Introduction to academic writing

unit one: writing the scientific report; oral expressions.

The academic writing process:

Whether you are writing a short essay, an article, report, or a research paper, the overall process is generally the
same.

The four writing processes:

1- Preliminary: Who is the audience? What is the purpose of this writing?

2- Prewriting: Explore, research, and organize.
3- Writing: Draft, review, and edit.
4- Presentation. Proofread /format.

The preliminary phase: Some important questions that will guide you in the rest of the process:

 What is the purpose of this piece of writing?

For example:
- to convince others of your point of view,
- to communicate your knowledge to others (to a teacher or examiner).
 Who is the audience?

Example: (a teacher or professor, a student, or a colleague). This will help you choose the appropriate level
of formality, the amount of research required, and the kind of examples and supporting evidence you will use.

The Prewriting phase:

- Explore:
Brainstorm for ideas using any method: mind maps, lists of interesting concepts, facts, questions;
conversations with colleagues, etc.
- research.
Research your topic and gather information from many resources: books, journals, media, websites, etc.
When you read sources, take detailed notes and keep an accurate record of each source. Ask yourself: Have
you used the citation style recommended? Have you listed your references in the style recommended by
your teacher? etc.
- Organize.
Now you draft your thesis (your main arguments, statements, ideas, examples, etc). Use your notes to make
a detailed outline of the logical plan of your essay to support this thesis. Give structure to your writing
before you start to write. Decide how many words you will give to each part. Collect any visual aids, like
(photos, diagrams, charts, etc).

Writing phase:

Revise several times until you have what you consider to be a final draft.

Draft: Write your draft in formal sentences and paragraphs. Remain focused on the main idea. If you change it, go
back and adapt your original plan to support the new thesis. Follow your outline; (modify it if necessary).

In early drafts, concentrate on structure rather than spelling and punctuation. Review and edit. In early drafts, ask
yourself:

- Have you answered the questions or achieved your original purpose?

- Have you introduced the subject, developed it logically, and come to a conclusion.

- Is your supporting evidence appropriate and complete?

- Do you need more examples, statistics, or quotes?

- Have you used headings to help the readers?

- Are the relationships between ideas clear and clearly signaled to the reader?

- Is each part the right length for the demands of the topic, with no part too long?

In later draft, ask yourself:

- Have you used paragraph breaks well?

- Is the level of formality appropriate for your reader?
- Have you chosen your words carefully, using correct collocations?
- Have you avoided repeating the same words or phrases too often?
- Have you met any word-count requirements?

If possible, ask someone else to read it. After each review, return to the drafting step, revising and editing your
writing as necessary.

Presentation phase:

Proofread.

When you have a final draft, you will need to read it once more to find and correct errors.

Check for: spelling, punctuation, and grammatical mistakes.

Ask someone else to proofread it as a final step.

Format:

Check with your teacher how you should present your work in terms of: font size, margins, line spacing, and paper
size, etc.

What makes writing formal?

With the aim of expressing your ideas clearly and easily, and being understood by the readers, the text should be
written in a more formal way.

Consider:

word choice:

- Use standard English words and phrases.

- only use formal phrases.
- Avoid anything that makes the writing informal, such as slang or offensive language, etc.
- Use suitable synonyms for common words; for example, instead of "do," "put," or "get," use more formal
alternatives. For example:"Several operations were done," you could say, "Several operations were carried
out" or "Several operations were performed."

Avoid short forms.

- Avoid contracted forms haven't, I'm, isn't and abbreviations e.g., "ad" for "advertisement".

Sentence structure:

- Write using complex expressions. Examples include relative pronouns which, that, who, and conjunctions
and, but, or, etc.
- Limit the use of "I" and "we." Instead of, "In this study, I aimed to...," write, "This study aims to..."
- Passive forms: the person is not important, focus on the object. For example, instead of saying, "I conducted
a study," you could write, "A study was conducted." It can be argued that...
 - Patterns with "it": It is clear that... It is necessary that... It is necessary to...
- Nouns as subjects: The results show that... The scientists believe/claim...
- Complex noun phrases with prepositions: For example, the use of... the advantage of... etc.

