I.

The Nature of Reading

This chapter defines reading and developmental reading, presents the

necessary skills required for a reader to decode written massages. It explains the
different skills that correspond to the physical growth of a learning. It also
discusses the purpose of reading, the reading comprehension, and the different
kinds of reading.

Reading Defined

Reading is the process of looking at printed letter, words, phrases,

sentences, paragraphs, graphs, tables and diagrams and picking up and/or
deriving meaning from them.

Reading takes place when the eyes see the printed symbols with the help of
light; complex processes happens in the eyes and the nerves which send impulses
to the brain. The brain works wonders and traces of past experiences are aroused
and associated with words. These associations enables the reader to recognize
the word or symbols. Reading can be silent or aloud depending upon the
preference of the reader.

According to Villamin, Salazar and Gatmaitan (1996, p1) reading is an

“active dialogue between the author and the reader and is the basic tool for
learning in all subjects.” Reading is active since there is an interactive process
that goes between the text written by the author and the reader which results to
understanding the text.

Santos and Crisostomo (2013) describe reading as understanding the

written texts. According to them it consists of two related processes: first is word
recognition which refers to the process of perceiving how written symbols
correspond to one’s spoken language. In other words it is the ability to pronounce
the words; this is also known as decoding. There are certain skills necessary for
one to be able to decode as presented by Villamin, Salazar and Gatmaitan (1996,
p 2) such as:

a. use of sight vocabulary and configuration memory;

b. use context clues to determine pronunciation and meaning;
c. determine pronunciation and meaning through an analysis of the
structure or parts of a word consisting of its root and affixes, and
inflected, or derived form;
 d. relate the sound of the spoken words to its visual or graphemic symbol,
a process referred to as phonetic analysis; and
e. use a dictionary to determine pronunciation and meaning of words
resistant to analysis through the use of other skills.

The second is comprehension which is the process of making sense of

words, sentences and connected text. It is making individual words create useful
ideas as they are read in context.

In addition to these two processes, Villamin, Salazar and Gatmaitan (1996)

discusses additional reading processes. Reaction is the ability to evaluate
correctness, quality or worth based on critical reading and experiences. This
happens when comprehension is fully realized. One’s reaction is affected by one’s
culture since culture controls the quality and quantity of experience available to
the reader.

Assimilation and/or integration is dependent upon the reaction of the

reader. When ideas read are accepted they become part of the reader’s total
experience. These accepted ideas are included into the past related experiences;
wrong concepts are corrected; and new perceptions are learned.

The speed of reading is referred to as rate. It tells how fast recognition,

comprehension, reaction and assimilation happens. The speed of reading vary
according to the reader’s purpose of reading and the difficulty of the materials
being read.

Brief History of Reading

Spoken language might be a natural evolutionary human

phenomenon; communication could also be somebody's invention (Pinker &
Bloom, 1990). Accordingly, Aristotle elucidated that spoken words are the symbols
of mental experiences on one handwritten words represents spoken words
(Modrak, 2001). Nevertheless, reading and writing have distinct processes, since
the creation of a system on written symbols was a prerequisite to the method of
reading. it had been quoted some 6000 years ago, “the world’s first active readers
sighted only a bare skeleton of text (in terms of name, commodity, amount), the
control of which aided to empower an oligarchy” (Fischer, 2003, p. 17). In the
study of Daniels (1996), the Phoenicians gradually developed the first alphabet
that consists of the complete consonants. To further the said development, the
Greeks conceptualized and subsequently added vowels to the alphabet. In addition
to the evolution of written symbols and conventions which made reading
increasingly accessible, social expectations and assumptions about reading
correspondingly evolved (Finkelstein & McCleery, 2005). Further, ancient
historians note that “all early ‘reading’ involved very simple code recognition, and
was invariably task-oriented” (Fischer, 2003, p. 17) and through this regard, those
individuals who could read simple records (e.g., name, commodity and amount)
held considerable economic and social importance. A component of trust, if not
prestige, was necessarily associated with those who could read. Similarly and over
time, increasingly complex communication permitted public oration of narratives
and accounts that were once entirely hooked into human memory and
corresponding recitation (Moorhead, 2011). As an example, popular access to
biblical stories was once limited to a public recitation from clergy memory.
Increased reading ability among the general population increasingly negated the
once essential skill of intensive memorization while simultaneously increasing
public demand for text and individuals who could read that text.

Developmental Reading Defined

Developmental reading refers to an all-inclusive reading program which

covers several periods or stages. These periods generally correspond with the
developmental stages of growth of a person. As the person grows, he progresses
gradually in acquiring and developing definite skills.

Skills Required for Proficient Reading (https:www.slideshare.net/

marisolaquino18)

1. Phonemic awareness is the ability to distinguish and manipulate the

individual sounds of language. This is the foundation of reading because
it is the ability to understand that words are made up of sounds
2. Phonics refers to the study of sounds. It is the ability to identify letters
and their specific sounds
3. Fluency refers to the ability to read with speed, accuracy and vocal
expression. The reader read text quickly and accurately.
4. Vocabulary pertains to the knowledge of words and word meaning. This is
a combination of fluency and word identification.
5. Reading comprehension is the ability to engage with text. The reader is
able to construct meaning from the words read.

Developmental Reading Stages/Periods

AGE
READING
STAGE DESCRIPTION
SCHOOL STAGES
LEVEL
Stage 0 Birth to Reading • Learning to recognize the
age 5 Readiness and/or alphabet
Pre-reading • Imitation reading
• Experimentation with letters
and learning sounds
Preschool • Understanding the world around
them
Stage 1 Age 6-7 Initial Reading or • Sounding out words from print
Decoding • Utilize consonants and vowels to
blend together simple words

Grades 1-
2
Stage 2 Age 7-8 Fluency • Considered to be the ‘real’
reading stage
• They are fairly good at reading
and spelling and are ready to
Grades 2- read without sounding
3 everything out.
• Re-reading allows them to
concentrate on meaning and
builds fluency
Stage 3 Age 9-13 Reading for • Sounding out unfamiliar words
Learning the New and read with fluency
Stage • Readers need to bring prior
knowledge to their reading
Grades 4 • Acquisition of facts
to 2nd Year
Stage 4 Ages 14- Multiple • Readers are instructed in
18 Viewpoints Stage reading and study skills
• Learn to analyze what they read
and react critically
• Share multiple views and
High concepts
School
Stage 5 Ages 19 Construction and • Reads materials useful to them
and up Reconstruction and apply those skills
Stage • Readers know what not to read,
as well as what to read
• They have the ability to
College synthesize critically the works of
others and able to defend their
stand on specific issues

The Reading Purpose

The most popular purpose of reading is to gain information or validate

existing information or to evaluate a writer’s ideas or writing style, or for
enjoyment, or to enhance knowledge of language being read. Whatever the
purpose of a reader in reading, it guides him to select the materials to read.

According to Santos and Crisostomo (2013) another purpose for reading

may be for improving reading, comprehension, and both verbal and written
communication skills. There is a need to strengthen the following skills:

1. The ability to read a variety of materials like textbooks, novels,

newspapers, journals, instructional materials
2. The ability to understand and remember what has been read
3. The ability to effectively communicate what is learned from reading

The purpose of reading determines the appropriate approach to reading

comprehension. As a student, much of the reading activity is to learn assigned
materials/topics. The student get information from everything he reads yet he
doesn’t

Reading Comprehension

According to Merriam Webster dictionary, comprehension is “the act or

action of grasping with the intellect; the capacity for understanding fully.” It also
equates comprehension to understanding.

Reading is also defined by Merriam Webster dictionary as the process “to

receive or take in the sense of (letters, symbols, etc.) to understand the meaning
of the printed symbols.

