UNIT-IV

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

4.1 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

INTRODUCTION:

According to ODUM (1971), Pollution is “an undesirable change in the characteristics of air,
water and land that harmfully affect the life and also create health hazards for all living
organisms on the globe”.
According to SOUTHWICK (1976), Pollution can be defined as “the unfavorable (or)
alteration of environment caused by human activities and causing harm to human beings”.

TYPES OF POLLUTION:

Basically, the Pollution is of two types viz.,

(1) Natural Pollution: This type of pollution is limited in its occurrence generally from natural
hazards like volcanic eruptions, emissions of natural gas, soil erosion, ultraviolet rays, cosmic
rays etc and
(2) Manmade Pollution: Most of the pollution is man made only. However, Pollution is usually
categorized as Air Pollution; Water Pollution; Thermal Pollution; Noise Pollution; Land & soil
Pollution; Radio Active Pollution and Marine Pollution

4.1.1 AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution may be described as “the imbalance in quality of air so as to cause adverse effects
on the living organisms existing on earth”. Pollution is due to the presence of undesirable
substance of sufficient quantity which exists in environment.
The substance or energy which causes pollution is called pollutant.

Types of air pollutants:

Pollutants may be classified according to origin and state of matter.

a) According to Origin: Air pollutants are divided into two categories as primary & secondary.
1) Primary air pollutants are those which are emitted directly into the atmosphere.
Eg: C; CO; CO2; SOx ; N; S; H; NOx; CFC’s etc .
2) Secondary air pollutants are those which are produced in the air by the interaction
Among the primary air pollutants or by reaction with atmospheric constituents.
Eg: Ozone (O3); Smog; Para Acetyl Nitrate (PAN); Acid Rain; Aerosols.

b) According to State of Matter: Air pollutants include fine solids; liquids and gases. Dust,
Smoke, Fumes etc are examples for solid particles whereas fog is an example for liquid particles.
PRIMARY POLLUTANTS
1. Carbon Monoxide: It is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas that is produced by the incomplete
burning of carbon based fuels (coal, petrol, diesel and wood) which comes from the automobile
industries, exhaust devices, About 70% of CO emissions are from the transport sector.
When the air is polluted with CO, human blood is likely to be deprived of oxygen and leads to
coma and death. In mild dosages, it leads to headache.

2. Oxides of Sulphur: SO2 is a gas produced from burning of coal, mainly in thermal power
plants. Some industries such as paper mills produce SO2. It is injurious not only to men and plants,
but it also attacks rapidly a few rocks such as limestone, marbles, electric contacts etc. It can even
dissolve nylon.
Paper absorbs SO2 causing the paper to become brittle and fragile. SO2 polluted air leads to
corrosion of metals such as Fe, Zn, Cu, steel etc… SO2 is a major contributor to Smog and acid
rain.
Sulphur trioxideis more irritant than SO2 because it combines immediately with water to form
sulphuric acid.

3. Oxides of Nitrogen: Combustion of coal, oil, natural gas and gasoline which produces upto 50
ppm of Nitrogen. NOx are also produced when fossil fuels are burned especially in power plants
and motor vehicles. NO2poisoning results SILOFILTER disease. High levels of NO2 exposure
causes cough and make the human beings feel short of breath. People who are exposed to NO2
for a long time have a higher chance of getting respiratory infections.
NOx compounds contribute for the formation of Ozone. Similarly, when nitrogen oxide when
combine with SOx to form acid rain.

4. Chloro Fluoro Carbons: CFC’s (also known as Freon) are non- toxic. They contain Carbon,
Fluorine and Chlorine atoms.The five main CFCs are the following:
CFC – 11 ( Trichloro Fluoro Methane CFCl3 )
CFC – 12 ( Dichloro Fluoro Methane CF2Cl2 )
The major uses of CFCs are as coolants in refrigerators and in air conditioners; as solvents in
cleaners particularly for electronic circuit boards etc.. CFCs are the main cause of ozone depletion.
CFCs have a lifetime in the atmosphere of about 20 to 100 years, and as a result one free chlorine
atom from a CFC molecule can do a lot of damage.

SECONDARY POLLUTANTS:
1) Ozone (O3) / Ozone layer Depletion: Ozone consists of oxygen molecules which contain three
oxygen atoms. It is not emitted directly into the air but produced in the atmosphere when oxygen
combines with oxygen radical (O.) in the presence of sunlight. Ozone protects us from ultra violet
radiation and other harmful rays.
It is observed that over the last few years, many manmade processes release gases into atmosphere
causing drastic depletion of ozone layer. The chlorine atoms cause depletion of ozone slowly and
holes are formed in the ozone layer.
Ozone reacts with tissues and cause for breathing and decrease the working ability of the lungs,
chest pains and coughing. It lowers the human body resistance power and leads to cold; pneumonia
also.
Antarctic Ozone depletion: According to NIMBUS-7 satellite picture which was taken on 5th
October, 1987 the protective ozone layer showed a hole over 50% of the area of the Antarctica
continent covering 7 million sq km.
On Jan 1st 1989, the country Montreal (Canada) proposed redesigning refrigeration, air
conditioning technology replacing the use of CFCs by ozone friendly substitutes.

2) Smog:Smog is a combination of smoke and fog or various gases when react in the presence of
sunlight. The effects of smog on human health cause for respiratory, irritation to the eyes, diseases
related to nose, throat, bronchitis, pneumonia, headache, nerves, liver, and kidneys.
The first smog related deaths were recorded in London in 1873, when it killed 500 people. In 1892,
December, London had worst experiences causing 1000 deaths. In 1940’s severe smog began
covering the cities of Los Angeles in USA.

3) Acid rain:Acid rain has become one of the most important global environmental problems and
poses significant adverse impact on soils, rivers, lakes, forests and monuments. The phenomenon
occurs when SOx and NOx from the burning of fossil fuels such as Petrol, Diesel, Coat etc combine
with water vapour in atmosphere and fall as rain or snow or fog.
Natural sources like volcanoes, forest fires, etc also contribute SOx and NOx. Increased urban
and industrial activities cause air pollution resulting in the rise of concentration of SO2 and NOx.
Sulphur dioxide and NO2 combines with water vapour in the atmosphere produce sulphuric acid
and Nitric acid respectively and results acid rain. Some of the examples are:
Europe and parts of W Asia have experienced rain with water pH range of 4.5 to 5.0 (acidic) in
1958.

AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS, PREVENTION AND CONTROL MEASURES:

Human beings breathe 22000 times a day on the average, inhaling 16 kg of air. Atmosphere
constitutes a protective cover of gases surrounding the earth which
sustains life and saves it from unfriendly environment.
The atmosphere consists of several layers viz. Troposphere, Stratosphere; Mesosphere;
Thermosphere & Exosphere.
The lower atmosphere i.e., the troposphere contains 70% of gaseous components of major, minor
and traces. Ultra violet radiation from the sun is absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere which is
so called ozone layer located between 17 - 26 kms above sea level.

Effects of Air pollution: The effects of pollution may be direct and affect certain organisms. The
effects of pollution may possess a hazard or nuisance. Long continued pollution even affectsthe
evolution of a species and eliminates organisms that cannot tolerate certain pollutants and favor
others who can eat.
Air pollution causes deaths, Impair health, reduce visibility and brings vast economic losses. It can
also cause intangible losses to historic monuments such as Taj Mahal.
Finally, Air pollution can affect the environment on a global scale.

Prevention and control of Air Pollution:

• Inputs that do not contain the pollutants.
• Operating process to minimize generation of the pollutants.
• Replacing the process with one does not generate the pollutant.
• Removing the pollutants from the process.
• Substitution of raw materials.
 Eg: The substitution of high sulphur coal with low sulphur coal in power plants.
Eg: Changing a fossil fuel with nuclear energy can eliminate sulphur emission.
• By involving the Process Modification:
Eg: Chemical and petroleum industries have changed by implementing
Automated operations, computerized process control by reducing the
Oxidation ofSO2 to SO3 by reducing excess air.
• By involving the control technologies: Control equipment viz., Wet Collector
(scrubber), Gravity Settling chamber; Cyclone Collectors, Dry Scrubbers, filters,
electrostatic precipitators etc. are to be used to minimize the air pollution.

4.1.2 WATER POLLUTION

Hydrosphere in the universe contains water in the form of oceans, rivers, lakes, tanks and many
other water sources.
Water sources in the world are of two types.
They are (1) Marine water bodies and (2) Fresh Water bodies.
Water is a good solvent for many substances. Because of this property water cannot exist in its
pure form at many parts of the world. Water pollution is mainly because of sewage, industrial
disposals i.e., effluents.

PARAMETERS OF WATER POLLUTION:

Chemical examination of water (tests): pH; Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Dissolved
Oxygen (DO), etc are some of the chemical tests to find the stage of pollution of water.

1. pH: The value of pH gives the degree of acidity or alkalinity of polluted water. Determination
of pH is important in calculating the coagulant (thick or thin) dose.

2. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): It is defined as the quantity of oxygen utilized by micro
organisms at a temperature of 20oC, generally measured for 5 days. When water is polluted by
unwanted materials, naturally the O2 content gets reduced and that water become not fit for
consumption either by human beings or animals or plants.
Living organisms require water with some quantity of sustainable oxygen in it. That oxygen is
necessary for living organisms is generally called BOD. If there is reduction in oxygen content of
water, it becomes unfit for biological consumption because there is change in BOD.

COMMON TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS:

A) Based on sources B) Based on natures

A) Based on sources:
a) Disease causing agents: Bacteria, viruses, protozoan that enter water from domestic sewage
and animal wastes.
b) Water soluble inorganic chemicals: Acids, salts and compounds of toxic metals such as Lead,
Mercury can make water unfit to drink, harm fishes and other aquatic life. Also Nitrate, Phosphate
compounds dissolve in water that can cause excessive growth of algae, which then die and decay,
depleting dissolved O2 in water and killing fish.
c) Water Soluble Organic chemicals: Oil, gasoline (a type of oil is obtained from petroleum),
pesticides, detergents and many other water soluble chemicals that threaten human health and harm
fish.
d) Heat: Large quantity of water is heated when it is used in the cooling towers of thermal power
plants. When this hot water is discharged into the nearby water bodies, it causes an increase in its
temperature.
e) Sewage: sewage is waste water from municipal area where there is human habitation. Sewage
which comes from homes is called domestic sewage

B) Based on natures:
In nature water pollution is classified into three types by Kimball (1975). They are:
1. Domestic water pollution: Sewage is a part of domestic water pollution. Domestic sewage not
only contains unwanted waste materials, but it is also infested with harmful bacteria, virusetc.
These are responsible for causing diseases in animals and human beings, if they drink this polluted
water and even plants may die if polluted water is provided. Domestic water pollution leads to
Diarrhea, Cholera and Typhoid in human beings.

2. Agricultural Water Pollution: Water require for plants for its growth. Major irrigation, minor
irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation, lift irrigation carry waste substances and causing
water pollution in addition to the utilization of fertilizer and pesticides. Agricultural water
pollution leads to Eutrophication & Water Bloom.

Ecological effects: The important troubling ecological impacts are:

1. Excessive nutrients in water bodies promote plant growth which leads to a drop in
water quality;
2. Disruption of the natural ecosystem E.g. lack of oxygen for shelf marine life (causing
a drop in their population).
3. Decrease in the recreational and aesthetic value of water bodies
4. Health problems when it occurs in drinking water reserves
5. Coral reef decline
6. Decreased biodiversity,
7. Changes in species composition and dominance, and
8. Toxicity effects.
9. Toxic phytoplankton species
10. Decreases in water transparency (increased turbidity)
11. Color, smell, and water treatment problems
12. Dissolved oxygen depletion
13. Increased incidences of fish kills
14. Loss of desirable fish species

