From Complexification to Self-Similarity: New Aspects of Quantum Criticality

Yang Liu,1 Erhai Zhao,2, ∗ and Haiyuan Zou1, †

1
Key Laboratory of Polar Materials and Devices (MOE),
School of Physics and Electronic Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
2
Department of Physics and Astronomy, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia 22030, USA
Quantum phase transitions are a fascinating area of condensed matter physics. The extension
through complexification not only broadens the scope of this field but also offers a new frame-
work for understanding criticality and its statistical implications. This mini review provides a con-
cise overview of recent developments in complexification, primarily covering finite temperature and
equilibrium quantum phase transitions, as well as their connection with dynamical quantum phase
transitions and non-Hermitian physics, with a particular focus on the significance of Fisher zeros.
arXiv:2501.09477v1 [cond-mat.str-el] 16 Jan 2025

Starting from the newly discovered self-similarity phenomenon associated with complex partition
functions, we further discuss research on self-similar systems briefly. Finally, we offer a perspective
on these aspects.

1. Introduction. Quantum phase transitions 𝑬

𝑬 𝑬
(QPTs) [1] appear at any point of non-analyticity in the
ground state energy in the thermodynamic limit. They
are the result of the competition between various phases
under quantum fluctuations. Understanding quantum 𝛽=∞ 𝛽~1/∆𝐸! 𝛽 = 0 𝟏/𝜷
𝒈 𝒈
phase transitions is of great significance for exploring 𝟏/𝜷𝒊 or 𝑬𝒊
novel states of matter and exotic excitations. In addition
to the classical mechanism of symmetry breaking, new
mechanisms such as deconfined quantum criticality [2], FIG. 1. A schematic graph illustrating the complexification
long-range entanglement, and symmetry fractionaliza- of temperature (1/β) or energy (E) in a finite system. The
tion [3] provide ways to understand states of matter and left box shows that the spectra are analytic and avoid level-
crossing between the ground and excited states as the physical
phase transitions. Utilizing nontrivial geometric prop-
parameter g is tuned in a finite system. In the middle box,
erties [4], beyond-nearest-neighbor coupling effects [5], for a particular g, the state distribution, which determines the
and exotic interactions [6], model builders aim to intro- partition function, changes from fully occupying the ground
duce frustration to enhance quantum fluctuations. This state to being widely distributed across all states as 1/β in-
provides an arena for exploring states of matter, such creases from 0 to infinity, passing through a point where the
as spin liquids [7–9], and their associated phase transi- energy level variation is at its maximum (∆Em ). Due to the
tions, with the potential to understand the fundamental complexification of 1/β or E, the analytic partition function
collapses at β ∼ 1/∆Em , resulting in a level-crossing for a
”holy grail” problem of superconductivity [10–12]. The
finite system (shown in the right box), which originally only
complexity of most models forces researchers to rely on appears at the thermodynamic limit for real 1/β or E.
powerful many-body numerical methods such as Monte
Carlo sampling [13] or renormalization group (RG) block-
ing [14–16]. However, both theoretically and numerically,
the majority of current approaches consider the impacts by introducing the complex ingredients of some physical
of thermal fluctuations and quantum fluctuations sepa- quantities, one can elegantly address both of the afore-
rately, either starting from finite temperature and then mentioned problems. Considering the ratio of the energy
approaching zero temperature, or vice versa. difference between quantum states ∆E to thermal en-
In order to depict QPT and their critical behavior more ergy kT , defined as X ≡ ∆E/kT = β∆E, with X ∈ R,
effectively, are there other approaches to better charac- as T increases from zero to infinity (or β decreases from
terize the mutual influence between thermal fluctuations infinity to zero), the competition between the quantum
and quantum fluctuations, and utilize numerical expe- energy levels and the thermal energy drives the system
riences to detour the exponential wall? Meanwhile, in from the ground state to a more even distribution among
recent years, one has witnessed the rapid development of different energy states. In between, atp a specific inverse
dynamical quantum phase transitions and non-Hermitian temperature βc , the energy fluctuation ∆E 2 reaches its
systems incorporating additional degrees of freedom such maximum ∆Em , which corresponds to the peak in spe-
as real time and dissipation. Another important question cific heat. For example, In a system with a second-order
worth considering is: What intrinsic connections do these phase transition in the thermodynamic limit, this βc rep-
scenarios have with the physics of quantum phase tran- resents the critical inverse temperature. However, even
sitions in equilibrium systems? in a system without any phase transition, there is still a
The purpose of this short review is to demonstrate that point where energy fluctuations are maximal. For exam-
 2

