough healthy RBC to carry oxygen to tissues)
- Symptoms: Low Haemoglobin level in blood, Less RBC, Easily tired and breathlessness,
Shortness of blood & Less oxygen is transported

Human Alimentary Canal:

Human Digestive System:

- Mouth Consists of two Types of Digestion:
- Physical Digestion: The breaking down of large food into simpler substances with the
help of teeths.
- Physical Digestion breaks down large molecules of food into smaller molecules
through processes like chewing in the mouth
- This increases the surface area & Doesn’t form any new substance either
 - Chemical Digestion: Breaking down of large food molecules into simpler substances
with the help of enzymes (salivary amylase, produced by the salivary gland) &
digestive juices
- New Products formed (Help the body to absorb & use for energy, growth & repair)
- The Enzyme, amylase breaks down starch into maltose

Oesophagus/Esophagus:
- Peristalsis is the process in which food is pushed forward with the help of muscles
- Food Move down the oesophagus/esophagus because of peristalsis

Peristalsis:
- Ware like projection of longitudinal & circular muscles
- When the food reaches the bolus, the circular muscles contract behind the bolus to
push it forward
- During this time, longitudinal muscles are relaxing, allowing the section of the
digestive track to lengthen and move the food along
- As the food passes through, longitudinal muscles contract INFRONT of the bolus,
shortening and widening the area to make room for the food
- Circular muscles relax during this time & this process keeps repeating till food reaches
the stomach
- Longitudinal muscles are the lines above circular muscles
- Bolus is a circle shaped figure in the middle with curved muscles around it
- The food is now passed down towards the stomach

Chemical Digestions & Physical Digestions that take place

in the Stomach:
- Physical Digestion: Food is churned up by muscle contradictions
- Chemical digestion: Enzyme, Pepsin is found here, breaking down protein into
peptides, which are further broken down into amino acids
- HCl (Hydrochloric acid) provides low pH (optimum) for pepsin to function and destroys
pathogens present near food

Next Step = Small Intestine:

- The Food passes from the stomach to the small Intestine
- The First Thing it passes through is the duodenum, a part of the small intestine.
- Duodenum contains the Material, Bile (Bile is produced in the Liver & Stored In the
Gall Bladder before entering the small intestine)
 - Bile is Alkaline so it helps neutralize stomach acids & emulsifies lipids (breaking down
of large lipid globules and breaks them down into smaller droplets) providing a larger
surface area for enzymes to work
- Duodenum also contains pancreatic juice in the pancreas which contains enzymes that
further break down large food molecules into simpler molecules.
- Trypsin is responsible for the breaking down of proteins below the point of Stomach
(like in pancreas) instead of pepsin into peptides
- After this, the walls of the small intestine release maltase, breaking maltose to glucose
& Peptidases, which break down Peptides into amino acids
- Since the food is now broken down into smaller, simpler molecules; these molecules
can be absorbed in the Ileum
- The Remaining material is now enters the colon (part of the large intestine)
reabsorbed into the bloodstream & passed onto the rectum
- The rectum (part of the large system) contains the materials which cannot be digested
like Bacteria, Cells from the lining of the digestive system & Cellulose.
- These are known as the faeces, which are stored in the rectum, until it exits the body
through the Anus

Key Processes:
- Ingestion: The process of taking in food through the mouth into the digestive system
- Digestion: Process by which food is broken down into smaller, simpler molecules that
can be absorbed and used by the body. (Two Types of Digestion)
- Absorption: Process by which small, digested molecules are absorbed/taken through
the walls of the intestine into the blood stream or the lymphatic system
- Assimilation: Process by which absorbed nutrients are taken into the blood’s cell and
used for growth, repair & energy. (Glucose is used for energy, A.A are used for building
proteins)
- Egestion: Removal of waste or undigested food, also known as defecation
(Excretion/passing out is called defecation)