3. Industrial water pollution: Many industries discharge waste materials containing harmful
chemicals. Such Industrial wastes are called effluents. The river Godavari is polluted because of
effluents released by the paper industry. It affects the entire water ecosystem causing enormous
damage to fishes, prawns and fresh water animals.
Eg: Minamata disease & Fluorosis.
Minamata disease is a neurological syndrome caused by severe mercury poisoning. Symptoms
include ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the field
of vision and damage to hearing and speech. In extreme cases, insanity, paralysis, coma, and
death follow within weeks of the onset of symptoms.
Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamata city in Japan in 1956. It was caused by the
release of methyl mercury from, the Chisso Corporation's chemical factory, which continued
from 1932 to 1968. This highly toxic chemical bio- accumulated in shellfish and fish in
Minamata
Bay which when eaten by the local people resulted in mercury poisoning. While cat, dog, pig,
and human deaths continued over more than 30 years, the government and company did little to
prevent the pollution.
Fluorosis: People suffer from a disease called fluorosis after consuming water containing
fluorine for sufficiently a long time. Quantity of fluoride in water is only 1 ppm. Diseases caused
by fluorosis are:
Back pain and cannot easily bend.
Joints get stiffened as so movement of joints is impaired.
Teeth are the worst effected and a brown coating appears on the enamel
of teeth giving bad appearance.
Persons with fluorosis cannot erect freely.

CONTROL MEASURES OF WATER POLLUTION:

1. Drinking water should be boiled, cooled and then used.
2. Disinfection of drinking water should be done by using chemicals like bleaching powder.
3. Pesticides and insecticides should be prevented from nearby use of water lakes,ponds and
pools.
4. Drainage water should not be allowed to mix with drinking water.
5. Drainage system should be maintained properly.
6. Chlorination process is to be adopted for drinking water. For 1 litre of water 30 - 40 mg of
chlorine is to be added to get perfect disinfection. It kills bacteria, fungi, fungal spores
and other microbes also.

4.1.3 SOIL POLLUTION

Definition:
Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts,
Radioactive materials, or disease causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant growth and
animal health. Soil is the thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers the Earth's
rocky surface. The organic portion, which is derived from the decayed remains of plants and
animals, is concentrated in the dark uppermost topsoil. The inorganic portion made up of rock
fragments, was formed over thousands of years by physical and chemical weathering of bedrock.
Productive soils are necessary for agriculture to supply the world with sufficient food.

There are many different ways that soil can become polluted, such as:
4.1.3.1 Seepage from a landfill
4.1.3.2 Discharge of industrial waste into the soil
4.1.3.3 Percolation of contaminated water into the soil
4.1.3.4 Rupture of underground storage tanks
4.1.3.5 Excess application of pesticides, herbicides or fertilizer
4.1.3.6 Solid waste seepage
The most common chemicals involved in causing soil pollution are:
4.1.3.7 Petroleum hydrocarbons
4.1.3.8 Heavy metals
4.1.3.9 Pesticides
4.1.3.10 Solvents

Types of Soil Pollution

• Agricultural Soil Pollution and pollution due to urban activities
i) Pollution of surface soil
ii) Pollution of underground soil
• Soil pollution by industrial effluents and solid wastes
i) Pollution of surface soil
ii) Disturbances in soil profile

CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION:

Soil pollution is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural
soil environment. This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground
storage links, application of pesticides, and percolation of contaminated surface water to
subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of
industrial wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons,
solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated
with the degree of industrialization and intensities of chemical usage.
A soil pollutant is any factor which deteriorates the quality, texture and mineral content of the Soil
or which disturbs the biological balance of the organisms in the soil. Pollution in soil has adverse
effect on plant growth.

Pollution in soil is associated with

• Indiscriminate use of fertilizers
• Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides
• Dumping of large quantities of solid waste
• Deforestation and soil erosion

1. Indiscriminate use of fertilizers:

Soil nutrients are important for plant growth and development. Plants obtain carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen from air and water. But other necessary nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, sulfur and more must be obtained from the soil. Farmers generally use
fertilizers to correct soil deficiencies. Fertilizers contaminate the soil with impurities, which come
from the raw materials used for their manufacture. Mixed fertilizers often contain ammonium
nitrate (NH4NO3), phosphorus as P2O5, and potassium as K2O. For instance, arsenic, lead and
cadmium present in traces in rock phosphate mineral get transferred to super phosphate fertilizer.
Since the metals are not degradable, their accumulation in the soil above their toxic levels due to
excessive use of phosphate fertilizers becomes an indestructible poison for crops.
The over use of NPK fertilizers reduce quantity of vegetables and crops grown on soil over the
years. It also reduces the protein content of wheat, maize, grams, etc., grown on that soil. The
carbohydrate quality of such crops also gets degraded. Excess potassium content in soil decreases
Vitamin C and carotene content in vegetables and fruits. The vegetables and fruits grown on over
fertilized soil are more prone to attacks by insects and disease.
2. Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides:
The first widespread insecticide use began at the end of World War II and included DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and gammaxene. Insects soon became resistant to DDT and
as the chemical did not decompose readily, it persisted in the environment. Since it was soluble in
fat rather than water, it biomagnified up the food chain and disrupted calcium metabolism in birds,
causing egg shells to be thin and fragile. As a result, large birds of prey such as the brown pelican,
ospreys, falcons and eagles became endangered. DDT has been now been banned in most western
countries. Ironically many of them including USA still produce DDT for export to other
developing nations whose needs outweigh the problems caused by it.
The most important pesticides are DDT, BHC, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
organophosphates,
aldrin, malathion, dieldrin, furodan, etc. The remnants of such pesticides used on pests may get
adsorbed by the soil particles, which then contaminate root crops grown in that soil. The
consumption of such crops causes the pesticides remnants to enter human biological systems,
affecting them adversely.
An infamous herbicide used as a defoliant in the Vietnam War called Agent Orange(dioxin),
exposure to Agent Orange.
Pesticides not only bring toxic effect on human and animals but also decrease the fertility of the
soil. Some of the pesticides are quite stable and their bio- degradation may take weeks and even
months.
Pesticide problems such as resistance, resurgence, and health effects have caused scientists to
seek alternatives. Pheromones and hormones to attract or repel insects and using natural enemies
or sterilization by radiation have been suggested

