CEC 208 – SOIL SCIENCE AND IRRIGATION

ENGINEERING

SOIL

The definition of soil varies with the profession and perception of the person defining soil. What
a soil is to civil engineers is different from the definition of soil by geologists, archeologists and
soil scientists, such definitions include:

1. Soil is a thin layer of material on the Earth's surface in which plants have their roots.
2. Soil is the unconsolidated mineral or organic material on the immediate surface of the Earth
that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants.
3. The unconsolidated mineral or organic matter on the surface of the Earth that has been
subjected to and shows effects of genetic and environmental factors of: climate (including water
and temperature effects), and macro- and microorganisms, conditioned by relief, acting on parent
material over a period of time.
4. Soil is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and organic matter), liquid, and gases that
occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or both of the following:
horizons, or layers, that are distinguishable from the initial material as a result of additions,
losses, transfers, and transformations of energy and matter or the ability to support rooted plants
in a natural environment.

However, soil is better known as:

a) As a medium for plant growth; and
b) As organized natural bodies.

There are 7 general roles that soils play:

1. Soils serve as media for growth of all kinds of plants.

2. Soils modify the atmosphere by emitting and absorbing gases (carbon dioxide, methane, water
vapour, and the like) and dust.
3. Soils provide habitat for animals that live in the soil (such as groundhogs and mice) to
organisms (such as bacteria and fungi), that account for most of the living things on Earth.
4. Soils absorb, hold, release, alter, and purify most of the water in terrestrial systems.
5. Soils process recycled nutrients, including carbon, so that living things can use them over and
over again.
6. Soils serve as engineering media for construction of foundations, roadbeds, dams and
buildings, and preserve or destroy artifacts of human endeavors.
7. Soils act as a living filter to clean water before it moves into an aquifer.

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Factors of soil formation

1. Parent material:
This refers to the mineral material, or organic material from which the soil is formed. Soils will
carry the characteristics of its parent material such as color, texture, structure, mineral
composition and so on. For example, if soils are formed from an area with large rocks (parent
rocks) of red sandstone, the soils will also be red in color and have the same feel as its parent
material.

2. Time:
Soils can take many years to form. Younger soils have some characteristics from their parent
material, but as they age, the addition of organic matter, exposure to moisture and other
environmental factors may change its features. With time, they settle and are buried deeper
below the surface, taking time to transform. Eventually they may change from one soil type to
another.

3. Climate:
This is probably the most important factor that can shape the formation of soils. Two important
climatic components, temperature and precipitation are keys. They determine how quickly
weathering will be, and what kind of organic materials may be available on and inside of the
soils. Moisture determines the chemical and biological reactions that will occur as the soils are
formed. Warmer climate with more rainfall means more vegetative cover and more animal
action. It also means more runoff, more percolation and more water erosion. They all help to
determine the kind of soils in an area.

4. Relief (Topography):

This refers to the landscape position and the slopes it has. Steep, long slopes mean water will run
down faster and potentially erode the surfaces of slopes. The effect will be poor soils on the

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slopes, and richer deposits at the foot of the slopes. Also, slopes may be exposed to more direct
sunlight, which may dry out soil moisture and render it less fertile.

5. Organisms (Biological activity):

The source and richness of organic matter is down to the living things (plants and animals) that
live on and in the soils. Plants in particular, provide lots of vegetative residue that are added to
soils. Their roots also hold the soils and protect them from wind and water erosion. They shelter
the soils from the sun and other environmental conditions, helping the soils to retain the needed
moisture for chemical and biological reactions. Fungi, bacteria, insects, earthworms, and
burrowing animals help with soil aeration. Worms help breakdown organic matter and aid
decomposition. Animal droppings, dead insects and animals result in more decaying organic
matter. Microorganisms also help with mineral and nutrient cycling and chemical reactions.

SOIL COMPOSITION

The 4 basic components of soil are: minerals matter 45%, organic matter 5%, air 25% and water
25% but in reality, these percentages of the 4 components vary tremendously.

1. Minerals
The mineral portion of the soil is derived from the bedrock from which it was formed. They are
chemically and structurally the same as the parent rock. The sizes of individual particles of the
mineral component are responsible for the texture of the soil. Depending upon the rock materials
from which they were derived, these assorted mineral particles ultimately release the chemicals
on which plants depend for survival, such as potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus,
sulphur, iron, and manganese

2. Organic matter
Living and dead plant and animal matter in various stages of growth and decay constitute the
organic part of the soil. Adding organic matter is one of the best things you can do to your soil.
In addition to being a reservoir of nutrients, organic matter improves the soil structure. In
general, soil fertility depends on a high content of organic materials.

3. Water
Soil water enables plants to absorb minerals by first dissolving them. Water is also needed for
the physiological and chemical processes of plant growth. Once water enters the soil from rain or
irrigation, gravity comes into play causing water to trickle downward. Water is
also taken up in great quantities by the roots of plants. Water also moves through soil pores
independently of gravity. This movement can occur via capillary action, in which water
molecules move because they are more attracted to the pore walls than to one another.

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4. Air
Soil with a loose surface and large pores permits air to diffuse easily into it. Entry is limited if
the soil is crusted over or compacted. Soil air is more humid than the air that humans breathe,
and it has higher carbon dioxide content. In soil, water carries out the essential function of
bringing mineral nutrients to plants. But the balance between water and air in the soil can be
delicate. An overabundance of water will saturate the soil and fill pore spaces needed for the
transport of oxygen. The resulting oxygen deficiency can kill plants. Fertile soils permit an
exchange between plants and the atmosphere, as oxygen diffuses into the soil and is used by
roots for respiration. In turn, the resulting carbon dioxide diffuses through pore spaces and
returns to the atmosphere. This exchange is most efficient in soils with a high degree of porosity.

SOIL PARAMETERS

Soil parameters for consideration when it comes to irrigation include:

1. Texture
The texture is the feel of the soil and generally refers to the clay, silt and sand content. There is a
texture triangle that scientists use to determine the characteristics of soil. According to the
texture triangle, the soil is considered clay if it is less than 0.002 mm. It is silt if the soil is
between 0.002 and 0.05 mm. The texture is sand if it is between 0.05 and 2.0 mm.

Together, soil texture and soil structure have the greatest influence on pore space in a soil, and
how easily air, water, and roots can move through a soil. Two soils with the same texture can
behave very differently depending on their structure. A clay soil, for example, can be easy for
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air, water, and roots to move through with good structure, or be almost impenetrable by roots,
air, and water when its structure has been destroyed by compaction.

2. Structure
Soil structure refers to how particles of soil are grouped together into aggregates (also called
peds). They are cemented or bound together by physical, chemical, and biological processes. Soil
that has particles that are horizontal, plate-like or flat are called platy. Soils with long, vertical
particles that are bound by flat or slightly rounded vertical faces are prismatic and columnar.
Particles that are block-like or somewhat square are called blocky. Small, rounded particles are
granular.

3. pH
Soil pH refers to the soil’s acidity or alkalinity. This property hinges on the concentration of
hydrogen ions in solution. A greater concentration of hydrogen results in a lower pH, meaning
greater acidity. The pH of a soil will often determine whether certain plants can be grown
successfully.

4. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is a fundamental soil property used to predict plant nutrient
availability and retention in the soil. It is the potential of available nutrient supply, not a direct
measurement of available nutrients. Soil CEC typically increases as clay content and organic
matter increase because cation exchange occurs on surfaces of clay minerals, organic matter, and
roots and they can potentially hold more nutrients for longer period of time. These soils also
have greater water holding capacity. CEC is reported as milliequivalents per 100 grams of soil
(meq/100g.

5. Soil Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)

Soil SAR is a measure of the ratio of sodium (Na+) relative to calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium
(Mg2+) in the water extract (solution phase) from a saturated soil paste (Eq. 1). The units of Ca2+,
Mg2+ and Na+ are milliequivalent/liter [meq/L) or mmol(c)/L].

Soils with SAR greater than 10 are considered to be sodic. Sodic soils have structural problems,
which result in poor water infiltration. The soil tends to swell when wet and crack when dry. It is
calculated by

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6. Soil Depth
Soil depth refers to the thickness of the soil materials that provide structural support, nutrients
and water for plants. Soil depth, in addition to soil texture and structure, can influence water
availability. Soil depth can greatly influence the types of plants that can grow in them. Deeper
soils generally can provide more water and nutrients to plants than more shallow soils.
Furthermore, most plants rely on soil for mechanical support.

7. Soil Permeability (K)

The permeability of a soil is the ability of water to move through it (permeate it). It depends on
the physical and chemical properties of the soil, notably particle size distribution (the range of
particle sizes present), pore space, pore size and the continuity of the spaces. It is also known as
hydraulic conductivity. Hydraulic conductivity is a complex feature of soils, varying with
location, soil type, depth, soil moisture content and direction of flow; for example, horizontal
conductivity is often greater than vertical on account of soil horizons.

The coefficient of permeability (K) is dependent on the particle size, structure of soil mass; void
ratio, properties of water, the shape of the particle, water impurities, adsorbed water, etc.

8. Soil Electrical Conductivity

Soil electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of the amount of salts in soil (salinity of soil). It is
an important indicator of soil health. It affects crop yields, crop suitability, plant nutrient
availability, and activity of soil microorganisms which influence key soil processes including the
emission of greenhouse gases such as nitrogen oxides, methane, and carbon dioxide. Excess salts
hinder plant growth by affecting the soil-water balance. Soils containing excess salts occur
naturally in arid and semiarid climates. Salt levels can increase as a result of cropping, irrigation,
and land management.

It is the ability of a material to transmit (conduct) an electrical current and is commonly

expressed in units of milliSiemens per meter (mS/m). Soil EC measurements may also be
reported in units of deciSiemens per meter (dS/m), which is equal to the reading in mS/m divided
by 100.

