Scribd
Upload
2 views

Isomorphism and Finite Fields

The document provides an overview of field isomorphisms, covering fundamental concepts such as groups, rings, and fields, as well as binary finite fields and their properties. It explains the construction of isomorphisms, particularly in the context of Galois fields, and illustrates examples of irreducible polynomials and primitive elements. The document emphasizes the significance of isomorphism in establishing mappings between different fields and verifying homomorphism properties.

Uploaded by

Somya
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
2 views

Isomorphism and Finite Fields

The document provides an overview of field isomorphisms, covering fundamental concepts such as groups, rings, and fields, as well as binary finite fields and their properties. It explains the construction of isomorphisms, particularly in the context of Galois fields, and illustrates examples of irreducible polynomials and primitive elements. The document emphasizes the significance of isomorphism in establishing mappings between different fields and verifying homomorphism properties.

Uploaded by

Somya
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 16

Topic

Field Isomorphisms
Concepts Covered:
❑Recap of Groups, Rings, Fields

❑Binary Finite Fields

❑Primitive Elements

❑Bases

❑Isomorphism and Composite Fields

❑Construction of Isomorphisms
Groups, Rings, and Fields

• A group denoted by {G,.}, is a set of elements G with a binary


operation ‘.’ such that for each ordered pair (a,b) of elements in G,
the following axioms hold:
• Closure: If a, b∈ 𝐺, then a.b ∈ 𝐺
• Associative: a.(b.c)=(a.b).c for all a, b, c ∈ 𝐺
• Identity Element: There is a unique element e ∈ 𝐺 such that a.e=e.a=a for
all a ∈ 𝐺.
• Inverse Element: For each a ∈ 𝐺, there is an element a’ ∈ 𝐺, such that
a.a’=a’.a=e
If the group also satisfies a.b=b.a for all a,b ∈ 𝐺 then it is known as a non-
commutative or an abelian group.
Groups, Rings, and Fields (contd.)
• A ring denoted by {R,+,.}, is a set of elements R with two binary
operations ‘+,.’ such that for all a,b,c ∈ 𝑅 the following axioms
hold
• R is an abelian group under addition.
• The closure property of R is satisfied under multiplication.
• The associativity property of R is satisfied under multiplication.
• There exists a multiplicative identity element denoted by 1 such that for
every a ∈ 𝑅, a.1=1.a=a.
• Distributive Law: For all a, b, c ∈ 𝑅, a.(b+c)=a.b+a.c and (a+b).c=a.c+b.c
• The set of integers, real numbers, rational numbers, and complex
numbers are all rings.
• A ring is said to be commutative if the commutative property
under multiplication holds. That is, for all a,b ∈ 𝑅, a.b=b.a
Groups, Rings, and Fields (contd.)
• A field denoted by {F,+,.}, is a commutative ring which satisfies the
following conditions:
• Multiplicative Inverse: For every element a ∈ 𝐹, except 0, there exists a
unique element 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐹, such that 𝑎. 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 . 𝑎 = 1. The multiplicative
inverse is 𝑎−1 .
• No Zero Divisors: If a, b∈ 𝐹, and 𝑎. 𝑏 = 0, then either a=0 or b=0.
• The set of rational numbers, real numbers and complex numbers
are examples of fields, but the set of integers is not.
• This is because multiplicative inverse property does not hold here.
• Characteristic: It is the minimal value of the integer k, such that for
any element a∈ 𝐹, 𝑎 + ⋯ + 𝑎 𝑘 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 = 𝑘. 𝑎 = 0, where 0 ∈ 𝐹, is
the additive identity of the field. Since, the inverse 𝑎 −1 exists, we
can alternatively say 𝑘. 1 = 0, where 1 is the multiplicative identity
of the field F.
GF(2): An Efficient Galois Field

• Elements are {0,1}.


• Most computing systems are built on binary number
systems.
• A single bit can be used to represent an element in GF(2)
• Compare it with that required for GF(3).
• Addition in GF(2) can be realized by only XORs.
• Extension fields for GF(2) are denoted as GF(2 m) and also
lead to efficient arithmetic operations.
Binary Finite Fields

• A polynomial of the form 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚−1 𝑥 𝑚−1 + ⋯ +


𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 is said to be a polynomial over GF(2) if the
coefficients are in GF(2).
• Furthermore, the polynomial is said to be irreducible over
GF(2) if a(x) is divisible only by c or by c.a(x) where 𝑐 ∈
𝐺𝐹(2).
• An irreducible polynomial of degree m with coefficients in
GF(2) can be used to construct the extension field GF(2 m).
• All elements of the extension field can be represented by
polynomials of degree (m-1) over GF(2).
Example GF(24)