ple, a simple two-level system shows a Schottky peak in (a)

its specific heat. At this point, the ratio X = βc ∆Em MC
Ds = 40
can still be defined, but βc no longer represents a critical 0.4 Ds = 50
quantity. After analytically continuing the ratio X to the L=4 Model
complex plane (X ∈ C), we analyze different cases. First,
in the case where X is purely imaginary, it corresponds 0.3 0.1
13M
to a Wick rotation β → it, characterizing the physics of 3M

Im β
0.09
dynamical phase transitions. Second, when X is a gen- L=8 1M
0.2
eral complex number, one can consider complexification 0.92 0.94
of either β or E (Fig. 1). The former can be used to
L=16
obtain a complex partition function for a certain static
0.1
model, while the latter corresponds to energy eigenval-
L=32
ues in non-Hermitian systems. Thus, dynamics and non- L=64
L=128

Hermiticity are connected to static systems through a 0

simple relationship. More importantly, complexification 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1
provides a pathway to explore non-analyticity in finite Re β
systems. Taking the complex partition function as an
example, the original partition function, which describes
(b) O(N) RG flows (infinite L)

the number of microscopic states for real β, collapses at RG F

0.4
the Fisher zeros. Later, we will illustrate that this sin- S. P.
gularity can be understood as quantum critical behavior.
Quantum fluctuations arising from imaginary part of β 0.2
induce composite effects at certain temperatures, allow-

Im(β)
ing a finite system to exhibit signals of QPT. Therefore,
0
one can characterize the critical behavior of true QPTs
by studying the complex partition function and Fisher
zeros. -0.2
Next, we will provide a detailed overview of significant
advancements in complexification in various contexts, in-
-0.4
cluding finite temperature phase transitions, dynamical
quantum phase transitions, non-Hermitian systems, and
-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
quantum phase transitions. Additionally, we will delve
Re(β)
deeper into the physical insights gained from a critical
self-similarity phenomenon observed through complexifi-
cation. FIG. 2. Fisher zeros characterize phase transitions and RG
behaviors. (a) The scaling behavior of the lowest Fisher zeros
2. Complex Partition Functions and Zeros. The con- to the real axis characterizes the Kosterlitz–Thouless phase
cept of complexifying the partition function was first transition in the classical XY model as the system size L grows
introduced by T. D. Lee and C. N. Yang 70 years exponentially. Fisher Zero results obtained from HOTRG ten-
ago [17, 18]. They formulated the Lee–Yang Circle The- sor network methods align with Monte Carlo simulations [22].
orem while studying the Ising model in an external mag- Copyright 2014, American Physical Society. (b) In the ther-
netic field, which states that for a broad class of sys- modynamic limit of the O(N ) model, Fisher zeros (blue) play
a crucial role in constraining RG flows (red) [23]. Copyright
tems, including the ferromagnetic Ising model, the parti-
2010, American Physical Society.
tion function’s zeros in the complex fugacity plane (Lee–
Yang zeros) lie on the unit circle. In the thermodynamic
limit, the clustering of these zeros near the real axis in- function is analytically continued into the complex plane
dicates the presence of a phase transition. Specifically, with β = βr + iβi :
when these zeros pinch the real axis, the system’s free en-
ergy exhibits non-analyticity, marking the occurrence of Z = Tre−(βr +iβi )H .
a phase transition. It is noteworthy that this seemingly
purely mathematical concept was connected to quantum The resulting zeros of the complex partition function
coherence measurements by Wei and Liu [19], and was (Fisher zeros) exhibit richer properties. On the one hand,
experimentally realized by Peng et al [20]. Motivated similar to how Lee–Yang zeros characterize phase transi-
by Lee and Yang’s argument, Fisher extended the con- tions with an external field, Fisher zeros can be used to
cept of complexification to a broader range of partition study the order of phase transitions, critical exponents,
functions [21]. Instead of the chemical potential or ex- and other thermodynamic properties with the help of fi-
ternal field, the inverse temperature β in the partition nite size scaling [24–27]. Specifically, infinite-order topo-
 3