The electrical conductivity of soils varies depending on the amount of moisture held by soil
particles. Sands have a low conductivity, silts have a medium conductivity, and clays have a high
conductivity. Consequently, EC correlates strongly to soil particle size and texture.

9. Soil Slope

Slope is important to soil formation and management because of its influence on runoff, soil
drainage, erosion, the use of machinery and choice of crops. Slope is the incline or gradient of a
surface and commonly is expressed in percents.

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The percent of slope is determined by measuring the difference in vertical elevation in feet over
100 feet of horizontal distance. For example, a 5 percent slope rises or falls 5 feet per 100 feet of
horizontal distance.

The shape of the slope is another important characteristic. A convex slope curves outward like
the outside surface of a ball, a concave slope curves inward like the inside surface of a saucer,
and a plane slope is like a tilted flat surface.

SOIL MOISTURE

Water contained in soil is called soil moisture and it held within the soil pores. Soil water is the
major component of the soil in relation to plant growth. If the moisture content of a soil is
optimum for plant growth, plants can readily absorb soil water.

Importance of Soil Water

1. Soil water serves as a solvent and carrier of food nutrients for crops growth
2. Yield of crop is more often determined by the amount of water available rather than the
deficiency of other food nutrients
3. Soil water acts as a nutrient itself
4. Soil water regulates soil temperature
5. Soil forming processes and weathering depend on water
6. Microorganisms require water for their metabolic activities
7. Soil water helps in chemical and biological activities of soil
8. It is a principal constituent of the growing plant
9. Water is essential for photosynthesis

Classification of Soil Water

1. Gravitational water: Gravitational water occupies the larger soil pores (macro pores) and
moves down readily under the force of gravity. Water in excess of the field capacity is termed
gravitational water. Gravitational water is of no use to plants because it occupies the larger pores.
It reduces aeration in the soil. Thus, its removal from soil is a requisite for optimum plant
growth. Soil moisture tension at gravitational state is zero or less than ⅓ atmosphere.

2. Capillary water: Capillary water is held in the capillary pores (micro pores). Capillary water
is retained on the soil particles by surface forces. It is held so strongly that gravity cannot remove
it from the soil particles. The molecules of capillary water are free and mobile and are present in
a liquid state. Due to this reason, it evaporates easily at ordinary temperature though it is held

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firmly by the soil particle; plant roots are able to absorb it. Capillary water is, therefore, known
as available water. The capillary water is held between ⅓ and 31 atmosphere pressures.

3. Hygroscopic water: The water that held tightly on the surface of soil colloidal particle is
known as hygroscopic water. It is essentially non-liquid and moves primarily in the vapour form.
It is held so tenaciously (31 to 10000 atmospheres) by soil particles that plants cannot absorb it.
Some microorganism may utilize hygroscopic water. As hygroscopic water is held tenaciously
by surface forces its removal from the soil requires a certain amount of energy. Unlike capillary
water which evaporates easily at atmospheric temperature, hygroscopic water cannot be
separated from the soil unless it is heated.

CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS

Crop water requirements (CWR) refer to amount of water needed to meet the water consumed
through evapotranspiration (ETc) by a disease-free crop, growing in large fields under non-
restricting soil conditions including soil water and fertility. They are usually expressed in
mm/day, mm/month or mm/season and they are used for the management purposes: in the
estimation of irrigation water requirements, irrigation scheduling and water delivery
scheduling.

The basic formula for the CWR (ETcrop) is:

ETcrop = Kc x ETO

where:

ETcrop = the water requirement of a given crop in mm per unit of time e.g. mm/day, mm/month

or mm/season.

Kc = the "crop factor"

ETo = reference crop evapotranspiration

ETo - Reference Crop Evapotranspiration

The reference crop evapotranspiration ETo (sometimes called potential evapotranspiration, PET)
is defined as the rate of evapotranspiration from a large area covered by green grass which grows
actively, completely shades the ground and which is not short of water. It depends on the
climate. The highest value of ETo is found in areas which are hot, dry, windy and sunny whereas
the lowest values are observed in areas where it is cool, humid and cloudy with little or no wind.
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In many cases it will be possible to obtain estimates of ETo for the area of concern (or an area
nearby with similar climatic conditions) from the Meteorological Service. However, where this is
not possible, the values for ETo have to be calculated using:

a. Pan evaporation method, or

b. The Blaney-Criddle Method

Crop Factor - Kc

Example of Crop Factors (Kc) Table

Crop Initial (days) Crop dev. (days) Mid- (days) Late (days) Season
stage stage season season average.
stage
Cotton 0.45 (30) 0.75 (50) 1.15 (55) 0.75 (45) 0.82
Maize 0.40 (20) 0.80 (35) 1.15 (40) 0.70 (30) 0.82
Millet 0.35 (15) 0.70 (25) 1.10 (40) 0.65 (25) 0.79
Sorghum 0.35 (20) 0.75 (30) 1.10 (40) 0.65 (30) 0.78
Grain/small 0.35 (20) 0.75 (30) 1.10 (60) 0.65 (40) 0.78
Legumes 0.45 (15) 0.75 (25) 1.10 (35) 0.50 (15) 0.79
Groundnuts 0.45 (25) 0.75 (35) 1.05 (45) 0.70 (25) 0.79

In order to obtain the crop water requirement ETcrop the reference crop evapotranspiration, ETo,
must be multiplied by the crop factor, Kc. The crop factor (or "crop coefficient") varies
according to the growth stage of the crop. There are four growth stages to distinguish:

- the initial stage: when the crop uses little water;

- the crop development stage, when the water consumption increases;
- the mid-season stage, when water consumption reaches a peak;
- the late-season stage, when the maturing crop once again requires less water.

Example of ETcrop Calculation

ETcrop = Kc x ETo

Since the values for ETo are normally measured or calculated on a daily basis (mm/day), an
average value for the total growing season has to be determined and then multiplied with the
average seasonal crop factor Kc

Crop to be grown: Sorghum

- length of total growing season: 120 days

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- ETo: average of 6.0 mm/day over the total growing season (from table)

Kc = 0.78 (from table)

ET crop = kc x ETO

ET crop = 0.78 x 6 = 4.68 mm per day

ETcrop = 4.68 x 120 days = approx. 56 mm per total growing season

Example II

Estimate seasonal crop water requirements for tomato growing in the Mediterranean region with
the planting date of April 15th and with the average monthly reference evapotranspiration values
as follows: EToApril = 3.5 mm/day; EToMay = 4.4 mm/day; EToJune = 5.1 mm/day; EToJuly =
5.8 mm/day; EToAugust = 5.6 mm/day and EToSeptember = 4.2 mm/day.

The average monthly values of Kc are as follows: KcApril = 0.5; KcMay = 0.57; KcJune = 0.94;
KcJuly = 1.15; KcAugust = 1.04; KcSeptember = 0.835.

Then, the crop water requirements are calculated for each month as:
CWRApril = KcApril * EToApril * 15 = 0.5 * 3.5 * 15 = 26.2 mm/month
CWRMay = KcMay * EToMay * 31 = 0.57 * 4.4 * 31 = 77.8 mm/month
CWRJune = KcJune * EToJune * 30 = 0.94 * 5.1 * 30 = 143.8 mm/month
CWRJuly = KcJuly * EToJuly * 31 = 1.15 * 5.8 * 31 = 206.8 mm/month
CWRAugust = KcAugust * EToAugust * 31 = 1.04 * 5.6 * 31 = 180.5 mm/month
CWRSeptember = KcSeptember * EToSeptember * 6 = 0.835 * 4.2 * 6 = 21.0 mm/month

The seasonal crop water requirements represent the sum of the monthly values and they are
656.1 mm/season.

CROPWAT

CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows is a computer program for the calculation of crop water
requirements and irrigation requirements based on soil, climate and crop data. In addition, the
program allows the development of irrigation schedules for different management conditions and
the calculation of scheme water supply for varying crop patterns. CROPWAT 8.0 can also be
used to evaluate farmers’ irrigation practices and to estimate crop performance under both
rainfed and irrigated conditions. CROPWAT is a decision support tool developed by the Land
and Water Development Division of FAO.

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IRRIGATION

Irrigation is the application of controlled amounts of water apart from rainfall to crops at
needed intervals to meet water requirement of crops. A good irrigation system must have a
good economic return and causes no damage to crops and soil.

Apart from meeting the crop water needs of crops, irrigation also perform these functions in crop
production, which include:
1. Protecting plants against adverse weather,
2. Suppressing weed growth in grain fields.
3. Preventing soil consolidation (In consolidation process, soil volume is reduced
by squeezing out pore water from the saturated soil).
4. Dust suppression,
5. Disposal of agricultural wastes.

METHODS OF IRRIGATION

Irrigation water may be applied to crops by 3 basic methods namely:

1. Surface irrigation (uncontrolled/wild flooding, furrow, basin and
border)
2. Piped/ pressurized irrigation (sprinklers and drip irrigation)
3. Sub-surface irrigation

Every irrigation method has advantages and disadvantages. Therefore before choosing a specific
technique, the irrigation engineer must evaluate all the factors and choose method which is most
suited for local condition.

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SURFACE IRRIGATION TECHNIQUE

This method is broadly classified as basin irrigation; border irrigation; furrow irrigation and
uncontrolled flooding.

1. Basin irrigation
Basin irrigation is the most common form of surface irrigation, particularly in regions with
layouts of small fields. Water is added to the basin through a gap in the perimeter dyke or
adjacent ditch. Basins are flat areas of land, surrounded by low bunds. The bunds prevent the
water from flowing to the adjacent fields. Basin irrigation is commonly used for rice grown on
flat lands or in terraces on hillsides and orchards. Trees can also be grown in basins.. In general,
the basin method is suitable for crops that are unaffected by standing in water for long periods
(e.g. 12-24 hours).

