UNIT II

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

What is Number System in Maths?

A number system is defined as a system of writing to express numbers. It is the
mathematical notation for representing numbers of a given set by using digits or other symbols in
a consistent manner. It provides a unique representation of every number and represents the
arithmetic and algebraic structure of the figures. It also allows us to operate arithmetic operations
like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

The value of any digit in a number can be determined by:

 The digit
 Its position in the number
 The base of the number system

Before discussing the different types of number system examples, first, let us discuss what is a
number?

What is a Number?
A number is a mathematical value used for counting or measuring or labelling objects. Numbers
are used to performing arithmetic calculations. Examples of numbers are natural numbers,
whole numbers, rational and irrational numbers, etc. 0 is also a number that represents a null
value.

A number has many other variations such as even and odd numbers, prime and composite
numbers. Even and odd terms are used when a number is divisible by 2 or not, whereas prime
and composite differentiate between the numbers that have only two factors and more than two
factors, respectively.
Types of Number Systems
There are various types of number systems in mathematics. The four most common number
system types are:

1. Decimal number system (Base- 10)

2. Binary number system (Base- 2)
3. Octal number system (Base-8)
4. Hexadecimal number system (Base- 16)

Now, let us discuss the different types of number systems with examples.

Decimal Number System (Base 10 Number System)

The decimal number system has a base of 10 because it uses ten digits from 0 to 9. In the
decimal number system, the positions successive to the left of the decimal point represent units,
tens, hundreds, thousands and so on. This system is expressed in decimal numbers. Every
position shows a particular power of the base (10).

Example of Decimal Number System:

The decimal number 1457 consists of the digit 7 in the units position, 5 in the tens place, 4 in the
hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands place whose value can be written as:

(1×103) + (4×102) + (5×101) + (7×100)

(1×1000) + (4×100) + (5×10) + (7×1)

1000 + 400 + 50 + 7

1457

Binary Number System (Base 2 Number System)

The base 2 number system is also known as the Binary number system wherein, only two binary
digits exist, i.e., 0 and 1. Specifically, the usual base-2 is a radix of 2. The figures described
under this system are known as binary numbers which are the combination of 0 and 1. For
example, 110101 is a binary number.

We can convert any system into binary and vice versa.

Example

Write (14)10 as a binary number.

Solution:

Base 2 Number System Example

∴ (14)10 = 11102

Zero – Introduction
Have you ever wondered what the definition of zero is in math?

Zero is the number that represents no amount or no objects. The numbers 1, 2, 3, and
onwards are called natural numbers. Zero and the natural numbers together are
called whole numbers. Zero is represented by the symbol “0.”

If you’re wondering what is zero in math, you might also be wondering, is zero a
real number in math?

Yes! Zero is a real number because it is an integer. Integers include all negative
numbers, positive numbers, and zero. Real numbers include integers as well as
fractions and decimals.

Zero also represents the absence of any negative or positive amount. For example, if
you have 3 oranges and add zero oranges to that, you still have 3 oranges.
Another name for zero in math is thus “null,” as it represents the absence of any
number.

History of Zero
 The Mayans used zero between numbers to express time periods and denote the
dates of the calendar.
 The Indians were the first to use zero like any number and gave the zero
meaning in math. For this reason, the concept of zero in math is considered
to have originated in India.
 The Arabians adopted zero as a number to represent emptiness as well as
infinity.

What Are the Properties of Zero?

 Zero also has certain special properties that make it unique. These properties
help define what zero is in math.
 Each property of zero tells us how it interacts with other numbers through
operations like addition, subtraction, division, or multiplication. Let’s
understand how these properties work in operations with zero!

 The English word “zero” is originally derived from the Hindi “sunyata”, which
means nothingness and is a central concept in Buddhism.

 Brahmagupta, the Indian mathematician and astronomer, first defined the number
zero and its operations and developed a symbol for it.
The ancient Mayans independently developed zero in their number system in
Central America.

 As the placeholder, zero was independently invented in civilisations throughout

the globe.
The Arabs were the harbingers of Zero in the Middle East. From there, the zero
began its eventful journey to Europe. This number in the 1200s enamoured the
mind of the mathematician Fibonacci, and he popularised the “Arabic” numeral
system we all use today.

The importance of zero is evident when we realise that this concept improved the
computation method and equipped mathematicians in historical times to handle more
complicated problems. As a result, they could study numbers’ general properties and
further develop maths.

The requirement of zero in maths is significant as the additive identity of the integers and
real numbers. Zero also plays a critical role in algebraic structures. As a digit, zero is
important as a placeholder in the place value system.

 Necessary for fractions

The importance of zero in Maths is also realised through fractions. We wouldn’t be
learning fractions in school if it wasn’t for zero. Furthermore, the engrossing zero created
a more accurate way to describe fractions. For example, we now know that adding zeros
at the end of a number increases its value and impact, whereas with the help of a decimal
point, adding zeros at the beginning of a number decreases its magnitude.