logical phase transitions can also be described by the scal-

ing behavior of Fisher zeros [Fig. 2(a)] [22]. On the other
hand, the distribution of Fisher zeros is highly dependent
on the specific model Hamiltonian under consideration Quench without

Real Time 𝒕
and does not exhibit a universal pattern like the Lee– crossing the QCP
quench across
Yang circle theorem. The Fisher zeros of many classical the QCP
spin models have been studied, revealing various intri-
cate configurations [28–30] (For more similar work, refer
to the review article [31]). Besides their own scaling be-
havior, Fisher zeros also play a crucial role in character-
izing the intrinsic regulation of RG transformations. The
Fisher zeros are situated at the boundary of the attrac- 𝟎 Imaginary Time 𝝉
tion basins of infrared fixed points, governing the over-
arching characteristics of RG flows defined with complex
β [[Fig. 2(b)]] [23, 32, 33]. Due to the intrinsic similar- FIG. 3. A schematic graph illustrating a DQPT. When
ity between lattice field theory and classical spin models, quenching across the QCP of the system with respect to the
Fisher zeros can also be used to characterize phase tran- quenching Hamiltonian, the Fisher zeros (of the boundary
partition function) cross the imaginary time line (black). In
sitions in the former [34]. contrast, when quenching within the same phase, the Fisher
To locate partition function zeros, initially employing zeros remain on one side of the imaginary time line (red).
brute force to solve the partition function can provide Dots and lines correspond to the Fisher zeros of finite and
precise solutions in finite systems. However, achieving infinite systems, respectively.
thermodynamic limit behavior for complex systems re-
mains challenging through this method. One alterna-
tive approach involves using the Ferrenberg–Swendsen amplitude,
reweighting technique to calculate the density of states
and then integrating to obtain the partition function [35]. G(t) = ⟨Ψ0 |e−iHt |Ψ0 ⟩
To mitigate issues stemming from complex values of β
exhibits non-analytic behavior at specific critical times.
potentially resulting in negative signs, tensor renormal-
The Loschmidt echo,L(t) = |G(t)|2 , provides a measure
ization group methods [36] can be employed. Extend-
of how the initial state |Ψ0 ⟩ overlaps with its time-evolved
ing techniques such as higher-order tensor renormaliza-
counterpart under the Hamiltonian H. Non-analyticities
tion group (HOTRG) [37] to the complex plane enables
in L(t) or the related rate function signal DQPTs. By
a thorough exploration of partition function zeros [22].
extending real time t to the entire complex plane, the
This methodological extension facilitates the study of
Loschmidt amplitude can be interpreted as a boundary
critical behaviors beyond real parameters, effectively ad-
partition function,
dressing complexities in thermodynamic systems.
3. Examples of Complexification on Dynamics and Z(z) = ⟨Ψ0 |e−zH |Ψ0 ⟩
Dissipation. Naively, the effect of complexification can
be understood through a simple damped oscillation equa- with z = τ + it, and τ refers to the imaginary time.
tion: mẍ + γ ẋ + kx = 0. The damping and oscilla- A key tool in understanding DQPTs is the concept of
tion can be controlled by the complex eigenvalues, which Fisher zeros, which can be extended to study the bound-
arise from the competition between the damping coeffi- ary partition function in the complex time plane. When
cient γ and the elastic parameters mk. Dynamical quan- the system is quenched within the same phase with re-
tum phase transitions and non-Hermitian systems are spect to H, the Fisher zeros do not cross the imaginary
two typical quantum analogies of these classical cases. time axis. However, when the system is quenched across
3.1 Dynamical Quantum Phase Transitions. A gen- a quantum critical point (QCP), the Fisher zeros cross
eral dynamical phase transition that occurs as a result the imaginary time axis, signaling the occurrence of a
of quenching from a specific initial state holds significant DQPT (Fig. 3). This crossing indicates non-analyticities
implications in the study of non-equilibrium statistical in the Loschmidt echo at critical times, analogous to the
physics [38, 39]. These transitions provide crucial insights appearance of phase transitions in equilibrium systems.
into the temporal evolution of complex systems and the Therefore, complexification provides a powerful diagnos-
underlying mechanisms driving phase changes. Dynami- tic tool for identifying DQPTs. The behavior of Fisher
cal quantum phase transitions (DQPTs) [40, 41] are spe- zeros crossing the imaginary time axis is also observed in
cific to quantum systems and involve non-analyticities in finite systems, providing a clear indication of the ther-
time-evolved quantities resulting from unitary evolution. modynamic limit results. This feature makes numerical
A DQPT is typically identified through quantities like the methods such as tensor network techniques particularly
Loschmidt amplitude, and it occurs when the Loschmidt useful [42].
 4