Blood Capillaries:
1). Blood capillaries are present in large
Amounts to increase blood flow &
Maintain a concentration gradient
2). They absorb glucose & Amino Acids
3). The Lacteal absorbs fat
4). They are one cell thick which when
Magnified has a microvilli, helping it
To increase surface area

Where does Absorption take

Place?
- Absorption takes place in the wall of the small intestine, which is a partially permeable
membrane
- Small food particles can pass through, but large particles cannot
- Chemical digestion takes place here and breaks down large molecules such as starch
into small molecules like glucose
- The glucose molecules are small enough to pass through the small intestine and
absorbed into the blood stream

What Blood Vessel takes Blood from the Small Intestine To

The Liver? And How? (Assimilation)
- Hepatic Portal Vein: After Food is digested in the small intestine, nutrients are
absorbed into the bloodstream specifically into the capillaries of the small intestine
- The absorbed blood flow into the Hepatic Portal Vein, a blood vessel that connects the
small intestine to the Liver.
- The Hepatic portal vein carries these nutrients to the liver, where the liver processes,
stores and regulates the nutrients before they enter a general circulation

Hepatic Portal Vein:

- An Important vein that transports blood and nutrients from structures of the abdomen
(contains pancreas, stomach, intestine, gall bladder, liver & other organs) and
transports it to the liver
- This Vein will contain high concentration of glucose and amino acids from gut to liver
for processing (glucose & amino acids)

Liver:
- The Liver monitors blood glucose levels so if Glucose is in excess, it’s stored in glycogen
in liver cells (Glycogen: stored form of glucose made by many glucose molecules)
- This storage is triggered by insulin, which helps the liver take in glucose and convert it
into glycogen for later use
- The Liver also uses absorbed amino acids to produce protein for body’s better growth,
repair and various functions
Tooths:

Osmosis Investigation:
- Make sure the experiment is fair by:
- Distributing same amount of volume
- Distributing same length (cm3)
- Must be kept for same time
- Same type of material

Result:
- 50% Sugar Solution Which reacted with a potato of Length: 1cm 3 & Kept for 10-30
Minutes. The Potato Becomes Turgid & Swollen, Increasing by 2mm (1.2cm 3)
 - 20% Sugar Solution which reacted with a potato of Length: 1cm 3 & Kept for 10-30
Minutes. The Potato Becomes Soft & Floppy, decreasing by 1mm (0.9cm 3)
- Water Solution which reached with a potato of Length: 1cm3 & Kept for 10-30 Minutes.
The Potato becomes Most Soggy, floppy & Soft, decreasing by 3mm (the greatest
difference of them all)

To Measure Weight:
- First dry them well by a tissue paper to remove the axis water
- Place them on a electronic balance to get your measurement

Iodine Solution: (Starch)

- Make sure to wear Glasses
- The Iodine solution must be in the petri-dish
- Dropper is mandatory to drop a hint of iodine solution into a potato which is a good
source for starch
- After adding iodine solution, the potato turns blue-black
- Indicating starch is present

Benedicts Solution: (Reducing Sugar)

- Make sure to wear Glasses
- A Glass Rod is used to fasten the reaction & distribute the heat constantly
- Measuring Cylinder is required for approximate measurement
- Use Different Test Tubes to avoid contamination
- Indirectly heat the solution using a water bath to maintain temperature of distribute
the heat constantly
- After some time, if the solution turns to red; it proves reducing Sugar is present

Extra Information:
- Maltase is produced in the Small intestinal walls
- Salivary amylase is produced in the salivary gland
- Pepsin is produced in the stomach wall
- Trypsin is produced in the small intestinal wall
- Lipase is produced in the pancreas/small intestinal wall
- Small intestine being long (5m) helps absorption as digestion takes plenty of time to
be completed & the digested foods to be absorbed are passed through slowly
- Monosaccharides are simple sugars and their derivatives
 - The Villi in the small intestine contains blood capillaries which pass amino acids, water,
minerals, ions & monosaccharides into the blood, to the liver