 Set the boundary

How could we possibly have negative numbers if it wasn’t for 0? Confused? See, zero is
neither a positive nor a negative integer. It sets the boundary between positive and
negative numbers. That is why many scales have zero as their starting number. Zero helps
us understand and explain concepts that do not have physical forms!

 Providing appropriate weights to the digits

The number zero is used as a placeholder in the place value system. For example, two
zeros before a number indicate a hundred position, while a single zero before a digit
indicates a tens position.

TIME
Time is represented by numbers, names, or periods such as hours, weeks, days, and years.
Time is a non-spatial continuum that is an abstract measurement of elemental changes. Within
this non-spatial continuum, it is an irreversible chain of events. It’s also used to indicate the
distance between two places on this continuum. The only thing visible to us is a watch with an
arrow indicating the hours, minutes, and seconds.

MEASUREMENT OF TIME
A clock is required to measure any time. We currently employ an atomic time standard based on
periodic vibrations produced in the caesium atom. This is the foundation of the caesium clock,
also known as an atomic clock, which is utilised by national standards. Many laboratories have
such standards on hand. The pace of this caesium atomic clock is controlled by the vibrations of
the caesium atom, just as the vibrations of a balance wheel controls the rate of an ordinary
wristwatch or the vibrations of a tiny quartz crystal

MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE

Measurements of length and distance are done in many ways. Did you know that you can use the
average human body to measure? For example, the foot (literally the length measurement of an
average human foot) is around 25 – 30 cm. This unit of measurement is still in use nowadays.
We also use units like inches and yards which are still in use but they are not the standard
units of length measurements.

What Is Distance?
Distance is defined as the product of speed and time and it can be represented as follows:

Where,

 d is the distance travelled in m

 t is the time taken to cover the distance in s
 s is the speed in m.s-1

Metric Units of Distance

Most commonly used units of measurement of length are:

 Millimetre
 Centimetre
 Metre
 Kilometre

Following is the table explaining the relationship between all these units:
Abbreviation Full form Equivalent

10mm = 1cm
mm millimetre
1000mm = 1m

cm centimetre 100cm = 1m

m metre 1000m = 1km

km kilometre 1000m = 1km

controls the rate of a quartz wristwatch.

What is Weight Measurement?

Weight determines how heavy an object or quantity of a substance is. A body
with more weight is considered heavy, like an elephant or a bus. On the other hand, a
body of less weight is called light. A feather, a leaf, and a bubble are all light
in weight. We can also compare two or more objects and determine which is heavier
or lighter.

For instance, the adult dog in the picture is heavier in terms of weight. And the cute
little puppy is lighter.
We have different weighing machines or scales to determine the weights of different
things. The weight of an object can be measured using different types of weighing
scales. A scale or balance is a device used to measure weight or mass. These are also
known as mass scales, weight measurement scales, mass balances,
and weight balances.
Units of Weight Measurement
Metric Units of Weight Measurement

Using instruments, the gram (g) and kilogram (kg) measure how heavy an object is.
The International System of Units (SI) is the metric system used universally as a
standard for measurements. The SI unit of mass (or weight) is the kilogram (kg).
When we buy groceries, they are measured in weight units such as grams and
kilograms.

Gram: A gram is a metric unit of mass (or weight). It is abbreviated as g.

1,000 grams =1 kilogram

Kilogram: A kilogram is a measure of mass (or weight). It is abbreviated as kg.

1 kg = 1000 grams

ELEMENTS OF THE PANCHANGA:

The word "Panchang" is derived from Sanskrit, where "Pancha" ..
Thus, Panchang translates to "five limbs" or components, each providing crucial astrological information.
The five main components are Tithi, Vara, Nakshatra, Yoga, and Karana. Together, these elements offer
insights into the auspiciousness of specific days and times.
1.Tithi (Lunar Day)
Tithi is one of the most critical elements of the Panchang. It represents the lunar day and
is the time taken for the longitudinal angle between the Moon and the Sun to increase by 12
degrees. There are 30 Tithis in a lunar month, divided into two phases: Shukla Paksha (waxing
moon) and Krishna Paksha (waning moon). Each Tithi has its significance and is associated with
specific deities and rituals.
2. Vara (weekday)
Vara refers to the days of the week. Each day is ruled by a different planet and deity,influencing
day’s nature and syitability for various activities. The days are Ravivara ( Sunday), Somvara
(Monday), Mangalvara (Tuesday), Budhavara (Wednesday), Guruvara(Thursday),
Shukravara(Friday), Shanivara(Saturday). for example Monday is ruled by moon or god shiva,
making a day favourable activities requiring emotional strength and nurturing.