After the original work detailing the one-dimensional 0.5 L = 32

transverse-field Ising model [40], this concept has been L = 64
extensively investigated in other systems [43–45]. For 0.4 L = 128
example, DQPT has been analyzed in a model with a de- L = 256

CV =kB L
confined quantum critical point [45]. Experimental sys- 0.3 L = 512
tems for the realization of DQPTs [46, 47] allow precise L = 1024
control over quench protocols and measurement of time- 0.2 Exact
evolved quantities. Observing the non-analytic behav-
ior in the Loschmidt echo and identifying critical times 0.1
consistent with theoretical predictions confirm the occur-
rence of DQPTs and the relevance of Fisher zeros. 0.0
3.2. Non-Hermitian Systems. Non-Hermitian sys- 0 1 2 3 4 5
tems [48], characterized by the potential for complex en- -
ergy eigenvalues governed by PT symmetry, have opened
up a rapidly advancing field. They often arise in open FIG. 4. The specific heat per length CV /kB L of the Ising
quantum systems where there is an exchange of energy chain exhibits changes as the system size L increases expo-
or particles with the environment, leading to phenom- nentially. The varying shades of red solid lines correspond to
CV /kB L of finite systems. The protruding peaks on the spe-
ena such as amplification/dissipation and gain/loss ef- cific heat curves corresponds to the β precisely matching the
fects, which are caused by the imaginary part of the en- maximum real part of Fisher zeros of the system. Black dots
ergy. Unlike Hermitian counterparts, non-Hermitian sys- without protrusions represent results in the thermodynamic
tems can manifest unique phenomena such as exceptional limit, where the zeros form a straight line without boundaries.
points and topology [49–52] and the non-Hermitian skin
effect (NHSE) [53–56]. Besides the NHSE in the Su–
Schrieffer–Heeger model [54], this striking phenomenon lations between energy levels, revealing quantum fluctu-
has been extensively investigated in other contexts, such ations. Quantitatively, these fluctuations become more
as those involving hybrid topology [57–60] or thermal pronounced when βr is relatively large. At the Fisher
fields [61–64]. zeros point, the retained quantum fluctuations cause the
Although the topological properties of non-Hermitian microscopic state counting within the framework of sta-
systems have been widely studied, solving many-body tistical mechanics to lose its meaning. Consequently,
non-Hermitian systems remains extremely challenging. QPT also manifests effects in this non-analytic region.
More consideration is needed for the eigenstate or trans- Exact solutions of Fisher zeros for the transverse field
fer matrix calculation in non-Hermitian systems, such as Ising chain (TFIC) confirm that quantum criticality and
using biorthonormalization technique [65–67],considering low energy excitations are indeed related to the Fisher
gauge transformations [68], and constructing parent zero patterns (Fig. 5) [71, 72]. In the order phase, the
Hamiltonians [69]. Experimentally, the implementation Fisher zero lines correspond to domain wall excitations,