Comprehension Regulation

Comprehension regulation is a strategy for intentionally directing the

reading process. Through this strategy, one can become an active and effective
reader. A reader needs to use a preplanned reading strategy to understand the
text to get the most out of reading. It allows the reader to have an idea on what
to expect from the text. It give the reader the techniques to use when the reader
encounters difficulty.

An active reader can get an idea of what the writer is trying to communicate
by:

1. setting goals based on one’s purpose for reading

2. previewing the text to make predictions
3. self-questioning
 4. scanning
5. relating new information to old

Levels of Reading Comprehension

Source: www.handinhandhomeschool.com
Kinds of Reading (http://owll.massey.ac.nz/study-skills/reading-styles.php)

1. Skimming is the easiest and fastest kind of reading. If a reader skims reading
material, he just reads the sign posts or clues in the selection such as the
heading and the topic sentence. It is a rapid reading and you are only focusing
on the title, headings, topic sentence, sign posts to get the main idea

Examples
surveying a chapter/article
reviewing something you’ve read
choosing a magazine/book to buy in the bookstore

2. Scanning is to locate a particular information in the text, he resorts to this

kind of reading- scanning. He does this by browsing over the pages and giving
a quick look over them. It’s also a rapid reading in which you’re only getting
the keywords. Usually it answered by what, who, where, when, how.

Examples
looking for a word meaning in the dictionary
getting a document from the filing cabinet
looking through the yellow pages

3. Idea reading is to get the main idea of the material. This involves the three
psychological processes of reading- Sensation, Perception, and
Comprehension. It is only getting the main idea on the paragraph.

4. Exploratory reading is done when the reader wants to know how the whole
selection is presented. It aims to get the accurate picture of the whole
presentation of ideas. How the whole selection is presented. It is referring to
structure, method of paragraph development.

Examples
long articles in magazines
short stories
descriptive texts

5. Analytic reading is careful examination of each work to identify word

relationship is the main purpose of analytic reading. It is reading with careful
attention to each word and its importance in relation to other words in the
sentence or the paragraph.
 Examples
reading mathematical problems, scientific formulas, and certain definitive
statements of key ideas that require a questioning/inquisitive mind

6. Critical reading is weighing facts, information, or ideas presented in the

selection, so that he, too, can perform judgment or conclusions about them.
In this, you are questioning, analyzing, and evaluating the text using your
critical thinking skills.

Examples
reading done in periodicals, books, ads which are loaded with propaganda
devices designed to sway opinions

7. Extensive reading is when the reader spends his leisure time by reading any
kind of material that is interesting to him, he will consider his act of reading
extensive reading. It is reading for pleasure and the main purpose of this is to
relax and enjoy.

Examples
reading comics, humorous stories, tales, novels, short articles in the
newspapers and magazines, jokes, and other forms of light reading
materials

8. Intensive reading is doing serious reading books, periodicals, and other

library materials for research work or a report is the main concern of this kind
of reading. It is a careful or in-depth reading.

Examples
the kind of reading you do when you study,
preparing a term paper, or an oral report

9. Study reading is when the learner get a maximum understanding of the main
ideas and their relationships

Example
SQ3R or SQ4R

Surveying (preparing for reading) Take note of title, heading and

subheadings; words in italics or bold print; intro or summaries; pictures
 and captions; questions at the end of the chapter or section (do this in few
minutes only).

Questioning (focusing your reading) Turn headings and subheadings

into questions by asking who, what, when, where, why, and how about
them.

Reading (focusing your reading) Take time to read with maximum

comprehension Try to answer the questions you posed in the previous step.
Try to determine the main ideas and major details of the text.

Recording (focusing your reading) Take note so you can remember what
you have read.

Reciting (recalling step) Recite aloud or mentally, pair up with a partner

for a Q&A session.

Reviewing (recalling step) Repeat some of the previous steps and review
on a regular basis.

II. Word Association

Collocations

To collocate is to cluster or group or place together in some system of order.

When a word is learned, it can be thought of in terms of other words it is combined
or chunked with.

Collocation is word or more words that often go together. Some collocation

examples are “pay attention”, “fast food”, “make an effort”, and “powerful
engine”. Collocations make it easier to avoid overused or ambiguous words like
very, nice, or beautiful, by using a pair of words that fits the context better and
has a more precise meaning. Using collocations will help your English sound
naturally like a native speaker (https://7esl.com/ collocations/;
https://englishpost.org/teaching-vocabulary-collocations/).

Examples of collocations with take, get, make do

take He and his family decided to take a holiday in Puerto Princesa.

 I would like to take a walk with you tomorrow morning.

I’ll take a look at the design and let you know what I think.

get He begun to get angry when the students did not follow his

instructions.

He wanted to see if he could get a job with the DENR.

My goals were to go back to school and get a degree.

make She must make a right choice, her future depends on it.

We are to make a contract for the implementation of the Robusta coffee

research project.

We need to make a deal for the purchase and delivery of the digital hot air
roaster.

do I need to do homework.

Students need to do a report on the field activity they had in their

Siviculture subject.

Examples of different types of collocations made from combinations of verb,

noun, adjective.

• Adverb + Adjective:

fully aware, happily married, highly controversial, highly effective, highly probable, highly
profitable

• Adverb + Adverb:
only just, pretty well, quite a lot, quite enough, quite often, right away…

• Adverb + Verb:

badly damage, deeply rooted (in), never knew, quite agree

• Adjective + Noun:

internal injury, internal organ, irreparable damage, joint account, just cause, key issue,
key role

• Adjective + Preposition:

comfortable with, concerned with, nasty of, nervous of, nice of, furious about, guilty
about

• Noun + Noun:

core values, corporate finance, cottage industry, creation science, credit bureau, credit
union

• Verb + Noun:

go on a date, go on a picnic, go on foot, have a fight, have a fit, have a game, keep quiet,
keep records

• Verb + Preposition:

allow for, apologize for, ask for, object to, pray to, prefer to

• Verb + Adverb:

go far, go first, go upstairs, guess correctly, hit hard, judge harshly, know well
• Noun + Preposition:

date with, dealings with, difficulty with, debate on, information on, hold on
 have do take break pay save come go
have a do business take a break break a pay a fine save come close go out of
bath habit electricity business
have a do nothing take a break a pay save come go astray
drink chance leg attention energy complete
with
have a do someone take a look break a pay by save come to go bad
good a favor promise credit card money an
time agreement
have a do the take a rest break a pay cash save come early go bald
haircut cooking record one’s
strength
have a do the take a seat break a pay interest save come first go
holiday housework window someone bankrupt
a seat
have a do the take a taxi break pay save come into go blind
problem shopping someone’ someone a someone’ view
s heart compliment s life
have a do the take an break pay save Come to go crazy
relations washing up exam the ice someone a somethin an end
hip visit g to a
disk
have a do your take notes break pay the bill save come late go dark
rest best the law space
have do your take break pay the save time come on go on line
lunch hair someone’s the news price time
place to
someone
have do your take break pay your save come go fishing
sympath homework someone’s the rules respects yourself prepared
y temperature the
trouble

Examples of common collocation:

make keep catch get

make a difference keep a diary catch a ball get a job

make a mess keep a promise catch a bus get a shock

make a mistake keep a secret catch a chill get angry
make a noise keep an catch a cold get divorced
appointment
make an effort keep calm catch a thief get drunk
make furniture keep control catch fire get frightened
make money keep in touch catch sight of get home
make progress keep quiet catch someone’s get lost
attention
make room keep someone’s catch someone’s get married
place eye
make trouble keep the change catch the flu get nowhere
Configuration

Configuration is the arrangement of elements in a particular form, figure, or combination. It

refers to the information given through the size and shape of the letters as well as through the length
or the number of letters there are in the word.