3. Nakshatra (Lunar Mansion):

Nakshatra refers to the lunar mansion and represents the position of the Moon in the sky
relative to the fixed stars. There are 27 Nakshatras, each spanning 13°20' of the ecliptic.
Nakshatras play a crucial role in astrology and are used for determining auspicious timings for
various activities, such as marriages and travel.
4. Yoga (Conjunction):
Yoga represents the union or conjunction between the Sun and the Moon and is based on
specific combinations of their longitudes. There are 27 Yogas, each associated with different
qualities and effects. Yogas are used in astrology for determining auspicious and inauspicious
times for various activities and events.
5. Karana (Half-day):
Karana refers to the half-day and is based on specific combinations of Tithis. There are
11 Karanas, each lasting for a varying duration. Karanas are used in Hindu astrology for
determining auspicious timings for various activities, such as starting a journey or initiating a
business venture.
The Panchanga is rich in cultural, astronomical, and religious significance, with several
interesting aspects

6. Lunar and Solar Calendars:

Panchangas often combine both lunar and solar elements. For example, the Hindu calendar is
lunisolar, meaning it's based on the phases of the moon as well as the position of the sun. This
dual system results in a complex interplay of lunar months and solar years.

Town Planning And Architecture:

Town planning is the process of managing land resources. It involves the control of existing and
new developments, as well as strategy preparation to ensure manage future requirements. It is a dynamic process
that changes in response to policy, development proposals and local needs.
The fundamental process of planning, designing, constructing structures or buildings is known as architecture. It is
sometimes referred to as an art because a piece of construction eventually becomes a part of the cultural heritage.

1. Strategic Urban Planning:

Strategic Urban Planning focuses on setting high-level goals and determining desired
areas of growth for a city or metropolitan area. The strategic plan’s goals may include easing
transportation throughout the city, creating more community spaces, improving citizens’ quality
of life, or encouraging people to visit or move to the city.

2. Land-Use Planning

Land-Use Planning concerns legislation and policy, adopting planning instruments like
governmental statutes, regulations, rules, codes, and policies to influence land use. These
planning instruments deal with the type, location, and amount of land needed to carry out
different functions of the city.
3. Master Planning

Typically used for greenfield development projects, or building on undeveloped land. Urban
planners must consider the required zoning and infrastructure to make the project possible, such as
residential and commercial land, transportation considerations, road locations, etc.

4. Urban Revitalization

Focuses on improving areas that are in a state of decline. The improvement tactics city
leaders use for revitalization may include things like repairing roads, developing infrastructure,
cleaning up pollution, and adding to parks and other public spaces.

5. Economic Development

Identifying areas of growth to foster greater financial prosperity within the city by
enticing companies to build or move offices there. This, in turn, drives economic activity and
boosts local businesses.

6. Environmental Planning

Emphasizes sustainability, addressing air pollution, noise pollution, wetlands, habitats of

endangered species, flood zone susceptibility, and coastal zone erosion, along with other
environmental factors.

AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF TOWN PLANNING

• to create and promote healthy conditions and environments for all the • social, economic,
cultural and recreational amenities etc • To preserve the individuality of the town • To preserve
the aesthetics in people – • to make right use of the land for the right purpose by zoning etc. •
Recreational amenities - open spaces, parks, gardens & playgrounds, town halls stadiums
community • To preserve the aesthetics in the design of all elements of town or city plan, by
zoning • to ensure orderly development • to avoid encroachment of one zone over the other
stadiums, community centers, cinema houses, and theatres.
Architecture:
Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the
skills associated with construction. [3] It is both the process and the product of sketching,
conceiving,[4] planning, designing, and constructing buildings or other structures.[5] The term
comes from Latin architectura; from Ancient Greek ἀρχιτέκτων (arkhitéktōn) 'architect';
from ἀρχι- (arkhi-) 'chief' and τέκτων (téktōn) 'creator'. Architectural works, in the material form
of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art.
Historical civilisations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements.

ASIAN ARCHITECTURE

Indian architecture: The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India), c. 1030

Chinese architecture: The Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, the main building of the Temple of
Heaven (Beijing, China), 1703–1790
 

Japanese architecture: The Himeji Castle (Himeji, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan), 1609

Khmer architecture: The Bakong (near Siem Reap, Cambodia), completed in 881
Asian architecture developed differently compared to Europe, and
the Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architectural styles have different characteristics.
Unlike Indian and Chinese architecture, which had great influence on the surrounding
regions, Japanese architecture did not. Some Asian architecture showed great regional diversity,
in particular Buddhist architecture. Moreover, other architectural achievements in Asia is
the Hindu temple architecture, which developed from around the 5th century CE, is in theory
governed by concepts laid down in the Shastras, and is concerned with expressing the
macrocosm and the microcosm.

ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

Moorish architecture: Grand arches of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba (Córdoba, Spain)

 

Persian architecture: The Jameh Mosque in Isfahan (Iran)

Mughal architecture: The Taj Mahal in Agra (India)

Ottoman architecture: The interior side view of the main dome of the Selimiye
Mosque in Edirne (Turkey)
Islamic architecture began in the 7th century, incorporating architectural forms from the
ancient Middle East and Byzantium, but also developing features to suit the religious and social
needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, Turkey, North Africa,
the Indian Sub-continent and in parts of Europe, such as Spain,
Irrigation and Water Management :
Irrigation management refers to a set of technical decisions involving the characteristics
of the crop, climate, water, soil, and irrigation system. The adequate management of irrigation,
associated with the other cultivation techniques, allows the producer to reach elevated
productivity levels, saving water and energy, besides contributing to the preservation of the
environment.
Well-conducted management consists of defining the adequate moment to start irrigation and of
determining the necessary amount of water for the crop, utilizing knowledge for the time of
water application or the displacement speed of the irrigation equipment.
To irrigate sugarcane efficiently, it is necessary to know some parameters related to the soil,
climate, water, plant, and irrigation system which will allow quantification of the water which
must be applied.
Irrigation management involves fulfilling the water requirement of crops through the
management of time and water application without wasting any water, soil, plant nutrients, or
energy. Time and again newer methods of irrigation have been introduced to reduced flood
irrigation (Dolci, 2017). Currently, drip irrigation with embedded systems is the most
prominently used in precision agriculture where water usage is reduced by exploiting parameters
such as soil, pest, wind speed, solar radiation, humidity, plant density among others. Devices
such as fertility meter and pH meter are installed in the field to evaluate soil fertility via
evaluation of primary ingredients of soil such as potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Besides,
automated farm irrigators and microcontroller controls drip irrigation through irrigator pumps
and wireless technology. Moreover, machine-to-machine technology (M2M) is being developed
for communication and data sharing amongst each other via cloud or main network of
agricultural field. An AI-based robot is developed for estimation of moisture and temperature
with Arduino and raspberry pi3; and an AI-based strategy for estimation of drip tape irrigation
based on ANN, least-square support vector machine, neurofuzzy c-Means clustering (NF-FCM),
and neurofuzzy subclustering, are developed (Seyedzadeh et al., 2020; Shekhar et al., 2017).
Similarly, an automated irrigation system wherein output of cameras and different sensors are
used for detection of soil moisture, pressure, and temperature are shared over the network for
better irrigation management.

IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT
Irrigation management refers to a set of technical decisions involving the characteristics of the
crop, climate, water, soil, and irrigation system. The adequate management of irrigation,
associated with the other cultivation techniques, allows the producer to reach elevated
productivity levels, saving water and energy, besides contributing to the preservation of the
environment.
Well-conducted management consists of defining the adequate moment to start irrigation and of
determining the necessary amount of water for the crop, utilizing knowledge for the time of
water application or the displacement speed of the irrigation equipment.
To irrigate sugarcane efficiently, it is necessary to know some parameters related to the soil,
climate, water, plant, and irrigation system which will allow quantification of the water which
must be applied.
 objectives of irrigation If the rainfall in a region is in adequate amounts and well
distributed, you can
expect bumper crops, provided all other inputs are in order. Nevertheless, quite
often, one has to confront two situations regarding the availability of rainwater. The
 rst is a situation of too little rainwater as in arid and semi-arid regions. One has to
 face this situation during summer in humid and semi-humid regions as well. This
 situation can be tackled well by resorting to irrigation, the controlled application
 of water to soil for supplementing moisture indispensable for crop growth. The
 other is a situation of too much rainwater as in humid climates, where drainage. to supply
the water for the nutrition and growth of plant
 to hasten the decomposition of organic matter in the soil and to keep activity of the microbes at the
optimum level.
 to remove the stress condition of plants.
 to leach or wash out injurious salt form the soil.
 to maintain the temperature and humidity of the soil.
 to control the harmful soil insects.
 to reclaim fallow land and
 to bring soil condition for tillage.

The main goal of Watershed Management – sustainable management of natural resources

to improve the quality of living for the population – is to be accomplished by the
following objectives:

 supply and securing of clean and sufficient drinking water for the population;
 provision and securing of access to sanitation;
 improvement and restoration of soil quality and thus, raising productivity rates;
 reducing the impact of natural hazards (especially in the context of climate
change);
 improvement of the income of the population with
simultaneous regeneration of natural resources;
 improvement of infrastructure for storage, transport and agricultural marketing;
 improvement of physical health (supported by clean drinking water, access to
sanitation, improved nourishment);
 advancement of (environmental) education and self-help.
Important Parameters in Irrigation Management

