FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction
Under this chapter the basics of circuit theory and circuit elements will be discussed. They contain electrical
charge, voltage, current, power, electromagnetism and active elements, passive elements respectively.
1.1. Basics of circuit theory
Deals with
a) electrical charge
b) current
c) voltage
d) power and
e) electromagnetism
Electrical charge
✓ is the most basic quantity in an electric circuit
✓ is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in coulombs (C)

Notice:
➢ The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of charge, there are 1 / (1.602 × 10−19) = 6.24 × 1018
electrons.
➢ One electronic charge :1e = −1.602 × 10−19 C. (1p=1.602 × 10−19 C)
➢ The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created nor destroyed, only
transferred. Thus the algebraic sum of the electric charges in a system does not change.
Electric Current
➢ It is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).
➢ It is the net flow of positive charges.
➢ conventional current flow is taken as the movement of positive charges, that is, opposite to the flow
of negative charges, as Fig.1.1 illustrates.

Fig Electric current due to flow of electronic charge in a conductor.

𝒅𝒒
Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and time t is: 𝒊 = ……………………….1.1
𝒅𝒕

This implies: 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second

The charge transferred between time t0 and t is obtained by integrating both sides of Eq. (1.1). That is:
𝒕
𝒒 = ∫𝒕𝟎 𝒊𝒅𝒕….........................................................................................................................1.2

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The most common types of current are: DC and AC

DC (Direct Current): is a current that remains constant with time. Represented by symbol I.
AC (Alternative Current: is a current that varies sinusoidally with time. Represented by symbol i.

Fig Two common types of current: (a) direct current (dc), (b) alternating current (ac).

Exercises:
1) How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons?
2) Calculate the amount of charge represented by two million protons.
3) Determine the total charge entering a terminal between t = 1 s and t = 2 s if the current passing
the terminal is i = (3t 2 − t) A.
Solutions
1) 1e = −1.602 × 10−19 C → −1.602 × 10−19 C/electron x 4,600 electrons = −7.369 × 10−16 C
2) 1p = +1.602 × 10−19 C → +1.602 × 10−19 C/proton x 2,000,000 protons = +3.204x10-13 C
3) Given: t0 =1s, t= 2s and i = i = (3t 2 − t) A.

Homework
#1. The current flowing through an element is

Calculate the charge entering the element from t = 0 to t = 2 s. Answer: 6.667 C.

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Voltage (potential difference)

✓ It is the energy required to move a unit charge through an element, measured in volts (V).
✓ It is the pressure from an electrical circuit's power source that pushes charged electrons (current)
through a conducting loop, enabling them to do work such as illuminating a light.
✓ Consider voltage vab between two points a and b in an electric circuit below.

Fig.Polarity of voltage Vab

✓ It is the energy (or work) needed to move a unit charge from a to b; mathematically,
𝒅𝒘
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝒅𝒒
……………………………………………………………………………………….1.3
where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C).
✓ The vab can be interpreted in two ways: (1) point a is at a potential of vab volts higher than point b or
(2) the potential at point a with respect to point b is vab.

✓ It follows logically that in general: vab = -vba

✓ Like electric current, a constant voltage is called a dc voltage and is represented by V,

whereas a sinusoidally time-varying voltage is called an ac voltage and is represented by v.
✓ A dc voltage is commonly produced by a battery; ac voltage is produced by an electric
generator.
Notice:
✓ a voltage drops from a to b is equivalent to a voltage rises from b to a.
✓ electric current is always through an element whereas an electric voltage is always
across the element or between two points.
Power
✓ it is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).
𝒅𝒘
✓ mathematically: 𝒑= ………………………………………………………1.4
𝒅𝒕
where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s).
𝒅𝒘 𝒅𝒘 𝒅𝒒
✓ from current and voltage equations: 𝒑 = = ∗ 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒗𝒊 → 𝒑 = 𝒗𝒊…………..1.5
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒒
✓ p in eq. 1.5 is a time-varying quantity and is called the instantaneous power.
Notes
✓ If the power has a + sign, power is being delivered to or absorbed by the element.
✓ Else if the power has a − sign, power is being supplied or released by the element.
✓ Power absorbed = −Power supplied