Example: A reader is given the configuration below and given the clue “It is a cheer” will be
able to guess the words through the figures given.

*hep hep hooray

Clusters

Cluster is a group of words based on a common theme. The easiest way to build a group is by
collecting synonyms for a particular word. The group of synonyms becomes a cluster which has one
common meaning and for that one meaning, reader have effectively learned multiple words. Example
attractive, lovely, beautiful, charming may be clustered together since they are all synonymous; fly,
mosquito, ant locust belong to the insect group; operating room, syringe, doctor, intensive care unit
are all evoked when you say hospital.

Example of clustering:

Word association
 As explained by Villamin, Salazar, and Gatmaitan (1996) it is important to understand the
relationship between words or ideas in a structure. This will pave the way for better understanding
of those words and/or ideas. Association or relationship of words may very among people even they
speak the same language and live in the same community.

Example:

Linguists classified word relationship as follows:

Similarity
The meaning of the words a similar or the same. Care must be taken in this
classification since certain words may mean the same, some words do not fit the context while
others do. Thesaurus is the best help for this type of association.
Example: talk – chat, speech, dialogue, conversation
Unmarried – single, spinster, bachelorette, old maid
Contrast

This means that the words are opposite in meaning; this is referred to as antonym

Example: foreign – innate

Sudden – expected

Cause-and-effect
This is a relationship between events or things, where one is the result of the other or
others. This is a combination of action and reaction.
Example: When water is heated, the molecules move quickly;
therefore, the water boils.
Because the alarm was not set, we were late for work.

Part-whole
The part of something may stand for the whole, or vice versa. It is referred to as
synecdoche in figurative speech.

Example: The word "sails" is often used to refer to a whole ship.

The phrase "hired hands" can be used to refer to workers.

The word "head" can refer to counting cattle or people.

The word "bread" can be used to represent food in general

 or money (e.g. he is the breadwinner; music is my bread and butter).

The word "wheels" refers to a vehicle.

The word "boots" refers to soldiers.

The word "bubbly" refers to champagne.

The word "glasses" refers to eyewear.

Classification
Words belonging in the same genus may be classified together according to shared
qualities or characteristics.
Example: plant – (vegetables) eggplant, pechay, carrot
stringed musical instrument – guitar, ukulele, violin, piano

Predication
This is the relationship between a noun and its verb form, a doer and its action and the
action and its receiver.
Example: dogs – bark; guardhouse
students – read; makes – assignment

Derivation
This refers to words that grow out of other words. From one root word, many words can
be formed by adding affixes, or other to form compounds.
Example: fire – fired, firewood, fire up, afire, firefly,
Board – boarding, cardboard, backboard, boarding house

Sound
This means that words have exactly the same sound or pronunciation
Example: homophones: write, rite, right, wright
homonyms: read /rid/ - read /red/
similarity (not the same) cite, scythe

Modification
This the relationship between a word and its modifier.
Example: very gorgeous teacher
run speedily

Association
This includes relationships not previously given between words and ideas that are
brought to mid with a given word.
Example: course, teacher, classroom, assignment, thesis, and
diploma are all associated with school and/or university
 III. Word Builders
Specific and Generic Terms

A Generic word is one that pertains to a class of related things, such as fabric, shop, products.
Generic words convey inexact, intangible, and often abstract concepts

A Specific word is one that pertains to a definite class of related things, such as silk, quilter,
hardware. Specific terms provide precise, sensory, or concrete details

Specific words are preferred to generic ones because they convey clearer and more forceful
meanings.

Words with Multiple Meaning

One of the problems with using dictionaries to find the meaning of words is that many words
have several different meanings. If you select the first meaning you find in the dictionary without
thinking about the context in which the word appears, you may choose the wrong definition and
misunderstand the text. Here are two examples of common words with very different meanings:

Word Meaning

capital • the city where a country has its main seat of government

• money or property used to start a business

Body • the physical structure of a person or animal, including the head and
limbs

• a group of people who are connected through their work or a particular

purpose

• a large amount of something, especially something that has been

collected, such as knowledge, information, and so on.

Hence a writer must be extra careful in using words with different meanings. The right words
to express what is intended must be used; in this way, the reader will be able to determine the
meaning of unfamiliar terminologies through context.

Words can sometimes belong in different classes. For example, mean can be a noun, adjective,
or verb. Some of these words can have a different meaning depending on the word class.
 Word Meaning
mean (noun) an average
mean (verb) to have a particular meaning
mean (adjective) unkind

Context Clues

The dictionary meaning of a word is called denotative meaning. Sometimes a word is used not
referring to its denotative meaning but expresses a different meaning. In such cases, the reader must
be kin in observing context clues. These are hints in the sentence or sentences for the contextual
meaning of a word used in the sentence or sentences.

Context clues usually help us figure out the meaning of the words without having to look up
in the dictionary.

Context clues are hints found within a sentence, paragraph, or passage that a reader can use
to understand the meanings of new or unfamiliar words. Learning the meaning of a word through its
use in a sentence or paragraph is the most practical way to build vocabulary since a dictionary is not
always available when a reader encounters an unknown word. A reader must be aware that many
words have several possible meanings. Only by being sensitive to the circumstances in which a word
is used can the reader decide upon an appropriate definition to fit the context. A reader should rely
on context clues when an obvious clue to meaning is provided, or when only a general sense of the
meaning is needed for the reader’s purposes. Context clues should not be relied upon when a precise
meaning is required when clues suggest several possible definitions, when nearby words are
unfamiliar, and when the unknown word is a common one that will be needed again; in these cases,
a dictionary should be consulted
(https://www.mdc.edu/kendall/collegeprep/documents2/context%20cluesrev8192).

Kendal (2005) discussed several different types of context clues. Some of them are:

Definition/Description Clue
The new term may be formally defined, or sufficient explanation may be given within the
sentence or in the following sentence. Clues to definition include “that is,” commas, dashes,
and parentheses.

Examples:
His emaciation, that is, his skeleton-like appearance, was frightening to see.

“Skeleton-like appearance” is the definition of “emaciation.”

Fluoroscopy, examination with a fluoroscope, has become a common practice.

The commas before and after “examination with a fluoroscope” point out the definition of
“fluoroscopy.”
 The dudeen – a short-stemmed clay pipe – is found in Irish folk tales.

The dashes setting off “a short-stemmed clay pipe” point out the definition of “dudeen.”

Example Clues
Sometimes when a reader finds a new word, an example might be found nearby that helps to
explain its meaning. Words like including, such as, and for example, point out example clues.

Examples:
Piscatorial creatures, such as flounder, salmon, and trout, live in the coldest parts of the
ocean.

“Piscatorial” obviously refers to fish.

Celestial bodies, including the sun, moon, and stars, have fascinated man through the
centuries.

“Celestial” objects are those in the sky or heavens.

In the course of man’s evolution, certain organs have atrophied. The appendix, for example,
has wasted away from disuse.
“Atrophied” means “wasted away.”

Synonym Restatement Clue

The reader may discover the meaning of an unknown word because it repeats an idea expressed
in familiar words nearby. Synonyms are words with the same meaning.

Examples:
Flooded with spotlights – the focus of all attention – the new Miss America began her year-
long reign. She was the cynosure of all eyes for the rest of the evening.

“Cynosure” means “the focus of all attention.”

The mountain pass was a tortuous road, winding and twisting like a snake around the trees
of the mountainside.

“Tortuous” means “winding and twisting.”

Contrast/Antonym Clue
Antonyms are words with opposite meanings. An opposite meaning context clue contrasts the
meaning of an unfamiliar word with the meaning of a familiar term. Words like “although,”
“however,” and “but” may signal contrast clues.

Examples:
When the light brightens, the pupils of the eyes contract; however, when it grows darker,
they dilate.

“Dilate” means the opposite of “contract.”