The soil is a natural reservoir of water for plants. The water stored in the soil and
available to the plants is comprehended between the field capacity and the permanent wilting
point.
1. Field capacity
Field capacity (Cc) corresponds to the superior limit of available water and represents the
moisture of the soil after drainage of the water contained in the macropores by gravity action.
This moisture condition favors higher absorption of water and nutrients by the plants.
Usually, field capacity is determined in the laboratory, by the retention curve method. In this
method, the value of the field capacity moisture is represented by the balance moisture with
tension of 6–33 kPa, depending on the texture, structure and content of organic matter in the soil.
2. Permanent wilting point
The permanent wilting point (Pm) corresponds to the inferior limit of available water. This
moisture condition severely restricts the absorption of water by the plants, which will die if there
is no replacement of the water in the soil.
In general, the permanent wilting point is also determined in the laboratory, by the retention
curve method. In this method, the moisture value of the wilting point is represented by the
balance moisture with tension

3. Soil density
Soil density is the relation between the mass and the volume of a dry soil sample. In its
determination, an Uhland Sampler can be used, whose cylinder is inserted in the soil, in the
medium depth of the soil layer which is explored by the roots of the plants. After the removal of
the cylinder, the sample is prepared and taken to the oven to dry for 24 h, at an approximate
temperature of 105°C, to determine its mass. The volume is determined with the use of the
diameter and height values of the soil sample.

4. Effective depth of the root system

The effective depth of the root system (Z) is the one where at least 80% of the roots of the plants
concentrate. Its value varies according to the crop and its development stage, the type of soil, and
its management, besides the management of the irrigation itself. For example, the irrigated
sugarcane crop, the following values of effective depth of roots can be used: stage I – 15 cm,
stage II – 27 cm, and stage III – 40 cm.

5. Factor of water availability in soil

If moisture is in the field capacity, with the occurrence of evapotranspiration, the level of water
in the soil decreases, making each time more difficult for the absorption of water and nutrients
by the plants. In irrigation, the content of water in the soil must not be allowed to reach the
permanent wilting point. In this way, in adequate irrigation management, a moisture limit must
be considered, the value of which is between the field capacity and the permanent wilting point.
Dyes and painting technologies :

In the early times the colouring materials were extracted from natural sources like plants and
insects. Now a days thousands of such substances are synthesised in factories on a large scale. Dyes are
the organic compounds that are used to impart colour to textiles, foodstuffs, silk, wool and other objects.
Dyes are capable of getting fixed to the fabrics/objects permanently and are resistant to the action of
water, soap, light, acid, and alkalies.

What is Color?

Color is one of the elements of nature that made the human living more aesthetic and fascinating
in the world. They are supposed to be associated with emotions, human qualities, seasons, festivals and
passion in our life. In the past, at dawn of the civilization, the people tried to ornament their surroundings
similar to that of natural colors observed in the plant, soil, sky and other sources. This gave birth to a new
science of colors from natural origin.

How old is the art of dyeing?

The art of dyeing was as old as human civilization. From the historical records, it is learnt that
natural colorants were available to people during Greco‐Roman periods. Our Vedas, the Atharveda carries
description of natural dyes. The use of natural dyeing materials is evident with the wall paintings of
Ajanta, Ellora and Sithannvasal and they still demonstrate the efficacy of dyeing craft that had been
inherited from ancient times in India.

Natural Dyes from Plants

1. Indigo for Shades of Blue

Indigo, also known as Nili, has a rich history in India that spans from the Bronze Age to the
British Raj. Traces of indigo dye have been found in textiles preserved in Egyptian tombs dating
back to the late Bronze Age, indicating its ancient use. The blue dye from indigo is extracted
through a detailed process involving the fermentation of the indigo plant's leaves, typically
Indigofera tinctoria.
The green leaves are soaked in water to ferment, releasing the dye precursor indican, which is
then converted to indoxyl through bacterial action. This indoxyl is exposed to air during vigorous
stirring or beating, oxidising it into the insoluble blue dye indigo. The blue particles then
precipitate and settle at the bottom of the vat. The precipitate is collected, dried, and formed into
cakes or powder for use in dyeing fabrics, producing a vibrant and durable blue colour that is
historically valued across many cultures.

2. Haritaki and Khair for Black

Black dyes in ancient India were commonly made from haritaki and khair. Haritaki, a
fruit from the Terminalia chebula tree, was valued for its deep, rich colour. Khair, derived from
the Acacia catechu tree, was another important source of black dye

3. Manjistha.

The dye from manjistha (madder) is obtained by harvesting the roots of the Rubia cordifolia
plant. These roots are dried, cleaned, and ground into a powder. The powder is then boiled in
water, allowing the red pigments, primarily alizarin, to dissolve into the solution. This dye bath
is then used to dye fabrics, often with the addition of a mordant such as alum to fix the dye to the
fabric and enhance the intensity of the red colour.

4. Haldi, Kusumba, Palash Flowers, and Pomegranate Rind for Yellow:

Turmeric root is commonly used to extract a bright yellow dye. The roots are
cleaned, dried, and ground into a fine powder, which is then boiled in water
to release the yellow pigment, curcumin. This solution can directly dye
fabrics, particularly cotton and silk, without needing a mordant due to its
natural binding properties.