of non-Hermitian systems provides a new pathway for and at the QCP, these lines vanish. The area enclosed
exploring complexification, such as Lee–Yang zeros [70]. by the Fisher zeros hides meson excitations [71]. When a
longitudinal field is applied, the closed zeros are opened,
4. Quantum Criticality from Complexification. QPTs
corresponding to the emergence of E8 [73, 74] particles at
occur at zero temperature and appear unrelated to Fisher
the QCP. In the quantum disordered region, the spin flip
zeros at finite β. We first discuss a simple Ising chain
excitations can be characterized by the scaling behavior
without any QPT. Figure 4 shows that the specific heat
of the boundaries of the closed Fisher zero curves. [72].
exhibits a peculiar convex peak, coinciding precisely with
The motion of Fisher zeros in the complex β plane with
the real part of the rightmost zero. As the system size
respect to the transverse field behaves similarly to the
L increases, this peak disappears towards large β. Cor-
Grüneisen parameter [72, 75, 76].
respondingly, the real part of the rightmost zero tends
Another way to determine the quantum criticality from
to infinity, and all the Fisher zeros become more closely
the oscillations of Z is by viewing Z as the survival am-
spaced, forming a continuous line parallel to the real β
plitude of a certain quantum state and calculating the
axis. This crossover behavior from finite temperature to
relative norm (or modulus square) of Z,
zero temperature hints that the Fisher zeros at finite L
retain some information at zero temperature in the ther- Z(βr , t)
2
modynamic limit. This phenomenon persists even after S(βr , t) = ,
Z(βr , 0)
quantum fluctuations are turned on by applying a trans-
verse field. Therefore, when the transverse field is suf- where β = βr + it is used as it can be treated as a
ficiently large, the QPT occurring at zero temperature thermofield dynamical problem [77]. This bears impor-
also exhibits signals at finite temperatures. Indeed, the tance in both short-time and long-time dynamics, pro-
introduction of imaginary parts of β in Z causes oscil- viding precise information about thermal properties and
Fisher zeros structure and the complex partition functions the Onsager/Kaufman solutions [19,20] of
to signify the quantum criticality provide a new framework dimensional classical Ising model using the
to explore QPTs. between the 𝑑-dimensional quantum 5 spin m
the (𝑑+1)-dimensional classical statistical
(a) 1.0
Equation (3) can be expressed as terms L = 64; -r = 8

T (a) 0.8
∏︀𝐿 L = 128; -r = 16
L = 256; -r = 32
product of 𝑘=1 [2 cosh(𝛽𝜖2𝑘/2𝑘−1 )] (term
0.6
∏︀𝐿

S (-r ; t)
𝑘=1 [tanh(𝛽𝜖2𝑘/2𝑘−1 )] + 1 (term II). Conventio
D(g)
0.4
modynamic limit properties of the 1DTFIM at
0.2

Quantum
perature can be well understood by ignoring
II. [22]
0.0
Domain-wall critical Spin-flip 0 2 However,
4 this
6
t=L
approximation
8 10 12 has limitati

(b)
ging the detail information ...
of the excitation

...
[23]
temperature.
...

gc g
1.5
Although the quantum-classical mapping
bi (b) (c) thermal properties implied by their complex
Fisher zeros 1
functions are not the same. For the 2D cla
1/bi

model with a finite ...

temperature phase tran
...