3. Dumping of large quantities of solid waste:

In general, solid waste includes garbage, domestic refuse and discarded solid materials such as
Those from commercial, industrial and agricultural operations. They contain increasing amounts
of paper, cardboards, plastics, glass, old construction material, packaging material and toxic or
otherwise hazardous substances. Since a significant amount of urban solid waste tends to be paper
and food waste, the majority is recyclable or biodegradable in landfills. Similarly, most agricultural
waste is recycled and mining waste is left on site.
The portion of solid waste that is hazardous such as oils, battery metals, heavy metals from
smelting industries and organic solvents are the ones we have to pay particular attention to. These
can in the long run, get deposited to the soils of the surrounding area and pollute them by altering
their chemical and biological properties. They also contaminate drinking water aquifer sources.
More than 90% of hazardous waste is produced by chemical, petroleum and metal- related
industries and small businesses such as dry cleaners and gas stations contribute as well.

4. Deforestation and soil erosion:

Soil Erosion occurs when the weathered soil particles are dislodged and carried away by wind
or water. Deforestation, agricultural development, temperature extremes, precipitation including
acid rain, and human activities contribute to this erosion. Humans speed up this process by
construction, mining, cutting of timber, over cropping and overgrazing. It results in floods and
cause soil erosion.
EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION
1. Agricultural
• Reduced soil fertility
• Reduced nitrogen fixation
• Increased erosion
• Larger loss of soil and nutrients
• Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs
• Reduced crop yield
• Imbalance in soil fauna and flora
2. Industrial
• Dangerous chemicals entering underground water
• Ecological imbalance
• Release of pollutant gases
• Release of radioactive rays causing health problems
• Increased salinity
• Reduced vegetation
3. Urban
Clogging of drains
• Inundation of areas
• Public health problems
• Pollution of drinking water sources
• Foul smell and release of gases
• Waste management problems

CONTROL MEASURES OF SOIL POLLUTION

The following steps have been suggested to control soil pollution. To help prevent soil erosion,
we can limit construction in sensitive area. In general we would need less fertilizer and fewer
pesticides if we could all adopt the three R's: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. This would give us
less solid waste.
1. Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use Applying bio-fertilizers and manures can
reduce chemical fertilizer and pesticide use. Biological methods of pest control can also reduce the
use of pesticides and thereby minimize soil pollution.
2. Reusing of materials
Materials such as glass containers, plastic bags, paper, cloth etc. can be reused at domestic levels
rather than being disposed, reducing solid waste pollution.
3. Recycling and recovery of materials
This is a reasonable solution for reducing soil pollution. Materials such as paper, some kinds of
plastics and glass can and are being recycled. This decreases the volume of refuse and helps inthe
conservation of natural resources. For example, recovery of one tonne of paper can save 17 trees.
4. Reforesting
Control of land loss and soil erosion can be attempted through restoring forest and grass cover
to check wastelands, soil erosion and floods. Crop rotation or mixed cropping can improve the
fertility of the land.
5. Solid waste treatment
Proper methods should be adopted for management of solid waste disposal. Industrial wastes
can be treated physically, chemically and biologically until they are less hazardous. Acidic and
alkaline wastes should be first neutralized; the insoluble material if biodegradable should be
allowed to degrade under controlled conditions before being disposed.

4.1.4 MARINE POLLUTION

Pollution of oceans is damaging the marine environment and is becoming a major problem. Marine
environment is interesting for various reasons such as Sea food; Navigation; Adventure; Tourism
etc,, Marine Pollution is harmful and its danger can be identified in a variety of ways.

Sources & causes of marine pollution:

Marine pollution originates from one of two sources --- the land or the sea which are explained
below:
Marine Oil Pollution: Oil is basically an important pollutant which destroys marine environment.
The various sources of oil pollution are:
Run-off oil from streets; disposal of lubricants from machines; Off shore oil and gas exploitation
from off-shore drilling; blowouts at off-shore drilling rigs; oil escaping under high pressure from
a bore hole in the ocean floor. Waste chemicals, mud and accumulation of toxic substances in
the ocean in theform of mercury, dioxin, PCBs, PAHs (Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons)
Radioactivity. benzene; xylene ( colorless, flammable liquids ) and heavy metals such as lead;
copper; nickel, mercury also cause for marine pollution during the off shore drilling
activities. Both dumping and exploitation of ocean resources cause ocean pollution also.
PAHs: It is a chemical compound and organic pollutant. These occur in oil, coal and tar deposits
and are produced as byproducts of fuel burning.
PAHs are lipophilic meaning they mix more easily in oil than water.
Eg for PAHs are: Acenaphthene; Anthracene; Benzopyrene; Chrysene; Coronene; Fluorene;
Pyrene.

Other sources from land: The major sources of marine pollution originating from the land vary
from country to country. Effluents are discharged either directly into the sea or enters the coastal
waters through rivers. Thousands of barrels of oil burn when oil wells were set on fire. Tanker
accidents on land carry oil to the nearby streams / canals and cause for marine Pollution. Due to
burning of oil, smoke, SO2, NO2, CO is added towards atmospheric contamination.

The effects of oil pollution depend mainly on the following factors:

Type of oil and its viscosity, amount / quantity released, distance covered, time, average water
temp etc..
Effects of Marine Pollution:
S No Source Effect
1 Sewage & run- off from forestry; Depletes oxygen in water causes killing of fishes.
2 Sediments from mining Sediments clog in the gills of fishes
3 Sewage from municipalities, Contaminate sea food
towns; cities etc…
4 Industrial discharge; pesticides Cause disease in coastal marine life
from farms
5 Oil from off shore drilling; Low level contamination kill larvae whereas high
industries/ automobiles level contamination causes death for sea fishes
6 Litter (rubbish), waste, plastics Marine life disturbs
7 Hot water from power plants Kills corals.