Kusumba (Safflower):

Kusumba dye is extracted from the petals of the safflower plant. The petals
are harvested, dried, and then soaked in water to leach out the yellow and red
pigments. The water is typically kept slightly alkaline to better extract the
colours. The intensity of the yellow can be adjusted by the duration of the
soaking period and the use of mordants like alum, which can help fix the dye
to the fabric and brighten the shade.

Palash Flowers(Parrot Tree) :

Palash flowers are used to produce a yellow dye. The bright orange-red
flowers are collected, dried, and crushed into a powder. This powder is boiled
in water, releasing a yellow dye. To achieve a stronger and more vibrant dye,
the flowers can be pre-treated with alum. The dye from Palash flowers is
particularly popular in spring festivals in India, where it is used for colouring
fabrics and even in colour powders for Holi festival

5. Vegetable Dyes for Green:

Grass was the primary natural ingredient used in ancient times to obtain
green colour. Later, with the progress in vegetation, spinach and mint leaves
along with other vegetables were used to extract the colour and use them for
textiles.

Vastu Shastra

Originating in ancient India, Vastu Shastra (Sanskrit: वास्तु शास्त्र, vāstu śāstra – literally
"science of architecture"[2]) is a traditional Hindu system of architecture[3][4] based on ancient texts
that describe principles of design, layout, measurements, ground preparation, space arrangement,
and spatial geometry.[5] The designs aim to integrate architecture with nature, the relative
functions of various parts of the structure, and ancient beliefs utilising geometric patterns
(yantra), symmetry, and directional alignments.[6][7]

Vastu Shastra are the textual part of Vastu Vidya – the broader knowledge about architecture and
design theories from ancient India. [8] Vastu Vidya is a collection of ideas and concepts, with or
without the support of layout diagrams, that are not rigid. Rather, these ideas and concepts are
models for the organisation of space and form within a building or collection of buildings, based
on their functions in relation to each other, their usage and the overall fabric of the
Vastu.[8] Ancient Vastu Shastra principles include those for the design of Mandir (Hindu
temples)[9] and the principles for the design and layout of houses, towns, cities, gardens, roads,
water works, shops, and other public areas. [5][10][11] The Pandit or Architects of Vastu Shastra
are Sthapati, Sūtragrāhin(Sutradhar), Vardhaki, and Takṣhaka.

The Sanskrit word vāstu means a dwelling or house with a corresponding plot of
land.[14] The vrddhi, vāstu, takes the meaning of "the site or foundation of a house, site, ground,
building or dwelling-place, habitation, homestead, house". The underlying root is vas "to dwell,
live, stay, reside".[15] The term shastra may loosely be translated as "doctrine, teaching".Vāstu-
Śastras (literally, science of dwelling) are ancient Sanskrit manuals of architecture. These
contain Vastu-Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling

Vastu Shastra—an ancient Indian science of architecture and interiors—seamlessly integrates nature
with the built environment. Originating over 5,000 years ago, this traditional practice is deeply rooted
in Hindu and Buddhist traditions—reflecting the spiritual and cultural ethos of its time. Vastu Shastra
aims to harmonize human dwellings with cosmic forces, ensuring that buildings promote health,
prosperity, and happiness. Today, its enduring influence can be seen in various aspects of modern
architecture, interior design, and real estate—underscoring the timeless relevance of these ancient
principles.

Vastu Shastra emphasizes the balance of five fundamental elements—earth (prithvi), water (jal), fire
(agni), air (vayu), and space (akash)—within a building. Each element is believed to contribute to the
harmony and well-being of the inhabitants. Earth represents stability and is associated with the
southwest direction. Water symbolizes purity and flow, often linked with the northeast.

Fire, tied to the southeast, represents energy and transformation. Air, associated with the northwest,
denotes movement and freshness. Space, the central element, embodies the essence of the universe
and is considered omnipresent. By ensuring these elements are balanced and correctly positioned,
Vastu aims to create environments that promote health, prosperity, and happiness.

Amazing Stone Architecture of Temples in India:

Hindu temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, values and the way of
life cherished under Hinduism. The temple is a place for Tirtha—pilgrimage.[2] All the cosmic elements
that create and celebrate life in Hindu pantheon, are present in a Hindu temple—from fire to water, from
images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from kama to artha, from the fleeting
sounds and incense smells to Purusha—the eternal nothingness yet universality—is part of a Hindu
temple architecture.[2] The form and meanings of architectural elements in a Hindu temple are designed to
function as the place where it is the link between man and the divine, to help his progress to spiritual
knowledge and truth, his liberation it calls moksha.