Advantages:
• Effective leaching
• Maximum use of seasonal rainfall
• High application efficiencies.
• It saves time.
• Its economic investment is less.
• It is beneficial for more trees.

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Disadvantages:
• Soil crusting
• Unsuitable for crops that cannot accommodate inundation.
• Precision land levelling is very important to achieving high uniformities and efficiencies.
Many basins are so small that precision equipment cannot work effectively.
• Wastage of water is caused in it.
• Diseases spread in trees.

2. Furrow irrigation
Furrow irrigation avoids flooding the entire field surface by channelling the flow along the
primary direction of the field using 'furrows,' 'creases,' or 'corrugations'. Water infiltrates through
the wetted perimeter and spreads vertically and horizontally to refill the soil reservoir. The
distinctive feature of furrow irrigation is that the flow into each furrow is independently set and
controlled as opposed to borders and basins where the flow is set and controlled on a border by
border or basin by basin basis. Furrow irrigation is categorized into 5:
• Sloppy Furrow
• Levelled Furrow
• Contour Furrow
• Serial Furrow
• Corrugated Furrow

Advantages:
• Large areas can be irrigated at a time.
• It saves labour since once the furrow is filled, it is not necessary to give water a second
time.
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 • It is a reasonably cheaper method.
• Plants get proper quantity of water by this system.
 Recirculating irrigation runoff water is possible.
 Higher crop yields can be ensured through proper furrow irrigation practices.

Disadvantages:
• Accumulation of salinity between furrows;
• Increased level of tail water losses;
• Difficulty of moving farm equipment across the furrows;
• Added expense and time to make extra tillage practice (furrow construction);
• Increase in the erosive potential of the flow;
• Higher commitment of labour to operate efficiently;
• Non uniformity of water distribution over the field.
• Water loss due to runoff is high.
• Generally, furrow systems are more difficult to automate, particularly with regard to
regulating an equal discharge in each furrow. The figure below shows furrow irrigated
conditions.

3. Border (strip) irrigation

In this technique of irrigation, a field is divided into number of strips. The width of strip varies
from 10 to 15 metres and length varies from 90 m to 400 m. Strips are separated by low
embankments or levees. The water is diverted from the field channel into the strips. Border
irrigation can be viewed as an extension of basin irrigation to sloping, long rectangular or
contoured field shapes, with free draining conditions at the lower end. Sloping borders are
suitable for nearly any crop except those that require prolonged ponding. Soils can be efficiently
irrigated which have moderately low to moderately high intake rates.

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Advantages:

1. It is more efficient method of irrigation arid ensures uniform application of water.

2. It has good control on irrigation water and high water application efficiency.
3. Though the Initial cost is high, it requires less labour and has low maintenance cost.
4. Wastage of water and soil erosion is reduced as there is bund around the basin.

Disadvantages:

1. There are too many ridges which occupy the larger area of land. It involves the wastage
of land.
2. Lay out requirement in land preparation and irrigation is much bigger in check basin
irrigation as compared to other methods.
3. Repairing of ridges and careful supervision during irrigation is needed.
4. Uneven distribution of water within the plot.
5. The method impedes surface drainage, precise land grading and shaping are required.

4. Uncontrolled flooding: This flooding system of irrigation is used from ancient times.
Flooding method consists in applying the water by flooding the land of rather smooth and flat
topography. Water is applied to the land from field ditches without any check or guidance to the
flow. There are many cases where croplands are irrigated without regard to efficiency or
consistency. These are usually situations where the value of the crop is very small or the field is
used for grazing or recreation purposes. Small land holdings are generally not subject to the
range of surface irrigation practices of the large industrial farming systems.

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PRESSURIZED/PIPED IRRIGATION

1. Sprinkler irrigation

Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to natural rainfall.
Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. It is then sprayed into the air
through sprinklers so that it breaks up into small water drops which fall to the ground. The pump
supply system, sprinklers and operating conditions must be designed to enable a uniform
application of water.

Advantages:
1. Elimination of the channels for conveyance, therefore no conveyance loss.
2. It is Suitable to all types of soil apart from heavy clay.
3. It is appropriate technique for irrigating crops where the plant population per unit area is
very high. It is most suitable for oil seeds and other cereal and vegetable crops.
4. It saves water.
5. With this technique of irrigation, there is control of water application convenient for
giving light and frequent irrigation and higher water application efficiency.
6. Sprinkle irrigation increases in yield.
7. There is a mobility of system.
8. It may also be used for undulating area.
9. It saves land as no bunds are required.
10. This technique influences greater conducive micro-climate.
11. Areas located at a higher elevation than the source can be irrigated.

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 12. In this technique there is a possibility of using soluble fertilizers and chemicals.
13. In this method of irrigation there is less problem of clogging of sprinkler nozzles due to
sediment laden water.
14. The overall cost of labour is generally reduced in this method of irrigation.
15. Erosion of soil cover which is common in surface irrigation can be reduced.

Disadvantages:
1. In this technique, initial cost of implementation is high.
2. High and constant energy requirement for operation.
3. Under high wind condition and high temperature distribution and application efficiency is
poor.
4. Highly saline water causes leaf burning when temperature is higher than 95 F.
5. When lands have been already levelled and developed for surface or other irrigation
methods sprinkler irrigation is not so economical.
6. There is loss of water due to evaporation from the area during irrigation.
7. A stable water supply is needed.
8. Water must be free from sand, debris and large amount of salt.
9. It requires technical knowledge.
10. Sprinkler irrigation method cannot be used in all crops.
11. Crop is damaged by changing sprinkler system again and again.
12. Loss of water due to evaporation from the area during irrigation.
13. Above canopy sprinkling may cause washing of spray, materials and aggravate the
incidence of pests and diseases.

2. Drip irrigation

Drip irrigation sometimes called trickle irrigation was originally developed in Israel in the early
1960s and became popular in areas of water scarcity. The drip irrigation is the most competent
and it can be practiced in array of crops, especially in vegetables, orchard crops, flowers and
plantation crops. It involves dripping water onto the soil at very low rates (2-20 litres/hour) from
a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets called emitters or drippers. Water is
applied close to plants so that only part of the soil in which the roots grow is wetted, unlike
surface and sprinkler irrigation, which involves wetting the whole soil profile. With drip
irrigation water, applications are more frequent (usually every 1-3 days) than with other methods
and this provides a very favourable high moisture level in the soil in which crops can flourish.

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Advantages:
1. Possibility of using soluble fertilizers and chemicals.
2. Fertilizer and nutrient loss is minimized due to localized application and reduced
leaching.
3. Water application efficiency is high.
4. Field levelling is not necessary. Fields with irregular shapes are easily accommodated.
5. Recycled non-potable water can be safely used.
6. Soil type plays less important role in frequency of irrigation.
7. Soil erosion is lessened.
8. Weed growth is lessened.
9. Water distribution is highly uniform, controlled by output of each nozzle.
10. Labour cost is less than other irrigation methods.
11. Variation in supply can be regulated by regulating the valves and drippers.
12. Plants remain dry, reducing the risk of disease.
13. Usually operated at lower pressure than other types of pressurised irrigation, reducing
energy costs.

Disadvantages:
1. Initial cost can be more in this technique.
2. The sunrays can affect the tubes used for drip irrigation, shortening their usable life.

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 3. If the water is not properly filtered and the equipment not suitably maintained, it can
result in blockage.
4. For subsurface drip the irrigator cannot see the water that is applied. This may lead to the
farmer either applying too much water (low efficiency) or an insufficient amount of
water, this is particularly common for those with less experience with drip irrigation.
5. Drip irrigation might be inadequate if herbicides or top dressed fertilizers need sprinkler
irrigation for activation.
6. Drip tape causes extra clean-up costs after harvest. Users need to plan for drip tape
winding, disposal, recycling or reuse.
7. Waste of water, time and harvest, if not installed properly. These systems require careful
study of all the relevant factors like land topography, soil, water, crop and agro-climatic
conditions, and suitability of drip irrigation system and its components.
8. In lighter soils subsurface, drip may be unable to wet the soil surface for germination.
Requires careful consideration of the installation depth.

SUB-SURFACE DRIP IRRIGATION

It is a low pressure, high efficiency irrigation system that uses buried drip tubes or drip tape to
meet crop water needs. It saves water and improves yields by eliminating surface water
evaporation and reducing the incidence of weeds and disease. Water is applied directly to the
root zone of the crop and not to the soil surface where most weed seeds germinate after
cultivation. It requires high initial cost and unsuitable for hot dry windy regions.

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Advantages:

More efficient water use – Soil evaporation, surface runoff, and deep percolation are greatly
reduced or eliminated.

Less water quality hazards – Runoff into streams is reduced or eliminated, and there is less
nutrient and chemical leaching due to deep percolation.

Greater water application uniformity – Improved in-field uniformities can result in better
control of the water, nutrients and salts.

Enhanced plant growth, crop yield and quality – A number of crops respond positively.

Improved plant health – Less disease and fungal pressure occurs due to drier and less-humid
crop canopies. The system can also be used for some types of soil fumigation.

Improved fertilizer and pesticide management – Precise and more timely application of
fertilizer and pesticides through the system can result in greater efficacy and, in some cases,
reduction in their use.

Better weed control – Reductions in weed germination and weed growth often occur in drier
regions

Improved double cropping opportunities – Crop timing may be enhanced since the system
need not be removed at harvesting and reinstalled prior to planting the second crop.

Improved farming operations and management – Many field operations can occur during
irrigation events. Field operations result in less soil compaction, and soil crusting caused by
irrigation is greatly reduced.