• Irreducible Polynomial: x4+x+1


• Generator: x
• Elements:
• 1: 𝑥, 2: 𝑥 2 , 3: 𝑥 3 , 4: 𝑥 4 = 𝑥 + 1, 5: 𝑥 2 + 𝑥, 6: 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 , 7: 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 =
𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 3 , 8: 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 4 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥 2 + 1,9: 𝑥 3 +
𝑥, 10: 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1,11: 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥, 12: 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 =
𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 = 13: 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 3 =
𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 1,14: 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 1,15: 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 = 1
Primitive Element of a Field
• Consider the field GF(2n).
• There is an element 𝛼 such that every non-zero element can be
written in terms of the form of 𝛼 𝑘 .
• This element is called the generator or primitive element of the
group.
• A primitive polynomial is the monic polynomial of minimum
degree such that the primitive element is a root.
• A primitive polynomial is always irreducible but not vice-versa.
• Over GF(2n), there are 𝜙(2𝑛 − 1)/𝑛 primitive polynomials, where
𝜙 is the Euler’s Totient function.
Bases of the Binary Field
• Such fields are represented using two types of bases:
• Polynomial base: Let p(x) be an irreducible polynomial over
GF(2m), and let 𝛼 be the root of p(x). Then the set:
{1, 𝛼, 𝛼 2 , ⋯ , 𝛼 𝑚−1 } is called the polynomial base.
• Normal base: Let p(x) be an irreducible polynomial over GF(2m),
2 22 2 𝑚−1
and let 𝛼 be the root of p(x). Then the set: {𝛼, 𝛼 , 𝛼 , ⋯ , 𝛼 } is
called the normal base, if the m elements are linearly
independent.
Polynomial Representation

• Any element in the field can be expressed in terms of its


bases.
• For example in the field GF(2m), an element can be
expressed wrt. its polynomial bases as:
𝑎 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑚−1 𝛼 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝛼 + 𝑎0
Isomorphism

For two groups G1 and G2, a surjective function


G1 to G2 is said to be a homomorphism iff
𝑓 𝑥 ∘ 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 † 𝑓(𝑦).

Note, the operators on the left and right are not


the same.

An injective (one-to-one) homomorphism is called an isomorphism.

The idea of isomorphism can be extended to rings and fields. In these extensions the only
difference is that the latter two are defined wrt. Two operators, say (+,.). Thus, we say f: R1→R2 is
say a field isomorphism iff: f(a+b)=f(a)+f(b), and f(a.b)=f(a).f(b) for every a and b in R1.
Example in GF(2 )
4

There are 3 irreducible polynomials of degree 4, which can be used to construct the
above field elements: 𝑓1 𝑧 = 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 + 1, 𝑓2 𝑧 = 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 3 + 1, 𝑓3 𝑧 = 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2 +
𝑧 + 1.
The fields are denoted as F 1, F2, and F3 respectively.
The resulting fields all have 16 elements, as shown above.
However, the operations are different.
Like the same operation, 𝑧. 𝑧 3 would result in 𝑧 4 = 𝑧 + 1, 𝑧 3 + 1, 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 1 in the
3 fields.
Defining Isomorphism
• The fields are isomorphic and one can establish a mapping between say F 1
and F2, by computing 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹2 , 𝑠𝑡. 𝑓1 𝑐 ≡ 0 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑓2 .
• The mapping 𝑧 → 𝑐 is thus used to construct the isomorphism, say T: F1→F2
• An example for c could be 𝑐 = 𝑧 2 + 𝑧. To verify compute:
𝑓1 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 1 = 𝑧 8 + 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑓2 )
Now, note that for 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑓2 , we substitute 𝑧 4 = 𝑧 3 + 1.

z 4 = z 3 +1Þ z 5 = z 4 + z = z 3 + z +1Þ z 6 = z 4 + z 2 + z = z 3 + z 2 + z +1
Þ z 8 = z 6 +1 = z 3 + z 2 + z.
Thus, f1 (c) = z 8 + z 4 + z 2 + z +1 º 0(mod f 2 )
Check on Homomorphism
• Consider two elements 𝑒1 = 𝑧 2 + 𝑧, 𝑒2 = 𝑧 3 + 𝑧.
• Product in field F1: 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 = 𝑧 5 + 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2
• In field F1: 𝑧 4 = 𝑧 + 1 ⇒ 𝑧 5 = 𝑧 2 + 𝑧.
• Thus, the product is: 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 + 1 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑧 3 + 1.
• The same operation can also be performed in the field F 2.
• Compute, 𝑇 𝑒1 = 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 2
+ 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 3 + 1 = 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 2 +
𝑧 = 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 + 1.
• Likewise, 𝑇 𝑒2 = 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 3
+ 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 3 + 1
=𝑧+1
Check on Homomorphism

Multiplying in the field F2 : T (e1 ).T (e2 ) = (z + 1)(z 3 + z + 1)mod(z 4 + z 3 + 1) = z 2 .


This can be seen as the mapped result from F1 :
T (z 3 + 1) = (z 2 + z)3 + 1 = (z 6 + z 5 + z 4 + z 3 + 1)mod(z 4 + z 3 + 1)
= (z 3 + z 2 + z + 1) + (z 3 + z + 1) + (z 3 + 1) + (z 3 + 1)
= z2

You might also like