The two major styles of temple architecture in the country are known as Nagara in the
north and Dravidian in the south. The third style, Vesara Style, is fusion of Nagara and Dravidian
style of architecture.
 Indian temples are masterpieces that represent the nation’s dedication to spirituality and artistry.
These temples showcase the intricate details and grandeur typical of Indian architecture design, each
reflecting the cultural and regional influences of its time. Indian palaces are architectural marvels that
embody the luxury and grandeur of India's regal past. These palaces combine traditional Indian design
with influences from various cultures, creating structures that are as diverse as they are magnificent.

Being world famous for its rich cultural heritage, India attracts a number of visitors every
time. This rich history is remarkably depicted through top ancient monuments and wonderful
temples. If you talk about the ancient structures of India, rock-cut temples and architectures are
the most prehistoric and amazing example of the same. These majestic rock-cut temples and
architectures are one of the must visit attractions for the travelers from India and abroad. In this
article, read about the popular rock-cut temples of India for a lifetime experience.

1. Brihadeeswarar Temple, Tamil Nadu

 Historical Significance: Built in the 11th century by Raja Raja Chola I, this temple is a prime example
of Chola dynasty architecture.
 Architectural Highlights: The temple’s vimana, or tower, stands at 66 meters, making it one of the
tallest in India.
 Materials and Craftsmanship: Constructed entirely of granite, it features intricate carvings of deities
and mythological scenes.
 Cultural Impact: Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, it continues to be a significant
spiritual center.

2. Konark Sun Temple, Odisha

 Unique Design: Shaped like a colossal chariot, this temple is dedicated to the Sun God, Surya.
 Historical Background: Built in the 13th century by King Narasimhadeva I, it reflects the Eastern
Ganga dynasty's architectural prowess.
 Architectural Elements: The temple is famous for its intricately carved wheels, pillars, and walls,
which align with the sun's rays at dawn.
 Cultural Significance: Another UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Konark Sun Temple remains a
major tourist attraction.

The Konark Sun Temple stands as a reminder to the ingenuity of Indian architectural design,
with its unique chariot shape and detailed carvings.

3. Kanheri Caves, Maharashtra

Kanheri Caves are also the group of caves and rock-cut monuments sliced into a huge basalt
projection in the Sanjay Gandhi National Park. These caves feature Buddhist sculptures along with relief
carvings, paintings and inscriptions dating back to the 1st century BCE to the 10th century CE. Kanheri
comes from the Sanskrit Krishnagiri, which means Black Mountain.
 4. The Pancha Rathas, Mahabalipuram
This Pancha Rathas Monumental Complex is home to several temples, rathas and other
historic monuments that have led it to be listed into UNESCO World Heritage Sites. This
complex has the most amazing rock-cut temple called the Pancha Rathas. The Pancha Rathas
features five monolith rock-cut temples, which are carved from a single stone. Each of these
Ratha is named after the Pandavas and Draupadi, including Draupadi Ratha, Arjuna Ratha,
Bhima Ratha, Nakula Sahadeva Ratha and Dharmaraja Ratha.

5. Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, Orissa

A blend of natural and artificial caves, Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in Orissa are known for their
archaeological, historical and religious significance. The caves are located on two nearby hills called
Udayagiri and Khandagir. Udayagiri has 18 caves and Khandagiri has 15 caves. Various religious
inscriptions are done on these caves.

Metals and Metal Working Technology:

Metalworking is the process of changing the shape of metal to fit the required application.
Metalworking techniques can alter the form, area, length, thickness, shape, and even the surface
finish of metal objects. The shaping can be done by force, temperature, or removing excess material
from the metal objects.
Traditionally, metalworking was done by professionals in dedicated workshops. However, the last
few decades saw many advancements in machining processes and technologies like CNC. This has
led to metalworking becoming an integrated part of modern assembly lines.

Differmt Types of Metal Woking Techniques:

Metal Cutting Processes

Metal-cutting processes divide metal sheets or blocks in multiple pieces by removing a small amount
of material from the cut location. Metal cutting processes also shape metal work pieces into the
desired object. The material removal can be done with force, friction, heat, or electricity. Here are
some of the metal-cutting techniques:
1. Milling
Milling is one of the common mechanical cutting techniques. It uses high-speed rotary cutting tool to
remove material from a workpiece. The workpiece is typically stationary. The cutting tools come in
various shapes to fulfill the required purpose. Common types are end mills, face mills, and thread
mills.
2. Turning
 Turning uses a non-rotary cutting tool working on a rotating workpiece. The workpiece for turning
processes usually has circular elements. The turning process inscribes a helical path on the
workpiece.
Applications of Turning Machine
 Turning machines are used to craft cylindrical components like automobile shafts, axles, and engine
parts.

 Turning machine tool can create turbine housing, holes, grooves, threads, and tapers

3. Grinding
Metal grinding uses rotary discs with an abrasive surface. The discs remove minimal material from
the workpiece to smooth the surface. Grinding is also done to make micro-adjustments to a
workpiece’s dimensions to make it fit into the required application.
Applications of Grinding
 Grinding is mainly used to remove irregularities from metal surfaces. It provides an aesthetically
pleasing appeal to the surface.