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✓ Hence the algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero:
i.e. ∑ 𝒑 = 𝟎.
✓ This again confirms the fact that the total power supplied to the circuit must balance the
total power absorbed.
Energy
✓ is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).
✓ the energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time t0 to time t is given by:
𝒕
𝒘 = ∫𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒅𝒕………………………………………………………………………..1.6

Electromagnetism
✓ It is a branch of physics involving the study of the electromagnetic force.
✓ It is a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles.
✓ It is the production of a magnetic field by current in a conductor.

Exercises
1. An energy source forces a constant current of 2A for 10s to flow through a lightbulb. If 2.3 kJ is given
off in the form of light and heat energy, calculate the voltage drop across the bulb.
Solution:
The total charge is

The voltage drop is

2. Find the power delivered to an element at t =3 ms if the current entering its positive terminal is

i=5 cos 60πt A and the voltage is: (a) v=3i, (b) v=3di/dt.
Solution:
(a) The voltage is v=3i =15 cos 60πt; hence, the power is: p=vi=75 cos260πt W
At t =3ms, p=75 cos2(60π×3×10−3) =75 cos20.18π =53.48 W
(b) We find the voltage and the power as v=3di/dt =3(−60π)5 sin 60πt=−900πsin 60πt V
p=vi=−4500πsin 60πtcos 60πt W
◦
At t =3 ms, p=−4500πsin 0.18πcos 0.18πW =−14137.167 sin 32.4◦cos 32.4 =−6.396 kW
Homework
1. Find the power delivered to the element at t =5ms if the current and voltage are given as
𝒕
follows: i=5 cos 60πt A and (𝟏𝟎 + 𝟓 ∫𝟎 𝒊𝒅𝒕) V. Answer: p = 29.7 W

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1.2.Introduction to circuit elements

An element is the basic building block of a circuit. Hence an electric circuit is the interconnection
of different elements. There are two types of elements found in electric circuits:
a. Passive elements and
b. Active elements.
a) Passive Elements
✓ are electrical components that do not generate power.
✓ but instead dissipate, store, and/or release it.
✓ include resistor, capacitor, and inductor.
✓ are labeled in circuit diagrams as R, C and L, respectively.
Resistor(R)
✓ is a passive two-terminal electrical component that consumes electrical power (energy).
✓ its effect is called resistance.
✓ used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, divide voltages, bias active elements,
and terminate transmission lines
Capacitor(C)
✓ is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores electrical energy in an electric
field.
✓ Its effect is known as capacitance.
Inductor (L)
✓ is also called as coil or reactor
✓ is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores electrical energy in a magnetic
field when electric current is flowing through it.
✓ consists of a wire loop.
b) Active Elements
✓ are capable of generating energy (power).
✓ Typical active elements include generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers.
The most important active elements are
✓ voltage or current sources
✓ delivered power to the circuit connected to them.
✓ of two kinds: independent and dependent sources.
An ideal independent source
✓ it is an active element that provides a specified voltage or current that is completely
independent of other circuit variables.

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An ideal independent voltage source

✓ delivers to the circuit whatever current is necessary to maintain its terminal voltage.
✓ Physical sources such as batteries and generators may be regarded as approximations to
ideal voltage sources.
An ideal independent current source
✓ provides a specified current completely independent of the voltage across the source.
✓ That is, the current source delivers to the circuit whatever voltage is necessary to maintain
the designated current.