Marine Pollution Abatement / Prevention & control measures of Marine pollution:

The following are the some of the control measures for marine pollution:
1. Improving existing sewage disposal facilities
2. Ensuring individual houses have sewage disposal systems (such as septic tanks).
3. Large resorts should use and manage their own packaged treatment plants.
4. Marine planning and management should be considered as processes such as land – sea
interaction; inter disciplinary co-operation; participation of public & private sector
organizations; balance between protection and development public participation
5. Oil tankers are double hulled ( two layered bottom ) to reduce the chance of oil leakage
6. Recycling facilities for used oil.

4.1.5 NOISE POLLUTION

INTRODUCTION:
Everyone knows that sound is a form of energy that is capable of causing disturbances in human
beings. Ears are the hearing organs in human beings.
A thin membrane is called Tympanum (or) ear drum receives the vibrations produced
by sound to a limited extent. Human ear is capable of perceiving about 85 decibels of sound.
Beyond the limit, the ear drum cannot bear sound.
In nature, we hear different types of sounds. Sound is a kind of vibration which travel through
air, water, and are sensed by the ear. This is from music, speech, etc from radio / television /
computers etc., one thing in this matter is that we can increase the volume of sound or decrease
as per our taste whereas, a noise is a sound which cannot be heard clearly and only mixed sounds
will be heard.
For eg: in an office one is talking on mobile, phone ringing another side, ring tones in some person's
hands, loud conversations with one and another etc., this is called noise. One cannot increase or
decrease the volume of noise. In general, a sound is a vibration from a particular machine, place
or material which can be heard clearly whereas a noise a mixed vibrations that will come to us
from all directions. A sound can be clear and can be able to hear, whereas a noisewill not be clear
and cannot be heard.

SOURCES OF NOISE:
Noise is an unwanted sound and noise pollution occurs through different sources:
1. Vehicles produce noise that leads to noise pollution.
2. Automobile industry is another source of noise pollution.
3. Noise pollution is very common in industrial areas where machines are working for factories
making more noise.
The sources of noise are more in urban and industrial areas, than in rural areas. The sources of
noise may be stationary or mobile. The stationary sources include industries, loud speakers, mining
operations, use of machineries, TV, Radio and Grinders etc. The mobile sources include Road
Traffic, Highway Noise, Railway Traffic and Air Traffic.
(1) Stationary sources:
a) Industrial noise: The main categories of industrial activity that are particularly
relevant to the study of noise are the following:
Product fabrication, Product assembly, Power generation by means of generators, Combusting
process in furnaces (burning of gases)
b) Noise from construction works: Construction noise, a major source of noise pollution
is emitted by construction equipment. The sources of noise are dozers excavators, front end
loaders, soil compactors, cranes, air compressors, concrete vibrators, riveting steel structure during
the casting, dismantling of construction materials etc...
c) Noise from other sources: These include sources such as sirens, barking dogs,
ambulances, Police vehicles, Fire engines etc.

(2) Mobile sources:

Road traffic: Of all sources of noise pollution, road traffic is the most prevalent and
perhaps the most source of noise pollution. More people are exposed to noise from motor
vehicles and the noise depends on various factors such as Road location, Road design, Vehicle
standards, Driver behaviors, Horns, Traffic density. ,

Noise of common road vehicles

Vehicle type Noise (db)

Medium road traffic (Main roads) 70- 80

Heavy road traffic (High ways) 80- 90
Buses & Trucks upto 3.5 tons 85- 95
Trucks upto 3.5-12 tons 90-100
Motor cycles 90-105

It can be observed that motor cycles with their exposed engines and inadequate silencing
arrangements are notorious noise producers, which produce more than 30 times sound than a
small passenger car.

a) Railway traffic: Noise from railway traffic is not serious nuisance as compared to the road
traffic noise. The level of noise associated with rail traffic is related to the type of engine, the speed
of the train, track type and condition. The majority of noise emitted by trains is produced by the
engine (or) by the interaction of wheels with the tracks, horns, warning signals atcrossings etc..,

b) Air traffic: The noise of air craft is different from that of road traffic in the sense it is
intermittent. Noise is maximum during takeoff and landing. Noise made by jet planes is more
disturbance than that of propeller driven air craft. Supersonic air craft produce noise at high
levels due to its intensity.

EFFECTS OF NOISE:
At 120 decibels the ear registers pain but hearing damage begins about 85 decibels. Apart from
hearing loss, noise can cause lack of sleep, irritation, indigestion, ulcers, High B.P., Heart diseases
, Stress etc.,.
1. Annoyance (Feeling slightly angry): One of the most important effects of noise on human is
 annoyance. Due to this breathing rate affects.
2.Noise- induced hearing loss: Exposure to noise for a long enough duration results in damage
to the inner ear and thus decreases one’s ability to hear. The
louder the noise the less time it takes to cause hearing loss.

3.Effects on sleep: Noise disturbs sleep. It has been found that the cases related to various
levels of noise are associated with sleep disturbances. Sleep disturbance
by noise depends on the characteristics of the noise such as frequency,
loudness and whether the noise is continuous or intermittent.
Other effects: There are many other effects of noises such involve aggression (ready to attack).
People may turn mad and nerves may not function normally, People may be deformed in many
ways including increased stress and strain, nonfunctioning of hands, legs etc due to noisepollution
if exposed continuously.

CONTROL MEASURES:

Noise pollution could be controlled by either reducing the noise at the source or by preventing its
transmission.
The first step in the prevention of noise pollution is to control the noise at source itself.
For eg: Lubrication of machines reduces the noise produced, Tightening the loose nuts, Reducing
the vibrations produced by machines etc…
Failing to control the noise at its source, the second step is to prevent its transmission for eg:
keeping the noise machine covered in an enclosure so that the sound does not escape and reach the
receivers, construction of noise barriers on road sides, sound proof the buildings by using heavy
curtains on the windows, acoustical tiles on the ceiling and walls, by sealing the cracks in the walls
to reduce the noise coming from outside.
If the noise levels are not able to bring down to the desired levels in some cases, the only alternative
is to follow:
• Avoiding horns except in emergency situations.
• Sound proof or eco-generators and Turning down the volume of stereos.
• Conducting the awareness programs

4.1.6 THERMAL POLLUTION

Thermal pollution is also known as heat pollution and occurs when heat is released into water or
air that produces undesirable effects. Sudden heat release usually due to forest fire or volcanoes or
human induced activities. Thermal pollution is also the addition of excess undesirable heat to water
that makes it harmful to human, animal or aquatic life.