 The children were as different as day and night. He was a lively conversationalist, but she
was reserved and taciturn.

“Taciturn” means the opposite of a “lively conversationalist.”

Mood / Tone Clue

The author sets a mood, and the meaning of the unknown word must harmonize with the
mood.

Examples:
The lugubrious wails of the gypsies matched the dreary whistling of the wind in the all but-
deserted cemetery.

“Lugubrious,” which means “sorrowful,” fits into the mood set by the words “wails,”
“dreary,” and “deserted cemetery.”

Experience Clue
Sometimes a reader knows from experience how people or things act in a given situation. This
knowledge provides a clue to a word’s meaning.

Examples:
During those first bewildering weeks, the thoughts of a college freshman drift back to high
school where he was “in,” knew everyone, and felt at home. A feeling of nostalgia sweeps
over him.
She walked away from her closet and quickly slipped a jersey over her head. She smoothed
it into place over her hips, added a belt, glanced at the mirror, and left for work.

Analysis or Structure Clue

The parts used to construct a word can be direct clues to meaning. Knowledge of prefixes,
roots, and suffixes can aid a reader in using this type of context clue. Learning one word part
can add dozens of words to a reader’s vocabulary. The power of word parts lies in the ability to
combine the roots and affixes with the context in which a word is used to discover the author’s
meaning.

Examples:
The story is incredible.

The root cred means “to believe,’ and the prefix means “not.” Therefore, if a story is
incredible, it is unbelievable.

The somnambulist had to be locked in his bedroom at night for his safety.

If a reader knows the meaning of ambular (walk) and somn (sleep) and sees the sentence,
the reader may realize that a “somnambulist” is a sleepwalker.
 Inference Clue
Sufficient clues might be available for the careful reader to make an educated guess at the
meaning.

Example:
She told her friend, “I’m through with blind dates forever. What a dull evening! I was bored
every minute. The conversation was vapid.” “

Vapid” means “uninteresting.”

Cause and Effect Clue

The author explains the reason for or the result of the word. Words like “because,” “since,”
“therefore,” “thus,” “so,” etc. may signal context clues.

Example:
She wanted to impress all her dinner guests with the food she served, so she carefully
studied the necessary culinary arts.

“Culinary” means “food preparation.”

Roots and Affixes

The root of a word is the basic structure of the word. A root is attached to affixes which
becomes part of that word. Many a root word originated from other languages. The study of the origin
of a word is called etymology. Most lists of roots in books and the internet are the Greek and Latin
roots. For a list of Greek and Latin roots, you may download it from the internet.

What is an affix? An affix is a letter or letters added to a root word to change its meaning. An
affix can be a prefix or a suffix. A prefix is placed before a word. A suffix is placed after. New words
are created from root words. Many words have both a prefix and suffix. There are many forms and
specific reasons for adding letters to words. The main idea is to create other words with different
definitions in English. Below are just a few examples. Check your dictionary for prefixes and suffixes
to better understand this subject.

Common Prefixes with their Meanings

Prefix Meaning Examples

un- these make unfair, untidy, not fair, not tidy
nouns, verbs,
in- adjectives into incomplete, informal
 the negative,
il- opposite meaning illegal, illegitimate
and mean 'not'
im- immature, impatient

ir- irregular, irrational

dis- dishonest, dislike

non- non-smoker, non-toxic

de- these indicate a defrost, debug,
reversal of a
dis- verb's actions - disconnect,
reverse, back,
un- again untie, unwrap, undo,

re- repaint, retry, redo

return, retell, regain

over- means something oversleep, overpopulated ( = too much sleep too
is wrong or bad, many people, excessive)
under- under, lowly
undervalued, undercooked (= not valued
sub- enough, not cooked enough)

mis- substandard, subspecies (= well below

standard, not enough, lowly)
mal-
misunderstand, miscalculate (= bad) - to not
understand, to not calculate right/to
calculate badly
hyper- to indicate size hypermarket, hyperactive
very big, very
mega- small, too much megastore, megabyte

super- supermarket, supermodel

ultra- ultrasound, ultra-modern

micro- microwave, microchip

mini- miniskirt, minibus

Verbs formed with prefixes

Prefix Examples
co- co-author, co-chair, coexist, cofound, cooperate, coproduce
counter- counteract, counterbalance, countercheck, countersign
de- debug, decode, decentralize, decompose, defrost, destabilize
dis- disagree, disappear, disbelieve, discolor, disconnect, discover,
disintegrate, dislike, disqualify
em- embed, embody, empower
en- enclose, encode, endanger, enlarge, enrich, entitle
fore- forecast, foresee, foretell
inter- interact, interchange, interconnect, interlink, international,
interrelate
out- outdo, outnumber, outperform
over- overdo, overestimate, overheat, overreact, overwork
re- rearrange, reboot, recharge, reconsider, redo, re-elect, re-enter,
re-establish, re-examine, reformulate, rewind
sub- subcontract, subdivide, sublet
un- undo, unload, unpack, unplug, unscrew
under- underestimate, underline, underpay

Greek and Latin Numerical Prefixes (https://www.effinghamschools.com)

English Greek Latin Examples

One mono- uni- monarch, monotone, unicorn
unicycle
Two duo-,di- bi- dioxide, binoculars, duet, bicycle
Three tri- tri- triangle, triathlon, triplicate
Four tetra- quad- tetrahedron, quadruplets, quarter
Five penta- quint- pentagon, quintuplets, quintet
Six hex- sex- hexagon, sextuplets,
Seven hept- sept- heptagon, septuplets
Eight oct- oct- octopus, octuplets, octagon
Nine ennea- non-,noni-, ennead, nonagenarian
nona-
Ten dec- dec- decathlon, decade, decimal
Hundred hect- cent- hectare, century
Thousand kilo- milli- kilometer, millipede, millenium
part, half hemi semi hemisphere, semicolon
many poly multi polygon, multifaceted

Additional Prefixes

twenty icosa- vigint-

thirty triaconta- trigint-
forty tetraconta- quadragint-
fifty pentaconta- quinquagint-
sixty hexaconta- sexagint-
seventy heptaconta- septagint-
eighty octaconta- octogint-
ninety enneaconta- nonagint
Nouns Formed with Suffixes

Nouns describing people doing some activity

Suffix Examples
-ant assistant, participant
-ee attendee, referee, grantee
-ent correspondent, respondent
-(e)er engineer, manager
-ian librarian, historian
-ic mechanic, paramedic
-ician mathematician, politician
-(i)cist physicist, pharmacist
-or supervisor, survivor

Nouns describing devices

Suffix Examples
-er condenser, opener
-or alternator, razor

Nouns describing (small) size

Suffix Examples
-let booklet, leaflet

Nouns describing abstracts

Suffix Examples
-age mileage, percentage
-al disposal, proposal
-ance appearance, attendance
-ation information, resignation, transformation
-ence dependence, preference
-ication simplification, verification
-iety society, variety
-ism capitalism, idealism
-ity density, diversity, equality, regularity, validity
 -ment agreement, statement
-ness usefulness, weakness
-ship membership, relationship
-sion conclusion, explosion
-ssion emission, transmission
-(p)tion assumption, consumption, recognition, solution
-ure exposure, failure

Nouns formed with other suffixes

Suffix Examples
-t weight
-th breadth, length, strength, width

Remember:

Adjective Noun Verb

broad breadth broaden
long length lengthen
strong strength strengthen
wide width widen

Noun Verb
choice choose
proof prove
speech speak
thought think

Verbs formed with suffixes

Suffix Examples
-ate approximate, calibrate, evaporate, hyphenate, integrate
-en broaden, harden, lengthen, quicken, soften, strengthen
-ify identify, justify, modify, qualify, simplify, specify, verify
-ize computerize, economize, emphasize, globalize,
industrialize, magnetize, modernize, normalize,
rationalize, specialize, standardize

Notes:
 The suffix –ize is also spelled –ise, especially in BE.