 Grinding can also remove unwanted finishes due to other metalworking processes. For instance,
welding causes burrs which can be removed by grinding.

4. Sawing
Sawing is more commonly used for wood but also applies to metalworking processes. Metal sawing
uses a blade with sharp, toothed edges. The blade is usually flexible and rotates quickly between two
wheels. There are many different configurations of metal saws, such as horizontal and vertical band
saws.
Application of Metal Sawing Machines
 Metal sawing is generally used for cutting down a large area of sheet metal into smaller sizes that are
easy to use and transport.

6. shaping (or planing)

Shaping and planing are two different metalworking tools with very similar principles. Shaping
consists of a cutting tool moving across a stationary workpiece. In planing, the workpiece is moved
along a stationary cutting tool. Either case uses a single-point cutting tool to accomplish the job.
Application of Shaping/Planing
 The most common application of planing and sawing is cutting flat surfaces.

 These machines can make inclined surfaces.

 7. Laser Cutting
Laser cutting technology uses high-energy sources of light for melting the metal. The melted
material is removed with airflow, which creates smooth and clean cuts. The width of the light beam
is very narrow. The accuracy of the process is very good due to the narrow beam.

Application of Laser Cutting

 Laser cutters can divide large metal sheets to manageable sizes.

 The scalability of laser cutting makes it usable in jewelry making.

8. Waterjet Cutting
Waterjet cutting is one of the most popular metalworking process. It uses the high force of water for
metal erosion and cutting. The water jet can be adjusted to any direction, making it usable for linear,
non-linear, and 3-dimensional cuts. Waterjet cutting does not have thickness limits for metal objects.
This provides it a huge edge over any other metalworking process.
Application of Waterjet Cutting
 Waterjet can cut thick sheet metal useful for bulk metal forming.

 Waterjet machining process is perfect for making surgical equipment and healthcare devices.

IRON AND STEEL IN INDIA

Tata Iron and Steel Company or TISCO is the first iron and steel manufacturing plant in
India which was founded and established by Jamsetji Tata and Dorabji Tata respectively
on 26th August 1907 at Jamshedpur, Jharkhand

India has a glorious history of steel production dating back to over 100 years. The first iron
and steel industry in India was started in 1907 in the city of Jamshedpur. Today, India is the
world’s 2nd largest producer of crude steel with per capital consumption of steel at 86.7 kgs in
2023. Let’s learn more about the first steel plant in India and steel production.

India’s iron and steel industry is the hallmark of its industrial development. The first iron and
steel industry in India was set up by TISCO – Tata Iron and Steel Company in Jamshedpur, marking
the beginning of a glorious era. Over a century later, the sector has burgeoned, contributing steadily to
nation building and national economy. In recent years, the demand for steel in India and worldwide has
soared, making India, the 2nd largest producer of crude steel in the world. Let us take a look at the
first steel plant in India and how modern companies continue to propel the industry forward, through
innovation and expansion.
 Birthplace of Indian steel – Jamshedpur
Nestled in the resource-rich state of Jharkhand, the city of Jamshedpur is strategically
located with easy access to essential raw materials like coal, iron ore and manganese – all
required for steel production
TISCO – the first steel plant in India
TISCO’s journey through Indian history
In 1911, TISCO started the production of pig iron and by 1912 it started steel
manufacturing – steel ingots being among the early produces.
In the following years, TISCO came into a joint venture with Burmah Shell to form TCIL. The
company today is known as Tata Tinplate with almost 70% market share in the country. (Source:
Wikipedia).
The company continued with its expansion plans after independence and by 1958, the plant had
the capacity to produce 2 million tonnes per annum.
Economic and Social impact
TISCO’s (modern Tata Steel Limited) impact on the economic and social landscape of
India goes beyond its initial years. The company has been instrumental in industrialisation of the
region and is continuing to mark India’s presence in the global landscape.
By 1970, the company emerged as a major employment generator. Almost 40,000 people were
employed by the company in Jamshedpur and many more in the nearby coal mines. By 2000s,
the company was producing 5MT steel annually, which soared to almost 20MT by 2020.

Innovation and technology adoption in the iron and steel

industry in India
Steel industry is transforming. Moving from traditional manufacturing methods, it
is now adopting new technologies for innovation.
 Environmental concern is making many steel manufacturers turn to green steel
manufacturing (i.e., using hydrogen-based steelmaking) to reduce waste, carbon
footprint, and promote sustainability.
 Manufacturing new steel alloys with additional properties (e.g., tensile strength,
lightweight, durable, etc.) are being studied and made, for a range of applications and
industry requirements. (E.g., Learn about TMX steel)
 Technology like 3D printing or additive manufacturing is enabling agile and aesthetic
design creation (prototype) reducing waste and enabling creation of better designs.