Their symbols are as follows:

Fig. Symbols for independent voltage and current sources: (a) used for constant or time-
varying voltage, (b) used for constant voltage (dc) and (c) Symbol for independent current
source.
An ideal dependent (or controlled) source
✓ it is an active element in which the source quantity is controlled by another voltage or
current.
✓ is usually designated by diamond-shaped symbol as figure below.

Fig. Symbols for: (a) dependent voltage source, (b) dependent current source.
There are four possible types of dependent sources, namely:
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).
NB: voltage source comes with polarities (+ −) in its symbol, while a current source comes
with an arrow, irrespective of what it depends on.

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Their symbols are shown here:

Exercise #1. Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element in figure below.

Solution: (apply the sign convention).

For p1, the 5-A current is out of the positive terminal (or into the negative terminal); hence,
p1 = 20V(−5A) = −100 W (Supplied power)
For p2 and p3, the current flows into the positive terminal of the element in each case.
p2 = 12V(5A) = 60 W (Absorbed power) and p3 = 8V(6A) = 48 W (Absorbed power)
For p4, the voltage is 8V (+ at the top), the same as the voltage for p3, since both the passive
element and the dependent source are connected to the same terminals. Hence the current flows
out of the positive terminal; p4 = 8V(−0.2I) = 8V(−0.2 × 5A) = −8 W (Supplied power)
NB: the 20V independent voltage source and 0.2I dependent current source are supplying power
to the rest of the network, while the two passive elements are absorbing power.
Summation of power: ∑ 𝒑 = 𝒑𝟏 + 𝒑𝟐 + 𝒑𝟑 + 𝒑𝟒 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟔𝟎 + 𝟒𝟖 − 𝟖 = 𝟎
Homework #1. Compute the power absorbed or supplied by each component of the circuit in fig.
below.

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CHAPTER TWO
CIRCUIT LAWS AND ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
2.0.Introduction
This unit is going to discuss Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s law, Nodal analysis, Loop analysis, Source
transformation, Linearity and superposition, Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems and maximum
power transfer.
Ohm’s laws
✓ states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current i
flowing through the resistor.
✓ That is,
v ∝ i ………………………………………………………………(2.2)
✓ Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance, R.
Hence eq. (2.2)
✓ becomes: v=iR…………………………………………………… (2.3)
which is the mathematical form of Ohm’s law.
✓
✓ The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on
A and its length l. In mathematical form,
𝒍
𝑹 = 𝝆 𝑨……………………………………………………………………………………….. (2.4)

Where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters.

Fig.2.1 (a) Resistor, (b) Circuit symbol for resistance

The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is measured
in ohms (Ω).
NB: value of R can range from zero to infinity. Depending on extreme possible values of R;
circuits are divided in to two.
1. Short circuit
2. Open circuit.

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1. Short circuit
✓ voltage is zero but the current could be anything. v= iR =0………………….2.5
✓ circuit element with resistance approaching zero.
2. Open circuit
✓ circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.
𝒗
✓ current is zero though the voltage could be anything. 𝒊 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑹 =0………...2.6
𝑹→∞

Fig. a) Short circuit(R=0), (b) Open circuit(R=∞).

Conductance (G)

✓ is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured in mhos( )or siemens (S).
𝟏 𝒊
✓ reciprocal of resistance R. i.e. 𝑮 = = ………………………………………………………2.7
𝑹 𝒗
✓ a measure of how well an element will conduct electric current.
NB: The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R or G as follows:
𝑣2 𝑖2
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑖 2 𝑅 = = 𝑣 2 𝐺 = ………………………………………………………………2.8
𝑅 𝐺

Exercise
#1. A voltage source of 20 sinπtV is connected across a 5-kΩ resistor. Find the current through the
resistor, conductance and the power dissipated.
Solution

1
𝐺 = 𝑅 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎µ𝑆

Branches,Nodes and Loops

Branch: represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.

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Node: is the point of connection between two or more branches.