System integrity issues – There are fewer mechanized parts in an SDI system as compared to
mechanical-move sprinkler irrigation systems. Most components are plastic and are less subject
to irrigation system corrosion. SDI systems do not need to be removed and installed between
crops and, thus, can experience less damage. The potential for vandalism is also reduced.

Design flexibility – There is increased flexibility with SDI in matching field shape and field size
as compared to center pivot sprinkler irrigation systems. The SDI system can be easily and
economically sized to the available water supply. In widely spaced crops, drip lines can be
placed for optimum water and nutrient uptake. Pressure compensating SDI systems have fewer
slope limitations than surface gravity irrigation.

20
System longevity – SDI installations can have a long economic life when properly designed and
managed. Long system life allows for amortizing investment costs over many years, thus
allowing lower-value commodity crops to be economically grown with SDI.

Disadvantages:

Smaller wetting pattern – The wetting pattern may be too small on coarse-textured soils,
resulting in too small a crop root zone. This situation can make system capacity and system
reliability extremely critical issues as there is less ability to buffer insufficient irrigation capacity
or system breakdown.

Monitoring and evaluating irrigation events – Water applications may be largely unseen, and
it is more difficult to evaluate system operation and application uniformity. System
mismanagement can lead to under irrigation and crop yield and quality reductions or over
irrigation, resulting in poor soil aeration and deep percolation problems.

Soil/Application rate interactions – Emitter discharge rates can exceed the ability of some soils
to redistribute the water under normal redistribution processes. In such cases, water pressure in
the region around the outside of the emitter may exceed atmospheric pressure, thus altering
emitter flows.

Reduced upward water movement – Using the SDI system for germination may be limited,
depending on installation depth and soil characteristics. This may be particularly troublesome on
soils with vertical cracking. Salinity may be increased above the drip line, increasing the salinity
hazard for emerging seedlings or small transplants.

Less tillage options – Primary and secondary tillage operations may be limited by drip line
placement.

Row spacing and crop rotation issues – Since SDI systems are fixed spatially, it may be more
difficult to accommodate crops of different row spacing. Some crops might require a very close
drip line spacing that might be economically impractical. Additional care must be taken at the
time of annual row-crop planting to ensure crop orientation and spacing are appropriately
matched to the drip line location.

Plant development issues – Some crops may not develop properly under SDI in some soils and
climates. Peanuts may not peg properly into dry soil. Tree crops may benefit from a larger
wetting pattern.

21
High initial Costs compared to some alternative irrigation systems. In many cases, the system
has no resale value or a minimal salvage value.

Filtration issues – As with all micro irrigation systems, water filtration is a critical issue in
ensuring proper system operation and system longevity. However, the issue can become more
critical for long term SDI systems where a system life of greater than ten years is desired. SDI
may require more complex water quality management than some surface micro irrigation
systems, since there are no opportunities to manually clean emitters.

Other maintenance issues – Timely and consistent maintenance and repairs are a requirement.
Leaks caused by rodents can be more difficult to locate and repair, particularly for deeper SDI
systems. The drip lines must be monitored for root intrusion, and system operational and design
procedures must employ safeguards to limit or prevent further intrusion. Roots from some
perennial crops may pinch drip lines, eliminating or reducing flows. Periodically, the drip lines
need to be flushed to remove accumulations of silt and other precipitates that may occur in the
drip lines.

Operational issues – Operation and management requires more consistent oversight than some
alternative irrigation systems. There are fewer visual indicators of system operation and of the
system application uniformity. Irrigation scheduling procedures are required to prevent under
irrigation and over irrigation. Monitoring of system flow meters and pressure gauges are required
to determine if the system is operating properly.

Design issues – SDI is a less-developed technology than some alternative irrigation systems.
This is particularly so in some regions where growers have little exposure and experience with
these systems. There are fewer turnkey systems available for purchase.

FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF IRRIGATION METHODS

The factors include:

1. Local weather patterns.

Dryness, humidity and speed of air affect the methods of irrigation. For example, sprinklers are
less desirable in areas where high winds are common and in arid areas with a low humidity since
water losses due to evaporation can be extremely high. Drip irrigation works well in both of
these situations.

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2. Compatibility with other farm operations

An irrigation system for crop field must be designed and work in a way that will not make other
operations or the use of other equipment difficult or impossible. If you intend to use large
mechanized equipment, then you need a longer and wider field. Smaller equipment or animal-
powered cultivating equipment is more suitable for small fields and more permanent irrigation
facilities.

3. Economic feasibility

Selecting an irrigation method or system is an important economic decision. Some types of

pressurized systems have high capital and operating costs but may use minimal labour and
conserve water. Other systems are relatively less expensive to construct and operate but have
high labour requirements. Some are limited by the type of soil or the topography of the field.
Costs of maintenance, expected life of the rehabilitation, energy, water, depreciation, land
preparation, maintenance, labour and taxes must be considered.

4. Topographical characteristics

One of the major factors affecting irrigation, especially surface irrigation, is topography. The
slope of the field and its uniformity are the most important topographical factors. Surface
irrigation systems require uniform terrain. The location and elevation of the water supply relative
to the field boundaries, the area and configuration of the fields, and access by roads, utility lines
(gas, electricity, water, etc.), and migrating herds whether wild or domestic must be considered.

5. Soil properties

Consider the moisture-holding capacity of the soil, the intake rate and depth. These are major
criteria in selecting an irrigation method. Sandy soils have high intake rated and low soil
moisture storage capacities than clayey soils. This means fields with sandy soils may require an
entirely different irrigation method than deep clayey soils. Sandy soil requires more frequent,
smaller applications of water whereas clay soils can be irrigated less frequently and to a larger
depth.

6. Water supply

Another factor that can determine the irrigation practice is the quality and quantity of water.
Water demands by crops are continuous during the growing season. A water supply with a
relatively small discharge is best utilized in an irrigation system which incorporates frequent
applications. The factor of water quality affects decisions similarly. A poor quality water
(without plant nutrients) supply must be applied more frequently and in larger amounts than one
with good quality.

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7. Crop characteristics

The irrigation method is selected according to type of crops and pattern of its sowing. Different
crops require different quantities of water. Growth of plants and their height are also affected. In
taller plants, basin irrigation method is more suitable as compared to sprinkler method.

Some crops have high economic value and allow the application of more capital-intensive
practices. Deep-rooted crops are more amenable to low-frequency, high-application rate systems
than shallow-rooted crops.

Sprinkler and drip systems can require high levels of investment. For this reason, it’s better to
reserve their use for high-value crops like vegetables, small fruits and orchard crops rather than
applying them to commodity crops like wheat and soybeans.

COMPONENTS AND CONTROLS OF IRRIGATION METHODS

Typical drip irrigation system. Layout

The components of the drip irrigation system are classified into following principal categories:

a) Pump and prime mover: The pressure necessary to force water through the components of
the system including fertilizer tank, filter unit, mainline, sub main, laterals and provide at the
emitters at the desired pressure is obtained by a pump of suitable capacity or the overhead water
tank located at suitable elevation.

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b) Water source: Water sources such as river, lake, reservoir/tank, well, canal water supply or
connection to a public commercial or cooperative water supply network can be used. Drip
irrigation is a pressurized irrigation technology in which water is delivered from these sources by
increasing its internal energy (pressure) by pumping.

c) Pipe Network

• Main

Pipes of mainlines are usually made of poly vinyl chloride (PVC) or high density polyethylene
(HDPE). The exact diameter and pressure ratings are decided in the process of design and
depend on the size of the area irrigated, emitter operating pressure, topography, static and
delivery heads etc.

• Submains

Submains are installed underground (PVC or HDPE) or above ground (HDPE only.) The pipes
of diameter 32 mm or above and the pressure rating of more than 2.5 kg/cm2 are used for sub
mainline

• Manifolds

In certain circumstances, when rows are very long or in rolling topography, sub-division of the
plot by submains is insufficient. In these cases secondary partition is carried out by manifolds.
Manifolds are used also to simplify operation and to lower accessories costs.

• Laterals

Laterals are the tubes on which the emitters are mounted or within which they are integrated.
They are usually made of low density polythene (LDPE) or linear low density polythene
(LLDPE) with features such as flexibility, non-corrosive, resistance to solar radiation and
temperature fluctuation and generally black in color. Laterals usually have inner diameters in the
range of 12 to 20 mm with wall thickness varying from 1 to 3 mm.

d) Control and Monitoring Devices

Valves

• Flow and pressure control valves are required for controlling water distribution and
regulating pressure in the pipeline. The valves used in drip irrigation systems include air
release and vacuum relief valve, pressure regulating valves, flow regulation valves, non-
return valves and on hyphen and hyphen off valves.

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 • Check Valves and Backflow Preventers: Check valves and backflow preventers are
required when fertilizers or other chemicals are injected into the irrigation system, if the
irrigation system is connected to potable water supply network.

• Air-Release/Relief Valves: Air-release/relief valves are installed at the higher elevation

points of the system to prevent air flow in the pipes. These valves allow air to escape
when filling pipelines with water and remove air pockets at high points in the system.
High air content in the pipes may interfere with water flow, increase friction with pipe
walls, distort water measurement and may cause water hammer and pipe burst.

• Vacuum Breakers: Vacuum breakers prevent the collapse of pipes in steep slopes and
drip laterals in sub-surface drip irrigation (SDI) systems. In SDI they also eliminate the
suction of soil particles into the drippers after shutdown of the water supply.

Gages

Pressure gauges monitor water pressure in the system and ensure operating pressure remains
close to the recommended or desired values. Based on where the pressure gauge is installed, it
will measure water pressure in a various ranges, from 0 to 10 kg/cm2 near the pump to 0-2
kg/cm2 at the end of drip lateral. Pressure gauges may be installed at set points (near the pump,
before and after the filter, near the field). They can also be mounted as portable devices and
installed temporarily at the end of a drip lateral.