The verbs advertise, advise, analyse (in AE analyze), surprise are, however, always spelled with –
s-.

The adjective formed with suffixes

Suffix Examples
-al minimal, bilingual, natural, peripheral, regional
-ous advantageous, euphonious, magnanimous, hazardous
-ly sparingly, alternately, vigorously, homely, amicably
-able, -ible favorable, affordable, collapsible, comprehensible
-y worthy, wealthy, faulty,
-ed educated, advanced, purified, excavated, leveled
-ing flattering, demanding, defining,
-ful forceful, faithful, colorful, respectful,
-less boneless, penniless, seamless, bottomless,
-ive affirmative, appreciative, purposive, comprehensive
-ic athletic, authentic, diabetic, pathetic, economic, volcanic
Idiomatic Expression

You probably use many of them every day without even realizing it. Idioms can be confusing
for a student who has learned English as a second language, as they may never have heard the idiom
before.

Idioms are not meant to be interpreted literally. Rather, there is a deeper, non-literal meaning
of common idioms. These common idioms come to be accepted and understood by people who share
a common language (or sometimes by a smaller cultural group within a language group).
 Idioms are culture-specific and may be based on history not necessarily evident in the modern
world. Understanding where the IDIOM comes from will help to understand its meaning. Here are
some examples of idioms taken from https://portallas.com/wp content/uploads/Idioms.pdf. Check
the web for other examples

IDIOM MEANING

Acid test Proves the effectiveness of something.

Actions speak louder People's intentions can be judged better by what they do
than words than what they say.
Add insult to injury To further a loss with mockery or indignity; to worsen
an unfavorable situation.
Against the clock Being rushed and having little time to complete
something.
A penny for your A way of asking what someone is thinking
thoughts
Back to basics An approach that uses traditional ideas that have
previously worked.
Back to the drawing When an attempt fails and it's time to start all over.
board
Bad apple Troublemaker or undesirable person in a group.

Ball is in your court It is up to you to make the next decision or take the
next step

Be glad to see the back Be happy when a person leaves.

of
Beat around the bush Avoiding the main topic. Not speaking directly about the
issue.
Beat the clock Do something quickly before it's too late.

Bee in one's bonnet Carrying and idea that's constantly in your thoughts.

Bird in the hand is Better to be satisfied with what you have than risk
worth two in the bush losing it by trying to get something better.
Blow up in the face A plan or project that suddenly fails.

Catch someone red- Catch someone in the act of committing a crime or

handed doing something they shouldn't.
Chase rainbows Try to achieve something very difficult, impossible, or
very desirable.

Cook someone's goose Spoil the person's chance of success.

Copycat Someone who copies the work of another.

Couch potato A lazy person who watches too much TV.

Cover a lot of ground Complete a lot of work or a wide range of things.

Crack of dawn Very early in the morning. The first moments of sunrise.

Days are numbered Expected to be in a role or to die soon.

Dead duck Plan or event that has failed or is certain to fail and
therefore not worth discussing.

Dead in the water Plan or project that has ceased to function and is not
expected to re-activate.

Deadwood People or things that are no longer useful or necessary.

Devil's Advocate To present a counter-argument.

Do time (serve time) Spend time in prison.

Donkey's years A very long period.

Don't count your Don't make plans for something that might not happen
chickens before they've
hatched

Don't put all your eggs Don't make everything dependent on only one thing.
in one basket

Egg head Studious and academic person.

Elbow room Enough space to move or work in.

Eleventh hour At the very last minute or just in time.

Every cloud has a silver Be optimistic, even difficult times will lead to better
lining days. Good can come from a bad situation.

Feeling blue Feeling depressed or disconnected.

Feeling under the Feeling unwell.

weather
Fever pitch When a feeling is very intense and exciting

Fish out of water Feeling uncomfortable in unfamiliar surroundings

Foot in the door Small but good start with the possibility of a bright
future.
Give the green light Provide permission to proceed.

Go belly up Fail completely.

Golden boy Young men idolized for great skill, typically in sport.

Golden handshake A large sum of money given to someone when they

retire from a company.

Grease someone's palm Give someone money to persuade them to do something

dishonest.

Green thumb Ability to make plants grow or be good at gardening.

Grey area Unclear or undefined.

Hanging on by Continuing to do something in a very difficult situation.

fingernails

Head in the clouds Having unrealistic or impractical ideas.

Head over heels in love Very much in love with someone.

Hear it on the grapevine Hear something through informal or unofficial means,

like gossip

Hit the road Begin traveling or leave.

Hit the sack (or sheets, Go to bed.

or hay)
Hold the fort Have responsibility for something or care about
someone while others are away or out.

Hot potato Speak of a current issue which many people are talking
about and which is usually disputed.

It takes two to tango Actions or communications need more than one person.

Itchy feet Strong impulse to travel or go somewhere.

Jump on the bandwagon Join a popular trend or activity.

Keep something at bay Keep something away or prevent something from
happening.

Keeping your finger on Being constantly aware of current developments.

the pulse
Last straw The final problem in a series of problems that lead to a
bad thing happening.

Laugh a minute Someone or something very funny

Let me see the color of Prove that you can afford something.
your money
Let sleeping dogs lie Leave a situation undisturbed, since it would otherwise
result in trouble or complications.

Let the cat out of the Share information that was previously concealed.
bag
Lick one's wounds Trying to regain confidence after a defeat.

Lining up all the ducks Being well organized in preparation for something.
in a row
Living in an ivory tower Living a lifestyle that saves or obscures you from real-
world issues.

Living on the breadline Having very little income.

Longarm of the law Far-reaching power of the authorities.

Lovey-dovey Making an excessive display of affection.

Lump in your throat Tight feeling in the through because of emotion like
sadness, pride or gratitude.

Make my day Something that makes me very happy or satisfies me.

Makes your flesh crawl Something that makes you feel disgusted or nervous.

Making a go of it Attempting to succeed at something.

Making good time Completing something faster than expected.

Match made in heaven The relationship is likely to be happy and successful.

Method to my madness Despite one's approach seeming random, there is a

structure to it.
Mile a minute Happens very quickly.

Monkey business Mischievous or deceitful behavior.

Month of Sundays A very long time.

Murphy's law Anything that can go wrong will go wrong

No time like the present The belief is better to do something right away instead of
waiting.

No time to lose Start something right away, otherwise, it won't be

finished on time.

Not letting the grass Not delaying in getting something done.

grow under your feet
Not playing with a full Lacking intelligence.
deck
Off-color Unwell.

Off one's rocker Crazy; demented; out of one's mind; in a confused or

befuddled state of mind; senile.

Off to a flying start Something that is immediately successful or has begun

well.

Old hand A person with a lot of experience in something.

Old school Holding ideas that were popular and important in the
past but which are no longer so.

Only time will tell The truth, answer or result, will be revealed at some
future point.
Out of the blue Appear suddenly from nowhere and without warning.

Out of the red No longer in debt.

Paint the town red Go out and have a really good time at a party.

Pass with flying colors Pass with a high score.

Penny for your thoughts A way of asking what someone is thinking.

Pop the question Propose marriage to someone.

Pot calling the kettle Hypocritically criticize or accuse someone else is as
black guilty as the person criticizing.

Pull wool over other Deceive someone into thinking well of them.
people's eyes
Pulling out all the stops Doing everything you can to make something happen.

Raining cats and dogs Raining very heavily.

Raring to go Being very eager or enthusiastic about the idea.

Rat race Exhausting and repetitive routine.

Red flag Signal or indication that something is not working

properly of correctly.

Red-eye A journey that leaves late in the night and arrives early
in the morning.