✓ indicated by a dot in a circuit
Loop: is any closed path in a circuit.
✓ formed by starting at a node, passing through a set of nodes, and returning to the starting node
without passing through any node more than once.
✓ is said to be independent if it contains a branch which is not in any other loop.
✓ Independent loops or paths result in independent sets of equations.
Consider the following figure.

It has:
✓ five branches, namely, the 10-V voltage source, the 2-A current source, and the three
resistors.
✓ three nodes a, b, and c.
✓ six loops (abca(2Ω),abca(3Ω),abca(2A),bcb(2Ω , 3Ω), bcb(3Ω, 2A) and bcb(2Ω,2A).
A network with b branches,n nodes, and l independent loops Satisfies the following formula.

………………………………………………………………………………2.9
Series elements: are cascaded or connected sequentially and consequently carry the same current.
Parallel elements: are connected to the same two nodes and have the same voltage across them.

Exercises
1. A resistor absorbs an instantaneous power of 20cos2t mW when connected to a voltage source
v=10cost V. Find i and R. Answer: 2costmA, 5kΩ.
2. How many branches and nodes does the circuit in Fig. below have? Identify the elements that are
in series and in parallel.

(a) Problem (b) answer

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Answers: has five branches and three nodes (b). The 1Ω and 2Ω resistors are in parallel. The
4Ω resistor and 10V source are also in parallel.
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Divided into two, namely
a) Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
b) Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
KCL :states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.

✓ Mathematically, KCL implies that: ∑𝑵 𝒏=𝟏 𝒊𝒏=𝟎 ……………………………………………2.10

✓ N = number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth current entering or leaving the node.
✓ based on the law of conservation of charge, which states that the algebraic sum of charges at the
node cannot change that is, the node stores no net charge.
To prove KCL;
1) Assume a set of currents ik(t), k =1,2,...,flow into a node.
2) The algebraic sum of currents at the node is: iT(t)=i1(t)+i2(t)+i3(t)+···…………….…………2.11
3) Integrating both sides of Eq. (2.11) gives: qT(t)=q1(t)+q2(t)+q3(t)+···………………..…….…….2.12
4) qT(t)=0 (from law of conservation of charge)→iT(t)=0, confirming the validity of KCL.
NB:The sum of the currents entering a node(closed boundary) is equal to the sum of the currents leaving it.

Fig. (a) Currents at a node illustrating KCL. (b) Applying KCL to a closed boundary.
Applying KCL to fig. (a) above gives: i1+(−i2)+i3+i4+(−i5)=0……………………………………...….2.13
Since currents i1,i3, and i4 are entering the node, while currents i2 and i5 are leaving it. By rearranging the
terms, we get: i1+i3+i4=i2+i5…………………………………………………………………………………...…2.14
KVL: states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path(or loop) is zero.
✓ based on the principle of conservation of energy:
✓ mathematically: ∑𝑴𝒎 𝒗𝒎 = 0……………………………………………………………………2.15
✓ M=number of voltages in the loop or number of branches in the loop and vm is the mth voltage.
Consider the ff figure for illustration of KVL: The sign on each voltage is the polarity of the terminal
encountered (met) first as we travel around the loop.

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Fig A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL

KVL in clockwise direction as shown on fig. above above yields: −v1+v2+v3−v4+v5=0
Rearranging terms gives: v2+v3 +v5 = v1 + v4; This implies: Sum of voltage drops=Sum of voltage rises
Examples
#1. For the circuit in Fig.(a) find voltages v1 and v2.

Solution:
To find v1 and v2, we apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Assume that current i flows through
the loop as shown in Fig. (b).
From Ohm’slaw: v1=2i, v2=−3i ………………………………………………………………..…(1)
Applying KVL around the loop gives: −20+v1−v2=0……………………….………………………..(2)
Substituting Eq. (1) into Eq. (2), we obtain: −20+2i+3i =0 or 5i =20 ⇒ i =4A
Substituting i in Eq. (1) finally gives : v1=8v, v2=−12v
#2. Determine vo and i in the circuit shown in Fig. below.