Water Meters

Water meters monitor and record the amount of water moving through a pipe where the water
meter is installed. When a stopwatch is used together with a water meter, it is possible to
determine the discharge in the system.

e) Filtration Systems

Filtration is the key to the success or failure of a drip irrigation system. The narrow water
passage or pathways in the emitters of the drip irrigation system are susceptible to clogging by
suspended matter and chemicals that precipitate from the irrigation water. The clogging of the
emitters can be partial or full causing the reduction in the emission uniformity and rated
discharge of the emitters. Clogging can be prevented or reduced by:

a) Preliminary separation of suspended solid particles by settling ponds, settling tanks and sand
separators.

b) Complimentary chemical treatments for decomposition of suspended organic matter; to hinder

the development of slime by microorganisms; to prevent chemical precipitates deposition and to
dissolve previous deposited precipitates.

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c) Filtration of the irrigation water: The media filters usually called as sand filters, screen filters
or disc filters are used.

Filtration devices are usually installed at the control head. If the irrigation water is heavily
contaminated, secondary control filters are installed at the subunit valves. Filters should be
flushed and cleaned routinely. Flushing can be done manually or automatically. The filters can
be installed in arrays of two or more units. The installation of the filters causes the additional
head loss in the system and need to be considered while designing the system. The details of the
filters are explained in the next lesson.

f) Chemical Injectors

Three categories of chemicals viz. fertilizers, pesticides and anti-clogging agents need to be
injected into irrigation systems depending on the need.

i) Fertilizers are the most commonly injected chemicals. In drip irrigation system, it is possible to
time the application of the fertilizers as per the requirement of crop growth stages. The fertilizers
need to be water soluble.

ii) Systemic pesticides are injected into drip irrigation systems to control insects and protect
plants from a variety of diseases.

iii) Chemicals that clean drippers or prevent dripper clogging: Chlorine is used to kill algae and
different microorganisms and to decompose organic matter, while acids are used to reduce water
pH and dissolve precipitates.

g) Emitters

Emitters, the core of micro irrigation system or made of plastic material. The design of
production of high quality drippers is comprised of delicate and complicated process. Water
passes through the emitters and need to be delivered at constant and low with the desired
uniformity. The emitters are designed to dissipate pressure and yield low discharge which does
not vary significantly because of minor differences in pressure head.

Classification of the Emitters

Emitters can be classified on the basis of various characteristics. These are:

• Flow regime
• Pressure dissipation
• Operating pressure
• Discharge
• Lateral connection
• Water distribution
• Flow cross section

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 • Cleaning characteristics
• Pressure compensation
• Material used for production

SPRINKLER SYSTEM COMPONENTS

1. A pump unit
2. Fertilizer application units and filters
3. Pipe network- main/sub-mains and laterals
4. Sprinkler head
5. Couplers, valves, risers, bends, plugs etc.

Typical Sprinkler Irrigation Layout

i) Pumping Unit: Sprinkler irrigation system distributes water by spraying it over the fields. The
water from the source (ground water / surface water) is pumped under pressure to sprinkler
system. The pressure created through pump forces water through sprinklers or through
perforations or nozzles in pipelines and then forms a spray. A high speed centrifugal or turbine
pump can be used for operating sprinkler irrigation to individual fields. Centrifugal pump is used
when the distance from the pump inlet to the water surface (suction head) is less than eight
meters. For pumping water from deep wells or more than eight meters, a submersible pump is
used. The driving unit of pump may be either an electric motor or an internal combustion engine.

28
ii) a. Fertiliser Application Unit: Soluble chemical fertilizers can be injected into the sprinkler
system and applied to the crop. The fertilizer applicator consists of a sealed fertilizer tank with
necessary tubings and connections. A venturi injector is connected with the main line, which
creates the differential pressure to suck fertilizer solution to flow in the main line.

b. Filters: Filters are used to filter the suspended particles and debris flowing with water.

iii) Pipe Network: The pipe network consists of mains/submains and laterals. Main line conveys
water from the source and distributes it to the submains. The submains convey water to the
laterals which in turn supply water to the sprinklers. Aluminium or PVC or HDPE pipes are
generally used for portable systems, while steel pipes are usually used for center-pivot laterals.
Asbestos, cement, PVC and wrapped steel are also used for buried laterals and main lines.

iv) Sprinkler Head: Sprinkler head distributes water uniformly over the field without generating
runoff and loss due to deep percolation. Types of sprinklers are rotating head or fixed type. The
rotating type can be adopted for a wide range of application rates and spacing.

Fixed head sprinklers are commonly used to irrigate small lawns and gardens. Perforated lateral
lines are also used to sprinkle water. They require less pressure than rotating sprinklers.

Sprinkler head.

iv) Couplers & Fitting Accessories: Couplers are used for connecting two pipes and uncoupling
quickly and easily. Essentially a coupler should provide: a) a reuse and flexible connection, b)
not leak at the joint, c) be simple and easy to couple and uncouple, and d) be light, non-corrosive,
durable. Some of the important fittings and accessories used in sprinkler system are given below.

a) Water meters: It is used to measure the volume of water delivered in to the system. This is
necessary to operate the system to supply the required quantity of water.

b) Flange, couplings and nipples are used for proper connection to the pump, suction and
delivery.

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c) Pressure gauge: It is used to measure operating pressure of sprinkler system. The sprinkler
system is operated at the pressure to apply the desired depth of water and ensure application
uniformity.

d) Bend, tees, reducers, elbows, hydrants, butterfly valve and plugs are other components of a
sprinkler system. They are used as per requirements.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF SUBSURFACE DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM

1. Pump. SDI systems generally have low pressure requirements (< 35 psi). Typically, only one
pump is required. The size of the pump depends on flow rate and total head requirements. The
total head requirements include pumping lift, friction/losses, elevation changes, system pressure
and, for SDI systems, the pressure loss across the filter and other structural components, such as
control valves, flow meter, check valves, main, and submain supply lines.

2. Backflow preventer. These devices prevent the contamination of the water supply from the
backflow of fertilizers, chemicals, or particulates. They are installed between the water supply or
pump and the chemical injection line.

3. Flowmeter. The flowmeter measures the volume of water moving through the system, either
as a flowrate or as an accumulated total volume. The flowmeter provides the operator with
information on how the system is performing, how and when to schedule the water application,
and in some instances, how much water is available to manage.

4. Chemical injection system. A chemical injector precisely injects disinfectants, line cleaners,
fertilizers, pesticides, or other liquid chemicals into the SDI system. The location of the chemical

30
injection port or ports may vary according to the chemical being injected or the purpose of the
injection.

5. Filtration system. The filtration system is sometimes considered the most important part of
the SDI system. It removes suspended particles from the irrigation water to prevent or reduce
emitter clogging. Sometimes a bank or group of filters must be installed in parallel to handle
greater total flow rates. Additionally, a combination of filter types is sometimes used to improve
filtration.

6. Pressure-sustaining valve. Depending on the type of filtration system, the SDI system may
need to be equipped with a pressure-sustaining valve downstream of the filter to facilitate greater
flushing pressures (automatic or manual). They automatically partially open or close as required
to maintain the set pressure on their inlet port.

7. Mainline, submain, and/or header manifold. The mainline and submains are the delivery
pipelines that deliver water from the pumping plant to the header manifolds connecting the
dripline laterals. The header manifold delivers water from the submain to the laterals and links a
number of driplines together into one controllable unit or zone. In many cases, the submain
serves as the header manifold.

8. Zone valve. These valves are opened or closed to control the flow to appropriate zones.
They can be automatically controlled using an electronic or pneumatic control system.
Sometimes the zone valves also serve as a pressure regulation valve. In some SDI systems, these
zone valves are manually operated.

9. Pressure regulation valves or pressure regulators. These components are typically used to
regulate pressure downstream of the filtration system to maintain the proper pressure in zones of
the SDI system. Typically regulation is achieved through the use of a diaphragm that is
controlled by either a spring or pneumatic system that reacts to the incoming pressure.

10. Pressure gauges. The filter system should have pressure gauges at the inlet and outlet points
to indicate the inlet/outlet pressure differential particularly for initiating flushing of the filtration
unit, whether this occurs manually or automatically.

11. Air and vacuum release valves. These valves allow air to exit the pipeline at system startup
and allow air entry for vacuum release at system shutdown. These valves reduce the potential for
damage from water hammer and help prevent soil or particulate material from being sucked back
into emitters when the SDI system is turned off or when driplines are drained. They do not
reduce backpressure, only back-siphonage. All high elevation points of the SDI system should
have air or vacuum relief, which can present some design challenges on fields with undulating
topography.

31
12. Dripline. The dripline is a polyethylene tube that includes the built-in emission points
(emitters). Driplines are often referred to as drip tapes. The selection of the emitter spacing along
the dripline should take into account the crop rooting characteristics and the ability of the soil to
redistribute applied irrigation water. Emitter spacings ranging from 4 to 30 inches are readily
available from the manufacturers, and other spacings can be made to meet a specific application.

13. Flushlines. The flushlines are similar to header manifolds but are located at the distal end of
the driplines. They serve three purposes:
1. Allow any sediment and contaminants to be flushed from dripline laterals at a centralized
location,
2. Assist in equalization of pressure in the dripline laterals, and
3. Allow positive pressure on both sides of a dripline break to prevent soil ingestion into the
dripline.

IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY

Not all water taken from a source (river, well) reaches the root zone of the plants. Part of the
water is lost during transport through the canals and in the fields. The remaining part is stored in
the root zone and eventually used by the plants. In other words, only part of the water is used
efficiently, the rest of the water is lost for the crops on the fields that were to be irrigated.