Road hog Dangerous driver.

Roll out the red carpet Greet a person with great respect and give them a big,
warm welcome.

School of hard knocks Learning through difficult experiences, as opposed to

formal, classroom education.

School of thought Particular philosophy or way of thinking about

something.

Schoolboy error Very basic or foolish mistake.

Sell ice to Eskimos persuade people to go against their best

interests or to accept something unnecessary.

Shown the red card Dismissed or told to leave.

Sink or swim Fail or succeed.

Sinking teeth into Doing something with a lot of energy and enthusiasm.
something

Sit on the fence Unable or unwilling to choose or make a decision.

Sour grapes Pretending to dislike something you cannot have.

Spanner in the works Suddenly disrupt something by introducing something

unexpected or unwanted.

Standing the test of time Something that lasts or continues to work well for a long
time.

Steal someone's thunder Take the credit for something someone else did.

Stiff upper lip Not showing emotions.

Storm in a teacup Exaggerate a problem.

Straight from the horse's From the authoritative source.

mouth
Stuck in a time warp Not changed for a very long time, when everything else
around has.

Swallow one's pride Accepting something humiliating or embarrassing.

Take with a grain (or Not to take what someone says too seriously. Be
pinch) of salt skeptical about something.

Taste of your own Something happens to you or is done to you, that you
medicine have done to someone else.

Thinking on your feet Adjusting quickly to change and making fast decisions.

This day and age These or modern times.

Tickled pink Very pleased, thrilled or delighted about something

Tongue-tied Difficulty in expressing yourself because of nervousness

or embarrassment.

Too many chiefs and not Too many people telling others what to do.
enough Indians
Top banana The most important person in a group.

University of life Daily life and work where you learn more than you
would through formal education.

Until hell freezes over Something will never happen, no matter how hard or
long you try for it too.
 Up in smoke. Something that ends before getting a result

Waiting in the wings Waiting for an opportunity to take action.

Well-oiled machine Unit of people or a group of things working well

together.

Whale of a time Enjoying something thoroughly.

White as a sheet (or In a state of great fear or anxiety.

ghost)
White elephant An expensive item that's costly to maintain and not
particularly useful.

White lie A little or harmless lie told to be polite and avoid hurting
someone's feelings.

Whitewash Cover up or gloss over faults.

Whole nine yards Everything. All of it.

With bells on When you are delighted and eager to go somewhere.

Wooden spoon The imaginary prize for the last person in a race.

Yellow-bellied Coward

You can't teach an old People used to do things a certain way are often unable
dog new tricks to change their ways.

Your guess is as good as Not knowing the answer.

mine

Creative Words

English is a fascinating language, particularly in that most of our words come from other
languages. While most words come from ancient languages to more modern lexicons, some come from
myths and stories of gods and goddesses, particularly from stories from ancient Greece. Here are a
few fascinating English words with roots dating back to stories of Zeus and his fellow gods.
Creative Definition Origin in Mythology

Words
Achilles’ heel A tragic weakness or The expression comes from Achilles, a
flaw Trojan War hero, who was sipped in the
river Styx to ensure his immortality at
birth. Being held by the heel, this part did
not get dipped in the river and it was the
one vulnerable spot on his body. He died
of a wound to the heel.

atlas a collection of maps in Atlas and his brother fought with the
book form Titans in a war against the Olympians.
When they were defeated, Zeus, the King
of the Gods, condemned Atlas to hold up
the heavens on his shoulders as
punishment.

cereal a grain used for food Ceres is the goddess of agriculture. Ceres
such as wheat, oat, and was the goddess of the harvest and was
corn credited with teaching humans how to
grow, preserve, and prepare grain and
corn.

chaos 1: a state of extreme The god Chaos personified the empty void
confusion and disorder that preceded the creation of the universe.
2: the formless and
disordered state of
matter before the
creation of the cosmos

chronological relating to or arranged The god Chronos was the personification

according to the of time. He is imagined as a serpentine
temporal order god with three heads – one of a man, one
of a bull, and one of a lion. The words
‘chronic’ and ‘chronicle’ is also linked to
Chronos.

cloth fabric is worn to cover Clotho is one of the three Fates or Moirai
the body who spin the thread of life; the other two
draw out (Lachesis) and cut (Atropos).

echo the repetition of a Echo was a nymph known for her

sound resulting from loquaciousness, a trait she put to use by
reflection of the sound distracting Hera, the Queen of Gods, while
waves Zeus was conducting affairs with the other
nymphs. When Hera discovered the truth,
she cursed Echo so that she could only
repeat the words of others back to them.
erotic relating to or tending to This word comes from the Greek character
arouse sexual desire or Eros, but you probably know him as his
excitement more famous Roman name –Cupid. Eros
was the god not only of love but of sexual
desire. As a result, his interventions often
cause gods and men to fall in love, often
when already married.

halcyon 1: idyllically calm and Alcyone and her husband Ceyx

peaceful; suggesting sacrilegiously referred to themselves as
happy tranquillity ‘Hera’ and ‘Zeus’. To punish them, Zeus
2: marked by peace and threw a thunderbolt at Ceyx’s ship while
prosperity he was at sea. Morpheus, the god of
dreams, appeared to Alcyone as an
apparition of Ceyx to tell her what had
happened, and Alcyone, distraught, threw
herself into the sea. The gods felt sorry for
her and transformed them both into
halcyon birds (kingfishers). The word
‘halcyon’, to mean peace, comes from
‘halcyon days’ (‘alkyonideshemerai’ in
Greek) which refers to a period of calm
weather at the winter solstice was
mythical kingfisher-like bird was said to
breed in a nest that floated on the sea.

hypnosis a state that resembles The god Hypnos was the personification of
sleep but that is sleep. His cave had poppies and other
induced by suggestion sleep-inducing plants at its entrance, no
door (so that there were no creaking
hinges), and the River Lethe flowing
through it. The sound of the river’s
running water was said to induce
drowsiness.

iridescent 1: varying in color The goddess Iris was the personification of

when seen in different the rainbow, and also a messenger to the
lights or from different other gods. Both the flower and the part of
angles the eye are also named after the rainbow
2: having a play of goddess.
lustrous rainbow colors

laconic brief and to the point; Lakonia (now Laconia) is a district near
effectively cut short Sparta in southern Greece. In Greek
mythology, the Lakon people were known
for their concise manner of speaking.
lethargy 1: a state of comatose Remember the River Lethe that flowed
torpor (as found in through Hypnos’s cave? It was also known
sleeping sickness) as the river of forgetfulness and the word
2: weakness ‘lethargy’ derives from it. Lethe was one of
characterized by a lack the five rivers of the underworld and the
of vitality or energy dead were made to drink from it to forget
3: inactivity; showing their lives on earth. The goddess Lethe
an unusual lack of was also the personification of
energy forgetfulness.

lycanthrope a monster able to Lycaon, the King of Arcadia, wanted to

change appearance test whether Zeus was omniscient or not,
from human to wolf so served him the roasted flesh of a
and back again human child (in some versions his son).
To punish him, Zeus turned him into a
wolf.
mentor Noun Mentor was the advisor to Telemachus
a wise and trusted (the son of Odysseus and Penelope – the
guide and advisor central characters in Homer’s Odyssey).
In many versions of the myth, the goddess
Verb Athena disguised herself as Mentor and
serve as a teacher or convinced Telemachus to stand up to his
trusted counselor mother’s suitors and search for his
missing father who had not returned from
the Trojan War.

morphine an alkaloid narcotic Remember Morpheus, the god of dreams,

drug extracted from from last week’s blog? In the nineteenth
opium; a powerful, century, the German apothecary coined
habit-forming narcotic the name morphine for an opioid drug
used to relieve pain because of its sleep-inducing properties.