Solution:
Step1: apply KVL around the loop as shown in (b). The result is −12+4i+2vo−4+6i =0……………(1)
Step 2: Applying Ohm’s law to the 6Ω resistor gives: vo=−6i ……………………………………….(2)
Step 3: Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (1) yields: −16+10i−12i =0 ⇒ i =−8A and vo=(-6Ω)*(-8A) = 48 V.
#3. Find current io and voltage vo in the circuit shown in Fig below:

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Solution:
Step1. Applying KCL to node a, we obtain
3+0.5io=io ⇒ io=6A
Step 2: apply Ohm’s law to 4Ω resistor, gives
vo=4io=24 V

#4. Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown in Fig (a) below.

Solution:
Step1:Ohm’s law: v1=8i1, v2=3i2, v3=6i3 ………………….……………...………………(1)
Step 2: At nodea, KCL gives: i1−i2−i3=0………………………………………………………..(2)
Step 3: Applying KVL to loop 1 as in Fig. (b), −30+v1+v2=0
(𝟑𝟎−𝟑𝒊𝟐 )
We express this in terms of i1 and i2 as in Eq. (1) to obtain: −30+8i1+3i2=0 or 𝒊𝟏= …………(3)
𝟖

Step 4: Applying KVL to loop 2: −v2+v3=0 ⇒ v3=v2………………………………………….......(4)

𝑖2
Step 5: Substituting Eq. (1) into Eq. (4): 6i3=3i2 ⇒ i3= 2
……………………………………(5)
(𝟑𝟎−𝟑𝒊𝟐 ) 𝒊𝟐
Step 6: Substituting Eqs. (3) and (5) into (2) gives: 𝟖
− 𝒊𝟐 - 𝟐
= 0 or

i2 =2A, then i3=1A , i1= 6A, v1=24 V, v2=6V, v3=6V

Homework
#1. Find vo and io in the circuit of Fig below. Answer: 8V, 4A

Fig for Q#1.

#2. Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. below

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Fig. for Q#2.

Answer: v1=3V, v2=2V, v3=5V, i1=1.5A, i2=0.25 A, i3=1.25 A.
SERIES RESISTORS AND VOLTAGE DIVISION
✓ The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the individual
resistances.
✓ For N resistors in series then: 𝑹𝒆𝒒 = ∑𝑵
𝒏=𝟏 𝑹𝒏 …………………………………………………1.16

principle of voltage division

✓ source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to their resistances;
✓ the larger the resistance, the larger the voltage drop.
✓ if a voltage divider has N resistors (R1,R2, . . . , RN) in series with the source voltage v, the nth
𝑅𝑛
resistor (Rn) will have a voltage drop of: 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑣 …………...…..1.17
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +…………………………………+𝑅𝑁
✓ current passing through those resistors is called a voltage divider
consider the following figures.

a) A single-loop circuit with two resistors in series. b) Equivalent circuit fig. (a).
Ohm’s Law KVL to the loop (clockwise direction),
✓ v1 = iR1, v2 = iR2 ……. (1) −v + v1 + v2 = 0…………………………………. (2)
✓ combining (1) and (2): v = v1 + v2 = i (R1 + R2) = iReq …………………………………………. (3)
𝑅 𝑅
✓ voltage across each resistor: : 𝑣1 = 1 𝑣 and : 𝑣2 = 2 𝑣 …………………….……..(4)
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑅1 +𝑅2

PARALLEL RESISTORS AND VOLTAGE DIVISION

✓ The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of their resistances divided
by their sum.
✓ this applies only to two resistors in parallel.