The following are the various types of irrigation efficiencies:

(a) Water Conveyance Efficiency (ηc):

It is the ratio of the amount of water applied, to the land to the amount of water supplied from the
reservoir. It is obtained by the expression,
ηc = Wl /Wr × 100 Where, ηc = Water conveyance efficiency Wl = Amount of water applied to
land Wr = Amount of water supplied from reservoir

(b) Water Application Efficiency (ηa):

It is the ratio of the water stored in root zone of plants to the water applied to the land. It is
obtained by the expression,
ηa = Wz/ Wl × 100 Where, ηa = Water application efficiency Wz = Amount of water stored in
root zone Wl = Amount of water applied to land

(c) Water Use Efficiency (ηu):

It is the ratio of the amount of water used to the amount of water applied. It is obtained by the
expression,

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ηu = Wu /Wl × 100 Where, ηu = Water use efficiency Wu = Amount of water used Wl =
Amount of water applied to land

(d) Consumptive use Efficiency (ηcu):

It is the ration of the consumptive use of water to the amount of water depleted from the root
zone. It is obtained by the expression, ηcu = Cu /Wp × 100
Where,
ηcu = Consumptive use efficiency Cu = Consumptive use of water Wp = Amount of water
depleted from root zone

SOURCES OF IRRIGATION WATER

The success of any irrigation project rests largely on the adequacy and dependability of water
supply to it. In the irrigated regions, public agencies should therefore take continuous long
supply as a basis for intelligent and complete utilization of all water resources.
Basically, rain is the source of all water. The portion of rain water which is not used at the point
of precipitation flows over the surface of the land to form rivers and lakes (surface sources). The
part which infiltrates into the ground is not held by the soil seeps into the ground to form part of
the ground water flow (groundwater source).

The 2 major sources of sources of water for irrigation are:

(a) Surface water
(b) Ground water

(a) Surface water sources: these include “flowing” water supplies like creeks, streams, canals
and rivers. They also include “standing or stored” water supplies like ponds, reservoirs and lakes.

(b) Groundwater sources: supplies may come from springs and wells. Wells are the major
types of these supplies (deep or shallow wells). The quality is usually good, but the available
quantity that can be pumped at any time limit the irrigation method.
• Drilled Wells
They are constructed either by cable tool (percussion) or rotary-drilling machines. Drilled
wells that penetrate unconsolidated material require casing and a screen to prevent inflow
of sediment and collapse. They can be drilled more than 1,000 feet deep. The space
around the casing prevents contamination by water draining from surface downward.
• Driven Wells
They are constructed by driving a small diameter pipe into shallow water- bearing sand or
gravel. They are simple to construct, quite economical, but they can tap only shallow

33
 water and are easily contaminated from nearby surface sources because they are not
sealed with grouting material. Hand-driven wells are usually 30 feet deep while machine-
driven are 50 feet deep or more.
• Dug Wells
They are excavated by hand shovel to below the water table until the incoming water
exceeded the digger’s bailing rate. The well must be lined with stones, bricks, tile or
other material to prevent collapse and must be covered with a cap of wood, stone or
concrete tile. Dug and bored wells have a larger diameter and expose a large area to the
aquifer. They are able to obtain water from less-permeable materials like fine sand, silt or
clay. They are easily prone to contamination from nearby surface sources and go dry
during periods of drought, if water table drops below the well.

IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY

Good quality irrigation water is essential to maintain the soil crop productivity at a high level.
The essential prerequisite for quality irrigation water is that it should be safe for use to crops and
should not damage soils. Poor quality water damages soils usually by making them saline or
alkaline with salt accumulation that injure crops and causes a reduction in yield.
Irrigation water contains various salts that are usually sulphates, chlorides, carbonates,
bicarbonates, and sometimes nitrates of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. Besides, it
may have elements like boron, fluorine, copper, zinc and manganese in small quantities. Salts in
irrigation water originate primarily through weathering of bedrocks, rocks and minerals.

Suitability of Irrigation Water

Classification and suitability of irrigation water for crops are based on the following criteria:
i) Total salt concentration,
ii) Relative proportion of sodium to other cations,
iii) Carbonates and bicarbonates concentrations,
iv) Boron concentration.

A) Total salt concentration is expressed as:

a) part per million parts of water (ppm)
b) milligram per litre of water (mg/l)
c) electrical conductivity of water (EC)
The electrical conductivity (EC) is accepted as the standard method of evaluating irrigation
water for total salts concentration because of reliability and ease of determination. It is expressed
as mmhos/cm or dS/m. It is always measured up to 5mmhos/cm at 250C. Much salts make the
soil saline (salinization).

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B) Relative Proportion of Sodium to other Cations in Irrigation Water
The presence of sodium salts and other concentrations in water determine to a large extent the
quality of water for irrigation purposes. To evaluate sodium problems in water the followings are
used:
a) sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
b) exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)
i) Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR): measures the sodium cations in relation to the calcium and
magnesium ions present in water, it is expressed:

= (me/l)
An increase in the SAR of irrigation water increases the SAR of the soil solution. This ultimately
increases the exchangeable sodium of the soil. Water having high sodium is useless for
irrigation. It leaves behind a large quantity of colloidal sodium and turns a good soil to alkali
(alkalinization).

35
The SAR should not be much higher than 20 and preferably less than 10.

ii) Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP): indicates the degree of saturation of soil
exchangeable complex with sodium, it is expressed as:
ESP = Exchangeable Sodium (meq/100gm soil) x 100
Cation Exchangeable Capacity (meq/100gm soil)

= me/100 gramme soil

C) Carbonate and Bicarbonate Concentration

Irrigation water rich in bicarbonate content tends to precipitate soluble calcium and magnesium
in the soil as insoluble carbonates. This leaves a higher proportion of sodium divalent cations in
the soil and increases the SAR. Residual sodium carbonates in excess of lime elements are
formed and accumulated in the soil.

36
D) Boron Concentration
Boron is essential to plants and it helps growth when present in a very small amount in irrigation
water. Boron toxicity to plants occurs when it is present in the soil solution more than a few parts
per million of water. Its content in irrigation water is usually more in arid and semi-arid regions.
Boron content in irrigation water becomes toxic for most of the field crops. It doesn’t affect the
physical and chemical properties of the soil, but at high concentrations it affects the metabolic
activities of the plants.

IRRIGATION SCHEDULE
Irrigation scheduling is a systematic method by which system manager can decide on when to
irrigate and how much water to apply. The goal of an effective scheduling programme is to
supply the plants with sufficient water while minimizing loss to deep percolation or run-off. The
soil is allowed to dry out in between watering, air is permitted to enter the soil and encourage
root development and plants are not stressed beyond the allowable limit.

Example:
If a field is supposed to be irrigated for 20 minutes at once, its schedule can be divided into 3
start times of 6 minutes for a total of 18 minutes.
 The shorter run times will reduce runoff and water losses and will reduce deep infiltration
below the root zone. The table below shows an irrigation schedule.
Start times: 12:30pm, 2:00pm and 3:30pm

S/N Field Irrigation No. of Minutes per Start Total Minutes

Method Starts
1 Field Surface 3 6 18
1
2 Field Sprinkler 3 4 12
2
3 Field Drip 2 8 16
3

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WATERLOGGING

An agricultural land is termed as waterlogged when its productivity or its fertility is affected by
high water table. Continuous heavy rainfall for a longer time and canal seepage do raise the
water table near the surface of the soil. When the water table comes to a height of 1.5m below
the soil, the soil is said to be water logged. By capillary action, the water rises to the root zone of
the crops and gets the soil saturated. The height to which the soil water rises above the water
table by capillary action is known as capillary fringe.

Causes of Waterlogging

1. Over irrigation: when excess water is supplied than the crop needs, the excess water remains
and stored in the root zone and the soil becomes waterlogged.

2. Inadequate Surface Drainage: if there’s no proper surface drainage in the soil, after heavy
rainfall, the land is submerged and if it continues for a longer time, the water table is raised.

3. Seepage from reservoir and Canal System: water percolates through the bank of an unlined
canal system and also from the reservoir basin that has permeable zones, cracks and fissures. The
seepage also leads to waterlogging.

4. Excessive Rainfall: if rainfall is excessive and water has no time to get drained off
completely, the water become stagnant which can lead to waterlogging.

5. Occasional Flood: if an area is affected by flood every year without a proper drainage system,
the land becomes waterlogged.

6. Land Topography: a flat agricultural land with no country slope and with depressions and
undulations has a greater potential to be waterlogged.

7. Soil Nature: soil with low permeability does not allow water to percolate through and when
over irrigated will be waterlogged.

EFFECTS OF WATERLOGGING

1. Poor Soil Aeration

Waterlogging causes the air within the soil to move out into the atmosphere, replacing it with
more water. The inadequate supply of oxygen retards or ceases the growth of a plant as the
accumulating carbon dioxide hampers the growth of the plant’s roots.
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Poor aeration also facilitates the growth of toxins and other injurious substances. Such saturated
soil also reduces microbiological activity which is vital for the formation of plant food.

2. It Alters the pH of the Soil

In the flooded soils, the pH changes and becomes more acidic. The soil, therefore, decreases in
its alkalinity and makes the growth of plants more difficult. The increasingly acidic soil cannot
support plant life.

3. Change in Soil Temperatures

Waterlogging lowers the temperature of the soil. Low temperatures of the moist soil, affect the
microorganisms and their activities, subsequently lowering the rate of nitrogen-fixation

4. Affecting Soil Nutrients

Nitrogen is vital to the soil and waterlogged soils suffer from nitrogen deficiency. The climate
created by waterlogging affects not only the nitrogen nutrients but also other minerals such as
sulphur, zinc, iron, manganese, phosphorous and potassium.
Some of the minerals are available in excess causing the toxicity levels in plants to go up, while
in others, the minerals cannot survive, and subsequently the plants.