Sources of Thermal Pollution:

Various sources of thermal pollution include
Thermal Power Plants ; Nuclear Power Plants ; Petroleum Refineries; Steel Plants; Metallurgical
industries; Paper Mills; Chemical Plants. Coal fired power plants constitute major sources of
thermal pollution. Nuclear plants discharge much heat and also traces of toxic radioactive
substances. Many industries use water for cooling purpose and thus the heat effluents are finally
discharged into water.
Temperature and its effects: Temperature plays an important role in determining the conditions
in which living things can survive.
Birds and mammals require a narrow range of body temp for survival whereas aquatic species
can exist at a certain range of temperatures.
Thermal pollution increases water temperature causing a change (lowering) of dissolved oxygen
levels. This disrupts and causes decay of plant and animal species.
For eg: The warmer water increases the metabolic rate of fish and other animals in the sea; this
decreases the life expectancy of aquatic animals.

Management of Thermal Pollution:

Thermal Pollution is controlled by the following methods:
1. Cooling Towers are designed to control the temperature of water which transfers some of the
heat from the water to the surrounding atmosphere by evaporation. There are two types of cooling
towers namely wet cooling towers and dry cooling towers.
2. Cooling ponds are employed for thermal discharges. Heated effluents on the surface of water
in cooling ponds maximize dissipation of heat to the atmosphere.
3. Artificial lakes are manmade bodies of water which offer possible alternative. The heating
effluents are discharged into lake at one end and the water for cooling purpose may be
withdrawn from the other end

4.1.7 NUCLEAR HAZARDS

Radioactivity is the phenomenon of emission of energy from radioactive isotopes (i.e., unstable
isotopes), such as Carbon-14, Uranium-235, Uranium-238, Uranium-239, Radium-226, etc. The
emission of energy from radioactive substances in the environment is often called as 'Radioactive
Pollution'.

Sources/causes of nuclear hazards

The sources of radioactivity are both natural and man-made. The natural sources include:
a) Natural sources:
1) Emissions from radioactive materials from the Earth's crust.
People have been exposed to low levels of radiation from these natural sources for several
millennia. But it is the man-made sources which are posing a threat to mankind.

b) Man-Made Sources: The man-made sources of radioactivity are nuclear wastes (i.e., waste
material that contains radioactive nuclei) produced during the:
1) Mining and processing of radioactive ores;
2) Use of radioactive material in nuclear power plants;
3) Use of radioactive isotopes in medical, industrial and research applications; and
4) Use of radioactive materials in nuclear weapons.
The greatest exposure to human beings comes from the diagnostic use of X-rays, radioactive
isotopes used as tracers and treatment of cancer and other ailments.

Effects of nuclear hazards:

The effects of radioactive pollutants depend upon half-life, energy releasing capacity, rate of
diffusion and rate of deposition of the contaminant. Various atmospheric conditions and climatic
conditions such as wind, temperature and rainfall also determine their effects.
The effects may be somatic (individual exposed is affected) or genetic (future generations)
damage. The effects are cancer, shortening of life span and genetic effects or mutations.

Some of the possible effects are listed as under:

1) Radiations may break chemical bonds, such as DNA in cells. This affects the genetic make-up
and control mechanisms. The effects can be instantaneous, prolonged or delayed types. Even it
could be carried to future generations.

2) Exposure at low doses of radiations (100-250 rads), men do not die but begin to suffer from
fatigue, nausea, vomiting and loss of hair. But recovery is possible.

3) Exposure at higher doses (400-500 rads), the bone marrow is affected, blood cells are reduced,
natural resistance and fighting capacity against germs is reduced, blood fails to clot, and the
irradiated person soon dies of infection and bleeding.

4) Higher irradiation doses (10,000 rads) kill the organisms by damaging the tissues of heart,
brain, etc.

5) Workers handling radioactive wastes get slow but continuous irradiation and in course of time
develop cancer of different types.6) Through food chain also, radioactivity effects are
experienced by man.

But the most significant effect of radioactivity is that it causes long range effects, affecting the
future of man and hence the future of our civilization.

Control measures:

On one hand, the peaceful uses of radioactive materials are so wide and effective that modern
civilization cannot go without them; on the other hand, there is no cure for radiation damage.
Thus the only option against nuclear hazards is to check and prevent radioactive pollution. For
this:

1) Leakages from nuclear reactors, careless handling, transport and use of radioactive fuels,
fission products and radioactive isotopes have to be totally stopped;
2) Safety measures should be enforced strictly;
3) Waste disposal must be careful, efficient and effective;
4) There should be regular monitoring and quantitative analysis through frequent sampling in
the risk areas;
5) Preventive measures should be followed so that background radiation levels do not exceed
the permissible limits;
6) Appropriate steps should be taken against occupational exposure; and
7) Safety measures should be strengthened against nuclear accidents

4.2 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid wastes are the material that arises from various human and economic activities. It is being
produced since the beginning of civilization. Ever increasing population growth, urbanizationand
industrialization are contributing to the generation of solid waste in huge quantities.

Waste is enviable; waste is by product of human activity which has lack of use. The term waste
refers to the useless material generated from different sources such as household, public places,
hospital, commercial centre construction sites and production of waste from industries.

Waste can be classified through various methods on the basis of physical state (solid, liquid and
gaseous) and then within solid waste (according to its original use packaging waste, food waste
etc.) material (glass, paper etc.) physical properties, domestic, commercial, biodegradable, non-
biodegradable etc. Solid wastes have prevailing characteristics which sets them apart from the
liquid and gaseous wastes.

The characteristics are that the waste remains highly visible in the environment. Liquid wastes are
quickly relegated to sewer and are out of sight and gaseous wastes disperse in to theatmosphere.
Accumulation of large quantities of solid wastes is having an adverse impact on the environment.