...
“Confined meson”

...
0.5
...
Fisher zeros approach the real 𝛽 axis in the
...

bib1/D
namic limit. In contrast, zeros stay away fro
FIG. 6. Two examples of self-similarity. (a) S(βr , t) for dif-
b (g)≈5.28/D(g)
i

0
0
0 0.5 g 1 gc
ferent L andaxisβr for theself-similarity.
exhibits 1D quantum (b) Thecase. For example,
Sierpiński
br gasket, possessing self-similarity, represents a strongly frus-
zeros are formed in lines parallel with the rea
trated structure. The ground state of the spin system on this
[24]
Fig.FIG.
1. 5. Fisher
Quantum zeros ofcriticality and Fisher
TFIC. (a) Schematic diagram zeros.
of the (a) 𝑔 =be0.determined
structure can However,
by usingaevolution
detail structure
with simplexof the Fish
operators [78]. Copyright 2023, Chinese Physical Society
quantum critical behavior and the different
Schematic phase diagram of the 1DTFIM. (b) The Fisher low-energy ex- general cases of the 1DTFIM and their relation
citations on either side of the QCP. (b) The line of zeros
zeroscorresponds
in the complex 𝛽 plane: The imaginary
to excitations of domain walls, while the region
part of tum criticality of the model are seldom discuss
the enclosed
zero line provides
by zero an energy
circles represents scalemeson
confined for the gap of theway to connectThe
excitations. Fisher
dynamical zeros contributed
quantum phase transitions from
and the term
domain-wall excitations.
(c) The imaginary parts of Meanwhile,
the Fisher zerothe linesclosed
at largezero
β pro-curve
non-Hermitian physics. Notably, the structure of Fisher
vide an energy scaleexcitations
for domain wall excitations [71]. Copy- only on the imaginary 𝛽 axis and varying the
confines the meson from the 1DTFIM groundzeros shows a profound link to quantum critical behavior.
right 2023, Chinese Physical Society does not affect the structure of these zeros.
state. Quantum criticality is signified by the competitionAdditionally, self-similarity at the QCP offers insights
between these two structures. (c) At a relatively largefor discovering we reconsider
new states ofthe termDespite
matter. II forthe questing
impor- the the
tant advances in these areas, we have identified
erties. The condition for 𝑍 = 0 then can be several
𝛽𝑟 =low-energy
8, the imaginary
excitations,part of the zero
respectively [72]. inversely
Moreover,propor-
at ∑︀thought-provoking
challenges and 𝐿 questions that remain,
tional
thetoQPT 𝑔 with
point,a S(β
fitting
r , t) form
exhibits 1/𝛽 𝑖 = −1.28(𝑔
strong − 1.03),which areas
self-similarity listed 𝑘=1 log | tanh 𝛽𝜖2𝑘/2𝑘−1 |2 = 0 after few ste
as follows:
confirms the relation
[Fig. 6(a)] between
[72], providing a new𝛽𝑖angleand forthestudying
domain-wall
quan- ex- (I) Themation. experimental In the thermodynamic
observation of Lee–Yang limitze- (𝐿 → ∞)
tum criticality.
citation gap as 𝛽𝑖 ≈ 5.28/𝛥(𝑔) [Note that the solution ofros [20, 70] has inspired further efforts to realize Fisher
given as a continuous expression
FisherFirstly,
zeros isat obtained
the QPT point,from Eq. the (4)].
divergence of the cor- zeros, thereby providing a more ∫︁ 𝜋direct validation of the
relation length leads to self-similar behaviors in various fundamental principles of statistical systems. One 2pro-
Wephysical
consider the such
quantities, exact solvable
as wave functions1DTFIM,
[79]. Thei.e.,posala involves time-dependent quantum log | tanh(𝛽𝜖
coherence 𝑞 )|mea-