Academic scientific style of writing.

This section will focus on:

- the importance of clarity

- the language and conventions associated with this style of writing.
1- clarity:

In this section, you will focus on: sentence length, text organization, being concise, and precise.

 sentence length.

Keeping sentences concise—get straight to the point. Use clear sentences without a lot of unnecessary words or
information; this can help clarity.

 Text organization:

Structuring your text logically aids in understanding.

 Being concise:

Use clear, exact language to convey your points effectively. (Wordiness refers to using too many words to
express an idea, making the writing longer than necessary. Redundancy: Repeating the same information or using
words that aren't needed). Both can make the writing unclear and show that the writer is not in full control of the
development of ideas in the text.

Check examples on page 23. lecture 3

 being precise.
- Avoid using "etc" and "and so on." Instead, use "such as" when you want to give just two or three examples.
For example, instead of saying, "cancer, diabetes, etc.," you would say, "diseases such as cancer and
diabetes."
- Use collocations instead of vague use of words or prepositions. See example on page 25.
 Language and conventions: norms, formats.

Example: Grammatical rules, punctuation, and citation styles ensure clarity and consistency. Activity: Text A.

The result is Text A in academic because it uses precise scientific language to explain. It has a formal tone and
focuses on factual information.

Text B: non-academic. It presents statistical data about public health issues like obesity. It is an informative style,
which is commonly found in newspapers or reports aimed at the general public.

Common features of academic scientific texts

1- Cautious language: Avoid overgeneralizations. Use words like "approximately," "likely to," "most," "much
of," "tend to," "about," "can be," "might," "may," etc.
2- Impersonal style: Avoid "I," "we," and "our," aiming for objectivity. Instead, focus on the action by using the
passive voice.
3- Technical terminology: Use precise scientific terms and maintain a neutral, formal tone.
4- Punctuation: Rely on careful punctuation, like colons and semicolons, while avoiding informal marks.
5- References to resources: Academic texts cite sources using standard referencing styles but typically include
extensive bibliographic details directly in the text.
 6- Six: Use of tables and figures. Ensure these elements are clearly labeled and integrated into the text
logically. See page 29.

lecture Four.

Making an outline for a paragraph.

- Exploring expository or academic writing explains and informs about a topic. It's important in your academic
and professional life. A common form is:
1 - the general-to-specific paragraph. It starts with a broad sentence and gets more detailed with examples
and facts to support the main idea. This type of paragraph typically is [has] 100 to 300 words. Is [It is] a
collection of sentences that present a unified topic.
A broad sentence is an opening sentence covers a general idea or theme without going into specifics. It sets
the stage for further details.
unified topic means all sentences that support or relate to one central idea.
2 - Level of generality. A general-to-specific expository paragraph typically includes three levels of
generality.
First level: the broad opening statement.
Second level: specific statements directly supporting the opening.
Third level: even more specific details supporting the second level.
Example: page 8,9.
How to begin writing a paragraph: page 10.
- topic sentenc.
- primary supporting sentences three main points [three main points to support your topic.
- Secondary supporting sentence: add details to each primary supporting sentence.
- Conclusion sentence that reinforces the main idea.
- Outline: organize your sentences in order, numbering them, and include sub-points for secondary supports.
Examples:
1- Topic sentence: "My summer vacation was fun."
2- Primary supporting sentence: "One of the best places I went to was the water park." A: "It was really fun
to ride on the water slides with my friends."
3- Primary supporting sentence two: "Watching fireworks was exciting." A: "The colors and loud booms
were thrilling."
4- Primary support sentence three: "Camping in the woods was an adventure." A: "We roasted
marshmallows by the campfire and slept under the stars."
5- Conclusion: "I really had a great time during my summer vacation." Forming and then formatting the
paragraph.

Lecture 5:

writing a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence.

1- selecting a suitable topic.