mnemonic Noun Mnemosyne was the personification of

a device (such as a memory
rhyme or acronym)
used to aid recall
Adjective
of or relating to or
involved the practice
of aiding the memory
muse Noun The memory goddess Mnemosyne had
nine daughters with the King of the Gods
the source of an Zeus. These daughters personified poetry,
artist's inspiration arts, and literature, and were known as
Verb the muses.

reflect deeply on a
subject
narcissism exceptional interest in Narcissus, known for his arrogance, was
and admiration for tempted to a pool by Nemesis. There he
yourself fell in love with his reflection, and not
realizing it was merely an image, reached
towards it and drowned.

nemesis something causing Nemesis was the spirit who punished

misery or death those guilty of hubris.

panic Noun Pan, the god of nature and the wild, was
1: an overwhelming half man and half goat – like a faun. He
feeling of fear and helped Zeus in the battle against the
anxiety Titans by making terrible screeching
2: sudden mass fear sounds which caused the enemy to scatter
and anxiety over in fear. In other stories, Pan’s screech
anticipated events caused panic when people heard it in
Verb secluded places.
1: be overcome by a
sudden fear Pan was also in love with Echo and, in
2: cause sudden fear in some versions of the myth, Pan
or fill with sudden commanded his followers to kill her when
panic she fell in love with Narcissus.

phobia An extreme or Phobos is the son of the god Ares. His

irrational fear of or name means fear or terror; he is the
aversion to something personification of fear.

plutocracy A government-run by Pluto is also known as the god of wealth,

the wealthy but he is more popularly known as the
god of the afterlife.

tantalize torment or tease Zeus punished Tantalus by making him

someone with stand in a pool of water beneath a low-
something branched, fruit-laden tree. Whenever
unobtainable Tantalus reached to bite the fruit, he
found that the branches had pulled it just
out of his reach, and when he bent to
drink, the water receded so that he was
unable to sip it.
typhoon a tropical cyclone Typhon was the deadliest and most feared
occurring in the of all creatures. He was said to be as tall
western Pacific or as the stars; with a human upper half, a
Indian oceans hundred dragon heads, wings, and the
lower half of a viper.

zeal Noun Zelus was the god of ardor, envy, and

1: a feeling of strong emulation.
eagerness (usually in
favor of a person or
cause)
2: excessive fervor to
 do something or
accomplish some end
3: prompt willingness

Source: http://www.thehellenictimes.com/language.html
 IV. READING COMPREHENSION

Comprehension: The Goal of Reading

Comprehension, or extracting meaning from what you read, is the ultimate goal of reading.
Experienced readers take this for granted and may not appreciate the reading comprehension skills
required. The process of comprehension is both interactive and strategic. Rather than passively
reading text, readers must analyze it, internalize it, and make it their own.
To read with comprehension, developing readers must be able to read with some proficiency
and then receive explicit instruction in reading comprehension strategies (Tierney, 1982).

General Strategies for Reading Comprehension (https://www.read naturally.com/research/5-

components-of-reading/comprehension)

The process of comprehending text begins before children can read when someone reads a
picture book to them. They listen to the words, see the pictures in the book, and may start to associate
the words on the page with the words they are hearing and the ideas they represent. Key
comprehension strategies are described below.

Using Prior Knowledge/Previewing

When students preview text, they tap into what they already know that will help them to
understand the text they are about to read. This provides a framework for any new information they
read.

Previewing is a strategy that readers use to recall prior knowledge and set a purpose for
reading. It calls for readers to skim a text before reading, looking for various features and information
that will help as they return to read it in detail later

Predicting

When students make predictions about the text they are about to read, it sets up expectations
based on their prior knowledge about similar topics. As they read, they may mentally revise their
prediction as they gain more information.

Identifying the Main Idea and Summarization

Identifying the main idea and summarizing requires that students determine what is important
and then put it in their own words. Implicit in this process is trying to understand the author’s
purpose in writing the text.

Questioning

Asking and answering questions about a text is another strategy that helps students focus on
the meaning of the text. Teachers can help by modeling both the process of asking good questions
and strategies for finding the answers in the text.

Making Inferences

To make inferences about something that is not explicitly stated in the text, students must
learn to draw on prior knowledge and recognize clues in the text itself.

Visualizing
 Studies have shown that students who visualize while reading have better recall than those
who do not (Pressley, 1977). Readers can take advantage of illustrations that are embedded in the
text or create their mental images or drawings when reading a text without illustrations.

Breaking Sentences

The usual term is Parsing. It comes from the Latin word pars, partis, which means 'part'.
One parses a sentence to analyze it into its constituents (that's the term for the kind of
coherent part you're looking for). Parsing is the analysis -- take it apart -- while construing is
the synthesis -- put it together -- to show how the meanings connect.

How to Optimize Sentence Length

Academic writing conveys clear and accurate information, and to this end, places a high
premium on well-constructed, carefully thought-out content. These hallowed features lead academic
sentences to become lengthy and convoluted, making the text hard to read.

Long and convoluted sentences affect comprehension and readability. Period. Without careful
crafting, they can be really hard to understand. Then again, too short sentences make for choppy
writing without flow and cannot hold complex thoughts (https://www.enago.com/academy/how-to-
optimize-sentence-length-in-academic-writing/).

Long sentences aren’t all bad, but too many can make your manuscript unreadable. Sentences
over 20 words in length can be especially challenging for readers. Avoid lengthy introductory phrases
starting with terms like because or although.

Enago Academy (2019) provided 6 tips on how to break sentences for better presentation; they
presented below.

1. Appropriate Sentence Length

Most readability formulas use the number of words in a sentence to measure its
difficulty. Try to keep the average sentence length of your document around 20–25 words.
This is a good rule of thumb to convey your meaning in a balanced way and avoiding a
marathon or choppy sentences. The number varies as per the field, audience, or the nature
of writing. For example, the average sentence length in abstracts of the natural sciences is
reported to be shorter than that found in social science and humanities abstracts.

2. Vary Your Sentence Length

Do not follow a strict length for every sentence. Your writing should have a mix of
short, medium, and long sentences. The above tip suggests an average for a long sentence.
Incorporating variety in academic writing avoids monotony, creates emphasis where
needed, and helps the reader understand connections between different points.
Related: Done optimizing the sentence lengths in your manuscript and looking
 forward to manuscript submission?
If you find that your sentence is as long as a paragraph or around 40–50 words,
break it down to smaller sentences. Similarly, if your text has many back-to-back short
sentences, join them.

3. Focus on Your Message

Do not cram two or three main ideas into one long sentence. Know your main points
and present them with pauses by breaking them down into smaller sentences. Losing focus
of your message will lead to long-drawn-out sentences and disjointed writing. When
conveying a series of facts, do not unnecessarily connect all facts in one sentence but split
them into smaller sentences.

4. Fixing Short Sentences

Combining sentences into a longer one is a simple way of fixing short and choppy
sentences. Use coordinating conjunctions (or, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to avoid strings of
short, vaguely related sentences. Subordinating conjunctions (after, since, whereas,
because, etc.) are also used to connect sentences as well as ideas effectively.

5. Fixing Long Sentences

Following the reverse of the above tip, remove excessive coordinating conjunctions
and instead use a full stop to start afresh sentence. Avoid starting a sentence with qualifiers
such as “although,” “because,” or “since.” Avoid comma-plagued sentences and adding
information in one long sentence using commas.

6. Use Concise Expressions

Writing concisely and avoiding redundancy plays a huge role in securing your text
from marathon sentences. You could avoid beginning sentences with there/it is, reduces
wordy phrases and nonessential prepositional phrases, and use the active voice.