𝑑𝑞 = 0,
paradigmatic model
nearly perfect for QPT, ofwhose
self-similarity Hamiltonian
S(βr , t) at large βr al-is given 0
surement, where the probe-bath interaction Hamiltonian
lows one to define scaling variables for RG flows. Start- is identical to that of the system
by
ing from zero temperature, the RG flows connect most where 𝜖𝑞 = (1 + 𝑔 2 −[82].
can be realized using a quantum circuit with both uni-
2𝑔 cos Additionally,
𝑞)1/2 . Note Z
that the
regions of the complex 𝐿 plane until they are affected by
∑︁ ros solution
tary and nonunitary gatesof Eq.The
[72]. (4)competition
have both the symmetry
between
𝑧 𝑧 𝑥
Fisher zeros. =−
𝐻 Secondly, the · 𝜎𝑗+1 − 𝑔𝜎𝑗generated
𝜎𝑗 self-similarity , by (1) time
unitary 𝛽𝑖 → −𝛽
andevolution and𝑖 ,quantum
we therefore consider
measurement in anthe cases w
QPT inspires the construction of self-similar structure open quantum many-body system gives rise to an equiv-
𝑗=1
in real space [80, 81] to understand potential critical
and 𝛽𝑖 > 0, as shown in Fig. 2.
𝑥 𝑧
alent method for measuring Z. While these approaches
where behaviors.
𝜎𝑗 or 𝜎𝑗 Fromare the Pauli matrix
the perspective operatorswhich
of frustration, A feasible,
on siteare𝑗.theoretically clear crossover behavior
their experimental between the F
realization
At thegenerates
criticalquantum
magnetic fluctuations, the porous𝑔features
field, coupling = 𝑔c in= 1,stilla faces lines andtechnical
numerous the closed zero curves arises as 𝑔 incr
challenges.
a self-similar structure produce larger frustrations than (II) Although the correspondence betweenof the critical
QPT between the ferromagnetic order and the trend of upward moving lines and increase
those in triangular or Kagome lattices [78]. Thethe paramag-
gapless behavior of the TFIC and Fisher zeros is clear, the phys-
netic phase appears
spin liquid results only at the
of a spin modelzero temperature
on Sierpiński gasket in ical of curves.
theimplications of moreAtinteresting
small 𝑔 [e.g.,
modelsFig.
in the2(a)],
com- the Fishe
[Fig. 6(b)] substantiates
thermodynamic limit. this viewpoint [78]. separate
plex parameter space the complex
remain unknown.plane intothedifferent
However, nu- sect
5. Summary and Perspective. We have
Explicit statistical properties can be obtained from the reviewed merical methods for calculating partition functions
hibit the spreading of complex RG flow to the w and
the work related to complexification in phase transitions their zeros are widely applicable. It is expected that one
quantum
and model
dynamics.partition function,
Complexification offers new research di-
complex 𝛽 region. Meanwhile, small numbers o
can explore a wider range of interesting quantum critical
rections and approaches for both[︀ −𝛽𝐻 ]︀
finite temperature and behaviorszero curves
involving appear
various at large
competing states𝛽[83–87].
𝑖 . At 𝑔 = 0.5 [Fig
𝑍 = Tr 𝑒 ,
quantum phase transitions, and provides a possible path-
(2)
(III) While
zerowelines
have and
notedthe thatclosed
both non-Hermitian
curves distribute al
where 𝛽 = 1/𝑘B 𝑇 is the inverse temperature and the trace in the direction of 𝛽𝑖 . At 𝑔 ∼ 0.8 [Figs. 2(c)
is over all states of the system. The Fisher zeros are partic- the crossover appears between the lowest line a
ular 𝛽’s in the complex plane where the partition function close curve from the real 𝛽 axis. Afterwards,
 6

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