There are many waste types defined by modern systems of waste management, notably including:

• municipal solid waste (MSW)

• construction waste and demolition waste (C&D)
• institutional waste, commercial waste, and industrial waste (IC&I)
• medical waste (also known as clinical waste)
• hazardous waste, radioactive waste, and electronic waste
• biodegradable waste

Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal, and monitoring
of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and is
generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics. Waste
management is also carried out to recover resources from it. Waste management can involve solid,
liquid, gaseous or radioactive substances, with different methods and fields of expertise for each.

Effects

a) Health Hazard

If solid wastes are not collected and allowed to accumulate, they may create unsanitary conditions.
This may lead to epidemic outbreaks. Many diseases like cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, plague,
jaundice, or gastro-intestinal diseases may spread and cause loss of human
lives. In addition, improper handling of the solid wastes is a health hazard for the workers who
come in direct contact with the waste.

b) Environmental Impact

If the solid wastes are not treated properly, decomposition and putrefaction may take place, causing
land and water pollution when the waste products percolate down into the underground water
resources. The organic solid waste during decomposition may generate obnoxious odors. Stray
dogs and birds may sometimes invade garbage heaps and may spread it over the neighborhood
causing unhygienic and unhealthy surroundings.

Control measures

An integrated waste management strategy includes three main components

1. Source reduction

2. Recycling

3. Disposal

Source reduction is one of the fundamental ways to reduce waste. This can be done by
using less material when making a product, reuse of products on site, designing products or
packaging to reduce their quantity. On an individual level we can reduce the use of unnecessary
items while shopping, buy items with minimal packaging, avoid buying disposable items and also
avoid asking for plastic carry bags.

Recycling is reusing some components of the waste that may have some economic value.
Recycling has readily visible benefits such as conservation of resources reduction in energy used
during manufacture and reducing pollution levels. Some materials such as aluminum and steel can
be recycled many times. Metal, paper, glass and plastics are recyclable. Mining of new aluminum
is expensive and hence recycled aluminum has a strong market and plays a significant role in the
aluminum industry. Paper recycling can also help preserve forests as it takes about 17 trees to
make one ton of paper. Crushed glass (cullet) reduces the energy required to manufacturenew glass
by 50 percent. Cullet lowers the temperature requirement of the glassmaking process thus
conserving energy and reducing air pollution.

However even if recycling is a viable alternative, it presents several problems. The

problems associated with recycling are either technical or economical. Plastics are difficult to
recycle because of the different types of polymer resins used in their production. Since each type
has its own chemical makeup different plastics cannot be recycled together. Thus separation of
different plastics before recycling is necessary. Similarly in recycled paper the fibers are weakened
and it is difficult to control the colour of the recycled product. Recycled paper is banned for use in
food containers to prevent the possibility of contamination. It very often costs less to transport raw
paper pulp than scrap paper. Collection, sorting and transport account for about 90 percent of the
cost of paper recycling.
 The processes of pulping, deinking and screening wastepaper are generally more expensive
than making paper from virgin wood or cellulose fibers. Very often thus recycled paper is more
expensive than virgin paper. However as technology improves the cost will come down.

Disposal of solid waste is done most commonly through a sanitary landfill or through
incineration. A modern sanitary landfill is a depression in an impermeable soil layer that is lined
with an impermeable membrane. The three key characteristics of a municipal sanitary landfill that
distinguish it from an open dump are:

• Solid waste is placed in a suitably selected and prepared landfill site in a carefully prescribed
manner.

• The waste material is spread out and compacted with appropriate heavy machinery.

• The waste is covered each day with a layer of compacted soil. The problems with older landfills
are associated with groundwater pollution. Pollutants seeping out from the bottom of a sanitary
landfill (leachates) very often percolate down to the groundwater aquifer no matter how thick the
underlying soil layer. Today it is essential to have suitable bottom liners and leachate collection
systems along with the installation of monitoring systems to detect groundwaterpollution.

The organic material in the buried solid waste will decompose due to the action of
microorganisms. At first the waste decomposes aerobically until the oxygen that was present in
the freshly placed fill is used up by the aerobic microorganisms. The anerobes take over producing
methane which is poisonous and highly explosive when mixed with air in concentrations between
5 and 15 percent. The movement of gas can be controlled by providing impermeable barriers in
the landfill. A venting system to collect the blocked gas and vent it to the surface where it can be
safely diluted and dispersed into the atmosphere is thus a necessary component of the design of
sanitary landfills.

Even though land filling is an economic alternative for solid waste disposal, it has become
increasingly difficult to find suitable land filling sites that are within economic hauling distance
and very often citizens do not want landfills in their vicinity. Another reason is that no matter how
well engineered the design and operation may be, there is always the danger of some environmental
damage in the form of leakage of leachates. Incineration is the process of burning municipal solid
waste in a properly designed furnace under suitable temperature and operating conditions.
Incineration is a chemical process in which the combustible portion of the waste is combined with
oxygen forming carbon dioxide and water, which are released into the atmosphere.

This chemical reaction called oxidation results in the release of heat. For complete
oxidation the waste must be mixed with appropriate volumes of air at a temperature of about 815o
C for about one hour.
 Incineration can reduce the municipal solid waste by about 90 percent in volume and 75
percent in weight. The risks of incineration however involve airquality problems and toxicity and
disposal of the fly and bottom ash produced during the incineration process. Fly ash consists of
finely divided particulate matter, including cinders, mineral dust and soot. Most of the incinerator
ash is bottom ash while the remainder is fly ash. The possible presence of heavy metals in
incinerator ash can be harmful. Thus toxic products and materials containing heavy metals (for
example batteries and plastics) should be segregated.

Thus extensive air pollution control equipment and high-level technical supervision and
skilled employees for proper operation and maintenance is required. Thus while sanitary landfills
and incinerators have their own advantages and disadvantages, the most effective method of solid
waste management is source reduction and recycling.

Vermi – Composting

Nature has perfect solutions for managing the waste it creates, if left undisturbed. The
biogeochemical cycles are designed to clear the waste material produced by animals and plants.
We can mimic the same methods that are present in nature. All dead and dry leaves and twigs
decompose and are broken down by organisms such as worms and insects, and is finally broken
down by bacteria and fungi, to form a dark rich soil-like material called compost.