5. Retard Cultivation
There is difficulty in cultivating in waterlogged soils. All crops fail to survive because of the
underlying conditions and as such, crops are adversely affected. Only rice can survive in such an
environment.

6. Accumulation of Harmful Salts

Waterlogging creates an atmosphere which brings toxic salts to the crop root-zone. The
accumulating salts also turn the soil more alkaline and hamper the growth of crops.

7. The Growth of Water-loving Wild Plants

Waterlogging causes wild plants which thrive in waterlogged environments to grow. These
weeds effectively kill useful crops and getting rid of them is an extra investment, especially in
extreme waterlogged conditions.

8. The Loss of Cash Crops

Most cash crops cannot survive or be cultivated in waterlogged soils. It, therefore, makes farmers
starve and lose out on the cash they would otherwise get from selling their crops. It also forces
them to switch to rice, assuming it can grow in such areas.

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9. Effects on Human Health
Waterlogging has an effect on the environment by the fact that it harbors disease vectors like
mosquitoes, slugs, and snails. They, in turn, bring illnesses like malaria, bilharzia, typhoid, and
others, which affect the human population, animals, and plants, effectively affecting the
environment.

CONTROL OF WATERLOGGING

1. Provision of Suitable Drainage System: this must be done so that the rainwater does not
stand for longer days.

2. Prevention of Seepage from Canal and Reservoirs: canals should be lined with impervious
lining and geological surveys conducted on the reservoir basin to detect zones of permeable
formations and should be treated.

3. Controlled Irrigation: irrigation intensity should be planned and water must be used
economically. Sprinkler and drip irrigation should be employed mostly.

4. Fixing a Good Crop Pattern: crops with high rate of evapotranspiration should be
recommended for area vulnerable to waterlogging.

5. Construction of Sump well: sump wells may be constructed within the waterlogged area and
help in collecting surface water which is then pumped and discharged elsewhere.

6. Pumping of Groundwater: many open wells or tube wells are constructed in a waterlogged
area and the groundwater pump out until the water table goes down to a safer level.

7. Not Using Alkaline Water: alkaline water used in irrigation affects the soil and makes it
more susceptible to waterlogging in the future. For this reason, alkaline water should not be used
for irrigation purposes. The mineral Alkali salts can accumulate on top of the soil – creating a
crust on the surface that prevents the surface water to drain as required.

8. Raise the Beds: If you are working on a small garden which is becoming waterlogged, you
might consider raising it and growing your plants on raised beds. You can also slightly slant the
bed so that the excess water goes down the bed. It is a tiresome affair, but it keeps your plant
roots from sitting in the water.

9. Mulching: can help a plant grow even in waterlogged soil. Mulching involves the addition of
either organic or inorganic materials that are spread on top of the soil. The mulch covers the
40
affected land by covering the soil and helping reduce evaporation losses. Crops can continue to
grow even in the waterlogged area, while at the time, working with the aforementioned
preventative measures to fix the problem.

Advantages of Irrigation:
1. For proper nourishment of crops certain amount of water is required. If rainfall is insufficient
there will be deficiency in fulfillment of water requirement. Irrigation tries to remove this
deficiency caused due to inadequate rainfall. Thus, irrigation comes to rescue in dry years.
2. Irrigation improves the yield of crops and makes people prosperous. The living standards of
the people is thereby improved.
3. Irrigation also adds to the wealth of the country in two ways. Firstly as bumper crops are
produced due to irrigation it makes country self-sufficient in food requirements. Secondly as
the irrigation water is taxed when it is supplied to the cultivators, it adds to the revenue.
4. Irrigation makes it possible to grow cash crops which give good returns to the cultivators than
the ordinary crops they might have grown in absence of irrigation. Fruit gardens, sugarcane,
potato, tobacco etc., are the cash crops.
5. Sometimes large irrigation channels can be used as a means of communication.
6. The falls which come across the irrigation channels can be utilised for producing hydroelectric
power.
7. Domestic advantages should not be overlooked. Irrigation facilitates bathing, cattle watering
etc., and improves freshwater circulation.
8. Irrigation improves the groundwater storage as water lost due to seepage adds to the
groundwater storage.
9. Along the banks of large irrigation channels plantation can be successfully done which not
only helps introducing social forestry but also improves environmental status of the region.
10. New irrigation works are started at the time of famines to provide employment to a large
number of population. These works are called famine works or relief works.
11. When watering facility is provided to a barren land, the value of this land gets appreciated.

Disadvantages of Irrigation:
1. Excessive seepage and leakage of water forms marshes and ponds all along the channels. The
marshes and the ponds in course of time become the colonies of the mosquito, which gives
rise to a disease like malaria.
2. Excessive seepage into the ground raises the water-table and this in turn completely saturates
the crop root-zone. It causes waterlogging of that area.
3. It lowers the temperature and makes the locality damp due to the presence of irrigation water.
4. Under irrigation canal system valuable residential and industrial land is lost.
5. Initial cost of irrigation project is very high and thereby the cultivators have to pay more taxes
in the form of levy.
6. Irrigation works become obstacles in the way of free drainage of water during rainy season
41
 and thus results in submerging standing crops and even villages.

Sources and Types of Impurities in Irrigation Water

• Storage Tanks
May contain gasoline, oil, chemicals, or other types of liquids and they can either be
above or below ground.
• Septic Systems
On site wastewater disposal systems used by homes, offices or other buildings that are
not connected to a city sewer system. Septic systems are designed to slowly drain away
human waste underground at a slow, harmless rate. An improperly designed, located,
constructed, or maintained septic system can leak bacteria, viruses, household chemicals,
and other contaminants into the groundwater causing serious problems.
• Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste
Hazardous waste sites can lead to groundwater contamination if there are barrels or other
containers laying around that are full of hazardous materials. If there is a leak, these
contaminants can eventually make their way down through the soil and into the
groundwater.
• Landfills
Landfills are the places that our garbage is taken to be buried. Landfills are supposed to
have a protective bottom layer to prevent contaminants from getting into the water.
However, if there is no layer or it is cracked, contaminants from the landfill (car battery
acid, paint, household cleaners, etc.) can make their way down into the groundwater.
• Chemicals and Road Salts
The widespread use of chemicals and road salts is another source of potential
groundwater contamination. Chemicals include products used on lawns and farm fields to
kill weeds and insects and to fertilize plants, and other products used in homes and
businesses. When it rains, these chemicals can seep into the ground and eventually into
the water. Road salts are used in the wintertime to put melt ice on roads to keep cars from
sliding around. When the ice melts, the salt gets washed off the roads and eventually ends
up in the water.
• Atmospheric Contaminants
Since groundwater is part of the hydrologic cycle, contaminants in other parts of the
cycle, such as the atmosphere or bodies of surface water, can eventually be transferred
into our groundwater supplies.
• Biological Impurities
Biological impurities in water are caused by the presence of living organisms. These
include algae, protozoa, pathogens, bacteria, viruses, microbes, and parasites along with
their cysts (eggs) in contaminated water. The latter are simply called germs,
microorganisms that can reproduce at alarming rates..
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 • Colloidal Impurities
Colloidal impurities in water include organic waste products and amino acids. This
problem occurs due to contact with suspended matter and elements like sand, rocks and
organic matter flowing in rivers, streams and lakes that renders water undrinkable or non-
pure.

DRAINAGE

Drainage is the removal of excess surface or groundwater from any area, naturally or by virtue of
man-made surface or sub-surface conduits. A drainage system is necessary to remove excess
water from the irrigated land. This excess water may be waste water from irrigation or surface
runoff from rainfall. It may also include leakage or seepage water from the distribution
system. Excess surface water is removed through shallow open drains while excess groundwater
is removed through deep open drains or underground pipes.

Importance of Drainage in Agricultural Land

1. Adequate drainage improves soil structure, increases and prolongs soil productivity.
2. Waterlogged saline and alkaline lands can be reclaimed.
3. Suitable and adequate drainage lead to early ploughing and planting.
4. It reduces water table which in turns: (a) increases soil temperature (b) increases soil aeration
(c) make food available to plant at the root zones (d) favours soil bacteria growth and water
5. It lengthens the crop growing season.
6. Drainage decreases soil erosion and gullying by increasing water infiltration into the soil
7. It helps in leaching out salts.
8. It helps in reducing machinery cost. The cost of using machinery in wet soil is high in terms of
fuel and maintenance.
9. Drainage increases land values.
10. Timeliness is increase. Operations are done on time.
11. Crops yields are increased.
12. Drainage helps in reducing environmental pollution and health risks resulting from stagnant
water.

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Surface Drainage System

Surface drainage - is the orderly removal of excess water from the surface of land through
improved natural channels or constructed ditches and through shaping of the land surface.
Surface drainage systems, when properly planned, eliminate ponding, prevent prolonged
saturation and accelerate flow to an outlet without siltation or erosion of soil.

Surface drainage system is comparatively simple to plan, design and construct and is usually
rather inexpensive. All possible excess water from all sources should be removed before it
percolated to the groundwater table and create or intensify a more expensive subsurface drainage
problem. The various conditions which cause surface drainage problems are:
• Uneven land surface with pockets or ridges which prevent or retard natural runoff. Slowly
permeable soils magnify the problem,
• Low-capacity disposal channels within the area which remove water so slowly that the high
water level in the channels causes ponding on the land for damaging period.
• Outlet conditions which hold the water surface above ground level such as tide water
elevation.