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𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
✓ For N resistors in parallel the equivalent resistance is: = + +. … … … … … . . + ………1.18
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝑵

Note: Req is always smaller than the resistance of the smallest resistor in the parallel combination.
𝑹
✓ If R1=R2=…………………………….=RN=R, then Req = 𝑵
✓ It is more convenient to use conductance rather than resistance when dealing with resistors in
parallel.
✓ the 𝑮𝒆𝒒 for N resistors in parallel is : 𝑮𝒆𝒒 = 𝑮𝟏 + 𝑮𝟐 + ⋯ … … … … … + 𝑮𝑵 …………………1.19
✓ Hence 𝑮𝒆𝒒 of resistors connected in parallel is the sum of their individual conductances.
✓ The 𝑮𝒆𝒒 of parallel resistors is obtained the same way as the equivalent resistance of series resistors.
✓ Whereas the 𝑮𝒆𝒒 of resistors in series is obtained just the sameway as the resistance of resistors in
parallel.
✓ That is

…………………………………1.20
Consider the fig below.

Fig. a)Two resistors in parallel. b) Equivalent circuit to (a)

✓ Two registers have same voltage b/c they are in parallel.
O hm’s law:
𝒗 𝒗
v =iReq= i1R1 = i2R2 or 𝒊𝟏 = , 𝒊𝟐 = …………………………………………..(1)
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
KCL at node (a):
i = i1 + i2 …………………………………………………………………………………………..(2)
✓ Substituting Eq. (1) into Eq. (2), we get:
𝒗 𝒗 𝟏 𝟏 𝒗
i=
𝑹𝟏
+𝑹 = 𝒗(𝑹 +𝑹 ) = 𝑹𝒆𝒒
……………………………………………………………………(3)
𝟐 𝟏 𝟐

Principle of current division

✓ total current i is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to their resistances.
𝒗 𝒊𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝒊 𝑹 𝑹 𝑹𝟐 𝒗 𝒊𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝒊 𝑹 𝑹 𝑹𝟏
✓ i.e. 𝒊𝟏 = 𝑹𝟏
= 𝑹𝟏
= 𝑹 (𝑹 𝟏+𝑹𝟐 ) = (𝑹 )𝒊 , 𝒊𝟐 = 𝑹 = = 𝑹 (𝑹 𝟏+𝑹𝟐 ) = (𝑹 )𝒊
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 +𝑹𝟐
✓ larger current flows through the smaller resistance.
✓ Circuit is called current divider.
✓ if a current divider has N conductors (G1, G2, . . ., GN) in parallel with the source current i,
the nth conductor (Gn) will have current

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Example: #1. Find Req for the circuit shown in Fig below:
Solution
Step1: The 6ῼ and 3ῼ resistors are in parallel, so their equivalent

resistance is
Step2: the 1ῼ and 5ῼ resistors are in series; hence their equivalent resistance is

✓ The circuit is reduced to (a)

Step3: In Fig.(a), the two 2ῼ resistors are in series, so the
equivalent resistance is
Step4: This 4ῼ resistor is now in parallel with the 6ῼresistor
in Fig (a); their equivalent resistance is

Step5: Fig. (a) is now replaced with that in Fig. (b).

✓ Here three resistors are in series.
✓ Hence, the equivalent resistance for the circuit is

Example #2. Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the circuit in Fig below:
Solution
Step1: parallel resistors

Series:

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Step 2: circuit is replaced by fig (a)

Parallel: Series:

Parallel:

This is series with 10Ω

Then:

Exercises

#1. By combining the resistors in Fig. below,

find Req.(Ans: 6 ῼ)

#2. Find Rab for the circuit in Fig below:

(Ans: 11Ω)

#3. Find the equivalent conductance Geq for the circuit in Fig. below

#4. Find v1, v2, i1, i2 and the power dissipated in the 12Ω and 40Ω resistors.in the circuit
shown below

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WYE AND DELTA NETWORKS

✓ Are networks with resistors that are neither series nor parallel.
WYE network
✓ Has two forms.
✓ Y or T.
DELTA network
✓ Has two forms.
✓ Δ or π. Fig 1. Two forms of the same network: (a) Y, (b) T.