These organisms in the soil use the organic material as food, which provides them with
nutrients for their growth and activities. These nutrients are returned to the soil to be used again
by trees and other plants. This process recycles nutrients in nature. This soil can be used as a
manure for farms and gardens.

4.2.1 ROLE OF INDIVIDUALS IN PREVENTION OF POLLUTION

The role of an individual in maintaining a pollution free, pure and congenial environment and in
preserving its resources is actually the need of the hour. Individuals can, however, play an
important role in abatement of air, water, soil or noise pollution in the following simple
manners:

1) Use low-phosphate, phosphate-free or biodegradable dishwashing liquid, laundry detergent,

and shampoo.
2) Don't use water fresheners in toilets.
3) Use manure or compost instead of commercial inorganic fertilizers to fertilize gardens and
yard plant.
4) Use biological methods or integrated pest management to control garden, yard, and
household pests.
5) Don't pour pesticides, paints, solvents, oils, or other products containing harmful chemicals
down drain or on the ground. Contact the authorities responsible for their disposal.
6) Recycle old motor oil and antifreeze at an auto service center that has an oil recycling
program
7) If you get water from a private well or suspect that municipal water is contaminated, have
tested by an EPA certified laboratory for lead, nitrates, trihalomethanes, radon, volatile,
organic compounds and pesticides.
8) Run water from taps for several minutes every morning before using the water for drinking
or cooking. Save it and use it to water plants.
If you have a septic tank, monitor it yearly and have it cleaned out every three to five years
by a reputable contractor so that it won’t contribute to groundwater pollution. Do not use
Septic tank cleaner, which contain toxic chemicals that can kill bacteria important to sewage
Decomposition and that can contaminate groundwater if systems malfunction.
9) Support ecological land-use planning in your community.
10) Get to know your local water bodies and form watchdog groups to help monitor, protect,
and restore them.

4.2.2 E-WASTE

Short term exposure causes:

Front panel of Barium
• Muscle weakness;
CRTs (Ba)
• Damage to heart, liver and spleen.

• Carcinogenic (lung cancer)

• Inhalation of fumes and dust. Causes chronic beryllium
Beryllium
Motherboard disease or beryllicosis.
(Be)
• Skin diseases such as warts.
MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTES

It is estimated that 75% of electronic items are stored due to uncertainty of how to manage it. These
electronic junks lie unattended in houses, offices, warehouses etc. and normally mixed with
household wastes, which are finally disposed off at landfills. This necessitates implementable
management measures.

In industries management of e-waste should begin at the point of generation. This can be done by
waste minimization techniques and by sustainable product design. Waste minimization in
industries involves adopting:

• inventory management,
• production-process modification,
• volume reduction,
• Recovery and reuse.

Inventory management
Proper control over the materials used in the manufacturing process is an important way to reduce
waste generation (Freeman, 1989). By reducing both the quantity of hazardous
Materials used in the process and the amount of excess raw materials in stock, the quantity of waste
generated can be reduced. This can be done in two ways i.e. establishing material-purchasereview
and control procedures and inventory tracking system.
Another inventory management procedure for waste reduction is to ensure that only the needed
quantity of a material is ordered. This will require the establishment of a strict inventory tracking
system. Purchase procedures must be implemented which ensure that materials are ordered only
on an as-needed basis and that only the amount needed for a specific period of time is ordered.

Production-process modification
Changes can be made in the production process, which will reduce waste generation. This
reduction can be accomplished by changing the materials used to make the product or by the more
efficient use of input materials in the production process or both. Potential waste minimization
techniques can be broken down into three categories:
i) Improved operating and maintenance procedures,
ii) Material change and
iii) Process-equipment modification.

Volume reduction
Volume reduction includes those techniques that remove the hazardous portion of a waste from a
non-hazardous portion. These techniques are usually to reduce the volume, and thus the cost of
disposing of a waste material. The techniques that can be used to reduce waste-stream volume
can be divided into 2 general categories: source segregation and waste concentration. Segregation
of wastes is in many cases a simple and economical technique for waste reduction. Wastes
containing different types of metals can be treated separately so that the metal value inthe sludge
can be recovered. Concentration of a waste stream may increase the likelihood that thematerial can
be recycled or reused. Methods include gravity and vacuum filtration, ultra filtration, reverse
osmosis, freeze vaporization etc.
For example, an electronic component manufacturer can use compaction equipments to reduce
volume of waste cathode ray-tube.
Recovery and reuse
This technique could eliminate waste disposal costs, reduce raw material costs and
provide income from a salable waste. Waste can be recovered on-site, or at an off-
site recovery facility,or through inter industry exchange. A number of physical and
chemical techniques are available to reclaim a waste material such as reverse osmosis,
electrolysis, condensation, electrolytic recovery, filtration, centrifugation etc. For
example, a printed-circuit board manufacturer can useelectrolytic recovery to reclaim
metals from copper and tin-lead plating bath.

However recycling of hazardous products has little environmental benefit if it simply

moves the hazards into secondary products that eventually have to be disposed of.
Unless the goal is to redesign the product to use nonhazardous materials, such
recycling is a false solution.

Sustainable product design

Minimization of hazardous wastes should be at product design stage itself keeping

in mind thefollowing factors*

• Rethink the product design: Efforts should be made to design a product with
fewer amounts of hazardous materials. For example, the efforts to reduce
material use are reflected in some new computer designs that are flatter,
lighter and more integrated. Other companies propose centralized networks
similar to the telephone system.
• Use of renewable materials and energy: Bio-based plastics are plastics
made with plant-based chemicals or plant-produced polymers rather than from
petrochemicals. Bio- based toners, glues and inks are used more frequently.
Solar computers also exist but theyare currently very expensive.
• Use of non-renewable materials that are safer: Because many of the
materials used arenon-renewable, designers could ensure the product is built
for re-use, repair and/orupgradeability. Some computer manufacturers such as
Dell and Gateway lease out their products thereby ensuring they get them back
to further upgrade and lease out again.