Noting Details

Noting details is a reading comprehension skill that involves picking out, from a piece of text,
the particular piece or pieces of information to achieve a given purpose. These details are the ones
that good readers notice and authors use to emphasize the events and the characters in the story.
Details are divided into two:

1. Implicit details. These details are used to describe or to define a general state. These are the
details that we cannot see. These are details that are implied but not plainly expressed.
 2. Explicit Details. These are the specific details. The details that we can see and are measurable.
These details are stated clearly.

Example: Kobe’s favorite sport is basketball. He loves wearing basketball shorts. He goes to
the court every week to play. His backpack has LeBron James on it.

Implicit: Kobe’s favorite sport is basketball.

Explicit: He loves wearing basketball shorts.

He goes to the court every week
His backpack has LeBron James on it.

Noting details is one of the advanced skills that a good reader possesses. This skill enables the
reader to fully understand a certain text and helps to unlock the questions he/she has before, during
and after reading.

How to Note Details?

1. Always read the story with full understanding and internalize the lines printed.

2. Jot down notes or highlight texts. You will know that you’re doing the right thing when the
things you’ve taken down describes the main idea and the supporting ideas.

Reading Literature

It is a type of reading that uses highly developed language and it is the stylized manipulation of
language for larger effect in reading.

It doesn’t only focus on using letters and it is changeable overtime.

In reading literature it uses literary Genres to group different types of literary work. Such as non-
fiction, fiction and poetry.

Fiction: refers to any narrative that is derived from the imagination-in other words, not based strictly
on history or fact.

Non Fiction: writing is considered to be happening in real life which presents events and facts as
having actually occurred.

Poetry: is the imaginative awareness of experience expressed through meaning, sound, and rhythmic
language choices so as to evoke an emotional response.
David M. Wright a director and author of the upper school literature curriculum at Memoria Press
quote

” A great book speaks to people across many ages”—affecting, inspiring, and changing readers far
removed from the time and place in which it was written. Second, it has a Central One Idea and
themes that address matters of enduring importance. And third, it features noble language. A great
book is written in beautiful language that enriches the mind and elevates the soul.

Here are six reasons why reading Literature is important according to David M. Wright:

1. Reading great literature exercises the imagination. We enjoy stories; it is a pleasure to meet
characters and to live in their world, to experience their joys and sorrows. In a practical sense, an
active imagination helps us perceive truth, make value judgments, and deal with the complexities of
life in creative ways. It even aids in our ability to use logic and to reason well.

2. Reading literature transports us out of our current context and into other ages and places.
Interacting with characters across space and time diminishes our ignorance. Mark Twain once
remarked, “Travel is fatal to prejudice, narrowmindedness, and bigotry. Broad, wholesome, charitable
views of men and things cannot be acquired by vegetating in one little corner of the earth all of one’s
lifetime.” Because most of us cannot pilot a steamboat along the Mississippi River, or travel to many
parts of the world as Twain was able to do, literature serves as a worthy guide and vessel for our
exploration.

3. Reading literature enables us to see the world through the eyes of others. It trains the mind to be
flexible, to comprehend other points of view—to set aside one’s personal perspectives to see life
through the eyes of someone who is of another age, class, or race. Reading literature nurtures and
develops the power of sympathetic insight.

4. Great works of literature have played a fundamental role in shaping society. For example, The Epic
of Gilgamesh initiated the archetypal narrative of the hero embarking on an epic quest, which became
a popular and influential blueprint for literature the world over. Some other landmark texts include
Homer’s Odyssey, Dante’s Divine Comedy, Shakespeare’s Hamlet, and Cervantes’ Don Quixote, which
is credited as the first novel in the Western world, creating a genre that has since become the
dominant form of literature in the modern era. A little later, Goethe’s The Sorrows of Young Werther
was deeply influential (though not necessarily in positive ways); Wordsworth and Coleridge’s Lyrical
Ballads initiated the Romantic era in English literature, and Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s
Cabin helped push a divided nation into civil war over slavery. In the early twentieth century, Upton
Sinclair’s novel The Jungleexposed the horrors of America’s meatpacking industry and caused many
reforms in the mass production of food. Books have the power to shape culture and history.

5. Reading literature fosters contemplation and reflection, and improves our facility with language
and vocabulary. Interacting with these texts requires deliberate, conscious thinking in order to
understand and retain longer units of thought. The average number of words per sentence in the
sixteenth century was 65-70 words, but, not surprisingly, that number has steadily declined through
the modern era to about 15 words today. Likewise, the average number of letters per word has
declined, revealing a decrease in the use of longer, higher-level words. The continual exposure to
elaborate, elevated syntax and diction develops not only our thinking abilities, but our speaking and
writing skills too. We begin to conceive of sentences in the manner of the great writers, imitating their
techniques in style and vocabulary. In his poem Four Quartets, T. S. Eliot prophesied that we would
be “distracted from distraction by distraction.” Alas, we are unable to retain and reflect upon an idea
for any meaningful length of time. Reading great literature is an active push against this tendency.

6. Finally, reading literature helps us to know ourselves—in short, to understand man. For the subject
of literature is man. In its pages, we learn about our creative and moral faculties, our conscience, and
most importantly, our soul. We see man at the height of his glory and the depth of his folly—with
every heartrending thought, action, emotion, and belief in between. In other words, literature holds a
mirror up to human nature, revealing its inner depths and complexities, its array of virtues and vices;
and moreover, it holds a mirror up to a cultural age, illuminating its shape and ethos.

Long ago, inscribed on the forecourt of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi was the maxim, “Know thyself.”
Reading literature remains the surest means to do just that—to live the life Socrates declared the only
one worth living: the examined life. After all, literature may simply be the creative expression of
metaphysics and being: In some mysterious way, each life is every life, and all lives are one life—there
is something of ourselves in each and every character we meet in the hallowed pages of a Great Book.

Reading Academic Texts

Academic Text: the process of breaking down ideas and using deductive reasoning,formal language
and third person point-of-view.It is about what you think and what evidence has contributed to that
thinking.

Purpose of Academic Reading

Casual reading across genres, from books and magazines to newspapers and blogs, is something
students should be encouraged to do in their free time because it can be both educational and fun.
In college, however, instructors generally expect students to read resources that have particular
value in the context of a course.

Types of Academic Text

1. Article: means of publishing results of research and development to the community. Aims at
impact on the academic community(offers concepts, methods for others to use)

:it claims, proves, argues and imply.

2. Conference Paper: Often preliminary stages of journal article and edited further for journal
publication, taking advantage of feedback from peers.

3. Blog Article: Approaches journal articles and wiki articles.

Independent of a publisher, defines its relationship of the community independently and lacks
authorization of an institution.

4. Collaborative Wiki Article: It complies with standards (e.g. Wikipedia)

:( Semi) automatic feedback, classification tagging

:( Semi) automated deletion

: Collaborative editing and revision

Instant review-Quick revision

5. Essay: It is a small scale article, sometimes like newspaper column.

Often argues for a concept, stand point or opinion, related to study focus, personal, sometimes
diary-like, communicative and discursive.

6. Blog Post: It is a diary like, web based, essay like , communicative and discursive

7. Proposal: half academic in nature, it proposes a research or development project. Sets

premises, starting points, brands and concepts .It also establish partnership and consortium as
well as it is a frames of resources: human, technology, facilities and budget.

8. Report: This are Statement of Work in progress, Final results and outcomes: demos, and
Academic reports and nonacademic reports.

9. Review: Evaluates and contextualize someone’s publication and establishes the value of
publication.

10. Popularization: Sometimes not considered to be Academic text due to language

used(informal)

The purpose is to “market” and make the discipline known, does not assume systematic
referencing, it has a wide audience and avoids disciplinary slang.

11. Thesis/dissertation/monograph: this refers to researches on Mater Thesis, Doctoral Thesis,

senior contribution and Course books.