The traditional drainage systems on heavy clay soil are surface drainage. Soils also need surface
drains under any of the following situations:
• A hard pan or tight layer exists in the upper zone,
• The subsoil within a depth of 100 cm remains dry even after an extended rainy period, and
• In tropical and subtropical area which receives high intense rainfall and where the soil is
heavy and slow permeable

Surface drainage
Surface drainage is often achieved by land forming and smoothing to remove isolated
depressions, or by constructing parallel ditches. Ditches and furrow bottoms are gently graded
and discharge into main drains at the field boundary. Although the ditches or furrows are
intended primarily to convey excess surface runoff, there is some seepage through the soil to the
44
ditches, depending on the water table position. This could be regarded as a form of shallow
subsurface drainage. Surface drainage is especially important in humid regions on flat lands with
limited hydraulic gradients to nearby rivers or other disposal points.

Subsurface drainage
Subsurface drainage is the removal of excess water and dissolved salts from soils via
groundwater flow to the drains, so that the water table and rootzone salinity are controlled.

Sub-surface drainage
Subsurface drainage aims at controlling the water table - a control that can be achieved by:
• open drains, or
• subsurface drains - pipe drains or mole drains
• tube well drainage,
Surface drainage alone is seldom sufficient to remove excess water from the crop root zone.
Deep ditches or subsurface pipe drainage systems enable a more rapid water table drawdown.
The downstream ends of the laterals are normally connected to a collector drain. The required
diameter of the pipe collectors increases with the area drained. Drain spacing is usually
dependent on soil hydraulic conductivity and a design drainage rate coefficient. Depending on
topography, land formation and proximity of a water receiving body, the collector may outlet by
gravity to an open main drain or into a sump. In the latter case, the discharge is then pumped to
another drain, or ultimately to a lake or stream.

Buried and Open Ditch

In sub-surface drainage, the field drains could be pipes or deep ditches. Pipes are often called
buried or covered drains. The drains are installed well below the main rootzone.

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PIPES
These are the underground conduits used to drain water from the sub-soil level. They could be
clay tile, concrete or plastic.

• Clay-tile pipe: standard sizes vary between countries, but the common pipe sections are
30cm long and have internal diameters of 5, 6.5, 8, 10-20 cm. The clay tile is resistant to
deterioration in aggressive soil conditions. Pipes sections are adjoined against each other
and water enters through the joints because of the imperfect fit between the ends of the
pipe sections.

• Concrete pipe: it is often of medium to large size with diameters of 15-20cm or more
and section lengths of 30cm for small diameter pipe and up to 50cm for large diameter.
The water entry into the pipe occurs through the joints. The pipe is made with ordinary
(Portland) cement and it can easily deteriorate in acidic or salt affected soils (especially
sulphates), hence special resistant cement should be used.

• Plastic pipe: is made from PE (polyethylene) or PVC (poly vinyl chloride). PVC is the
common type (higher bearing capacity, lower costs). Quite very durable, but subject to
deterioration by long exposure to the ultra-violent radiation of sunlight. PVC becomes
brittle with freezing temperature and can easily fractures. Most plastic drain pipe are
made as corrugated pipe with either spiral or parallel corrugations. Pipes with
corrugations have the advantage that with partial blockage of perforations or the drain
envelope, water can flow more easily via the spiral corrugations to non-blocked sections.
The pipes are perforated as shown below.

Envelopes

An envelope is a porous material placed around a perforated pipe drain to perform one or all of
these functions.

Filter function: to provide mechanical support or restraint of the soil, at the drain interface with
the soil, to prevent or limit soil particles movement into the drain pipe where they might clog the
pipe.

Hydraulic function: to provide a porous medium of relatively high permeability around the pipe
to reduce entrance resistance at or near the drain openings.

46
Mechanical function: to provide a passive mechanical support to the pipe in order to prevent
excess deflection and damage to the pipe due to soil load.

Bedding function: to provide a stable base to support the pipe in order to prevent vertical
displacement due to soil load during and after construction.

OPEN DITCH
The ditches must be rather deep so that they could reach well below the depth at which the water
table is to be maintained (1.0-1.5m below soil surface). The ditches normally have a trapezoidal
section with side slopes varying from 1:1 to 1:2 depending on the soil conditions. An open ditch
is an uncovered long narrow channel dug in the ground for the purpose of draining water from
the land.

Considerations for Selecting Pipe Drains and Open Ditch

Surface water: ditches could also collect excess surface water, a function which pipe drains are
only incidentally able to perform.

Land loss: ditches entail loss of land up to 10% (when normally spaced and constructed with
gentle side slope). Whereas there’s no loss in case of pipe drainage.

Hindrance to field considerations: ditches restrict machine maneuverability resulting in higher

farm costs compared to pipe drainage.

Maintenance: ditches require frequent maintenance (many times in a year, but once every few
years for pipe drains). Practically, maintenance is not done or frequently fails to meet required
standards, resulting in poor performance of many ditches.

Installation: pipe drains can be installed by machine under good grade for a good discharge
performance. While machines are not available for ditch construction

Soil conditions: may favour or prevent use of ditches or pipe drains (caving in for ditches,
clogging of pipes by iron compounds etc).

Pipe drain is preferable because of these following:

(a) better drainage due to better installation,

(b) trouble free functioning,
(c) not hindering farm operations.

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Open ditch is also preferred because:

(a) when the land requires both surface and sub-surface drainage, especially a very large expanse
of land,
(b) if ditches could not severely hinder farm operations, especially when ditches are widely
spaced, where land is cultivated for perennial crops or where farm operations are mostly done
manually,
(c) the standard of drainage required is not high especially in many grassland areas,
(d) cost advantages overshadow all disadvantage,
(e) when the soil is peat, it can clog the pipe.

Agricultural Drainage Water Management

The management entails:
• Source control: on-farm improvements in irrigation to reduce the amount of applied
water, therefore reducing drainage water.
• Drainage reuse: reusing drainage water to irrigate increasingly salt-tolerant plants such as
cotton, eucalyptus, forage crops, etc.
• Evaporation systems: disposing of residual drainage water in evaporation ponds.
• Land retirement: fallowing farmland that overlies difficult-to-drain, shallow groundwater
containing high levels of selenium— controversial and complex issue.
• Protection, restoration and water supplies for fish and wildlife habitat: providing fresh
water to substitute for drainage-contaminated supplies, protecting and restoring
contaminated fisheries and wildlife habitat.
• Disposal to natural hydrological systems like rivers, lakes, estuaries, bays and oceans

FLOOD CONTROL

During times of rain or snow, some of the water is retained in ponds or soil, some is absorbed by
grass and vegetation, some evaporates, and the rest travels over the land as surface runoff. Floods
occur when ponds, lakes, riverbeds, soil, and vegetation cannot absorb all the water. Water then
runs off the land in quantities that cannot be carried within stream channels or retained in natural
ponds, lakes, and man-made reservoirs.

Causes of Floods
Floods are caused by many factors like:
• heavy precipitation,
• severe winds over water,
• unusual high tides, tsunamis, or
• failure of dams, levels, retention ponds, or other structures that contained the water.
48
Flood control refers to all methods used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood.
Some of the common techniques used for flood control are installation of rock berms, rock rip-
raps, sandbags, maintaining normal slopes with vegetation or application of soil cements on
steeper slopes and construction or expansion of drainage channels. Other methods include levees,
dikes, dams, retention or detention basins. After the Katrina Disaster that happened in 2005,
some areas prefer not to have levees as flood controls. Communities preferred improvement of
drainage structures with detention basins near the sites.

Effects of Floods

Flooding has many impacts.

• It damages property and endangers the lives of humans and other species.
• Rapid water runoff causes soil erosion and concomitant sediment deposition elsewhere.
• The spawning grounds for fish and other wildlife habitats can become polluted or
completely destroyed.
• Some prolonged high floods can delay traffic in areas which lack elevated roadways.
• Floods can interfere with drainage and economic use of lands, such as interfering with
farming. Structural damage can occur in bridge abutments, bank lines, sewer lines, and
other structures within floodways.
• Waterway navigation and hydroelectric power are often impaired.
• Financial losses due to floods are typically millions of dollars each year.

Methods of Control
Diversion canals
Floods can be controlled by redirecting excess water to purpose-built canals or floodways, which
in turn divert the water to temporary holding ponds or other bodies of water where there is a
lower risk or impact to flooding.

Floodplains and groundwater replenishment

Excess water can be used for groundwater replenishment by diversion onto land that can absorb
the water. This technique can reduce the impact of later droughts by using the ground as a natural
reservoir.

River defenses
Defenses such as levees, bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are used to prevent rivers from bursting
their banks.

Coastal defenses
Coastal flooding has been addressed with coastal defenses, such as sea walls, beach nourishment,
and barrier islands. Tide gates are used in conjunction with dykes and culverts. They close
during incoming tides to prevent tidal waters from moving upland, and open during outgoing
49
tides to allow waters to drain out via the culvert and into the estuary side of the dike. The
opening and closing of the gates is driven by a difference in water level on either side of the gate.

Self-closing flood barrier

The self-closing flood barrier (SCFB) is a flood defense system designed to protect people and
property from inland waterway floods caused by heavy rainfall, gales or rapid melting snow. The
SCFB can be built to protect residential properties and whole communities, as well as industrial
or other strategic areas. The barrier system is constantly ready to deploy in a flood situation, it
can be installed in any length and uses the rising flood water to deploy.

Temporary perimeter barriers

When permanent defenses fail, emergency measures such as sandbags or inflatable impermeable
sacks are used.

Strategic retreat
One way of reducing the damage caused by flooding is to remove buildings from flood-prone
areas, leaving them as parks or returning them to wilderness. .

Resilience
Buildings and other urban infrastructure can be designed so that even if a flood does happen, the
city can recover quickly and costs are minimized. For example, homes can be put on stilts,
electrical and equipment can be put on the roof instead of in the basement, and subway entrances
and tunnels can have built-in movable water barriers.

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