- You might have a set topic or choose your own. Either way, determine the aspects to focus on.
- More time might be spent choosing than writing.
- Write about topics you know well, using sources like media, personal experiences, or discussions.
- Don't underestimate your interests; they can make engaging topics.
Example [See pages 7–9].
Topic ideas. To choose a topic, start with a broad subject area like p11, aging, dancing, or
books. Use specific questions—who, what, when, where, and why—to narrow these
subjects into focused topics. Examples: fears. You can derive topics like terrorists who?,
 poisonous insects what?, common childhood anxieties when?. This method helps generate
suitable paragraph topics.
Considering the audience. When exploring a topic, consider your audience's needs to guide
your paragraph's focus. Example: Writing about AIDS would differ based on the context.
- A manual for disease prevention would focus on preventative strategies;
- a term paper on health problems would include statistics on AIDS as a global threat;
- an oral presentation for medical students would describe the stages and development of the
disease.
The topic sentence and the controlling idea.
- Topic sentence: The first sentence introduces the topic and includes a general statement that the
paragraph will support. It's crucial; it's important because it also contains the controlling idea.
- Controlling idea: This specifies the aspect or focus of the topic, guiding the rest of the paragraph. It
appears through certain words or phrases in the topic sentence.

Example: "The aging population is an important issue in developing countries."

Deciding on a controlling idea is crucial for writing a focused paragraph. Both topic and
controlling idea should be set before writing. Without a controlling idea, your paragraph can
lack direction, addressing too many ideas. A good controlling idea requires development and
requires questions for discussion. Example: "John was born in Chicago" is too factual and
underdeveloped. "The fact that John was born in Chicago had a profound effect on his life" is
effective as it invites exploration of its impact. Why? Affect his health, his career, what
exactly?
What is paragraph unity?

lecture 7

A paragraph unity is achieved when all statements within support the controlling idea stated in the topic sentence.

The topic sentence acts as a contract with the reader, guiding the paragraph's focus.

Even if sentences are related to the topic, they can break unity if they don't support the controlling idea. [See pages
10-11].

Ensuring every sentence directly or indirectly supports the controlling idea keeps the paragraph clear, focused, and
effective.

Planning and constructing a unified paragraph.

1- Select topic and controlling idea. Write a topic sentence that includes both. Example: "The city of Algiers has
many exciting places for tourists to visit."
2- Brainstorm supporting ideas. Jot down all ideas that come to mind related to your controlling idea. Example:
botanical gardens, Martyrs' Memorial, etcetera.
3- Evaluate ideas. Ensure you have enough material to support your controlling idea; if not, revise the idea or
research more. Ensure the controlling idea is neither too broad nor too specific.
4- Organize and plan. Once you have a rich list of ideas, organize them to confidently develop your paragraph.

Primary Supports, pages 18-20.

1. Identify key supports. Select items from your brainstorming list that best support your controlling idea. Focus on
those directly related to your paragraph’s topic.
2. To create primary support sentences, turn your key items into primary support sentences that clearly connect
with your topic sentence. Example: In a paragraph about Algiers, include significant places like the Casbah, city
center, and the Basilica Notre-Dame d’Afrique.

3. Use guiding questions. Ask who, what, where, when, and why to evaluate the relevance and significance of your
items. This helps differentiate which items to include.

4. Revise as needed. Be open to removing or adding supports as you develop your paragraph. Ensure they provide a
strong foundation for further development.

Secondary Supports, page 30.

These sentences add details to primary supports, indirectly reinforcing the controlling idea and making complex
ideas clearer.

Structure: Start with a topic sentence, followed by primary supports and their respective secondary supports.

Purpose: Secondary supports provide specifics that enhance primary supports, making the paragraph’s argument
more convincing and comprehensive. They should clearly illustrate why primary supports are significant.

Unity: A well-planned paragraph with both primary and secondary supports maintains unity, effectively supporting
the controlling idea.

How Much Support is Enough?

1. Determine support needed. To determine how many primary and secondary supports are required to fully
reinforce your paragraph’s controlling idea.

Guideline: Aim for three primary supports with two secondary supports for each primary support for clarity and
persuasion.

3. Consideration: Some topics may naturally dictate more or fewer supports based on complexity and depth.