Fig 2. Two forms of the same network: (a)Δ, (b) π.

DELTA to WYE TRANSFORMATION
✓ superimpose a Y n/work on the existing Δ network and find the equivalent resistances in the Y n/w.
✓ the resistance between each pair of nodes in the Δ or π network is the same as the resistance
between the same pair of nodes in the Y or T network.
✓ For terminals 1 and 2 in Figs.1 and 2
R12(Y)=R12(Δ) implies: R1+R3 = Rb‖(Ra+Rc)

……..(1) ……….(2) …….(3)

✓ Subtracting Eq. (3) from Eq. (1), we get:

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…………………………………………………........(4)
✓ Adding Eqs. (2) and (4) gives

…………………………………………………………………(5)
✓ subtracting Eq. (4) from Eq. (2) yields

………………………………………………………………….(6)
✓ Subtracting Eq. (5) from Eq. (1), we obtain

…………………………………………………………………...(7)
Generally: Each resistor in the Y n/w is the product of the resistors in the two adjacent Δ branches,
divided by the sum of the three Δ resistors.
WYE to DELTA Conversion
✓ Each resistor in the Δ network is the sum of all possible products of Y resistors taken two at a
time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.
✓ That is:

…..(8) ….(9) …..(10)

✓ The Y and Δ networks are said to be balanced when

………………. (11)
✓ Under these conditions, conversion formulas become

……………………….……………… (12)
Exercise
#1. Transform the Y network in Fig. below to a delta network.

Ans:

#2. For the bridge network in Fig. below,find Rab and i.

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Answer: 40Ω, 2.5 A.

Nodal Analysis
✓ Based on KCL laws.
✓ also known as the node-voltage method.
Steps to Determine Node Voltages (without Vs)
1) Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1, v2, ……., vn−1 to the remaining n−1
nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.
2) Apply KCL to each of the n−1 nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch
currents in terms of node voltages.
3) Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.
Example:
Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown below.

Solution
✓ The reference node is selected, and the node voltages v1 and v2 are now to be determined.
✓ At node 1, applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives:

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→ ………..(1)
✓ At node 2, we do the same thing and get:

Or ………………. (2)
Method 1: Using the elimination technique. Adding eqns (1) and (2) give

✓ Substituting v2=20 in eqn (1) gives:

Method 2: using Cramer’s rule, we need to put Eqs. (1) and(2) in matrix form as

✓ The determinant of the matrix is

✓ We now obtain v1 and v2 as:

✓ If we need the currents, we can easily calculate them from the values of the nodal voltages.

Note: The fact that i2 is negative shows that the current flows in the direction opposite to the one
assumed.
Exercise
#1. Find the voltages at the three nonreference nodes in the circuit given below
Answer:

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Nodal analysis with voltage sources

Case1:
✓ If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a nonreference node;
voltage at the nonreference node = voltage source.
Case2:
✓ If the voltage source is connected b/n two nonreference nodes, the two nonreference nodes form a
supernode;
✓ apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node voltages.
Supernode:
✓ is formed by enclosing a voltage source connected between two nonreference nodes and any elements
connected in parallel with it.
Properties of Supernode
1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint equation needed to solve for the node
voltages.
2. A supernode has no voltage of its own.
3. A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL.
Example
#1. For the circuit shown on the right, find the node voltages.

Solution
✓ The supernode contains the 2V source, nodes 1 and 2, and the 10Ω resistor.

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Fig. Applying: (a) KCL to the supernode, (b) KVL to the loop.
✓ Applying KCL to the supernode (a):
✓ Expressing i1 and i2 in terms of the node voltages

implies: ………………(1)
✓ To get the relationship between v1 and v2, we apply KVL to the circuit in Fig. (b). Going around the
loop, we obtain ……………………….(2)

✓ From Eqs. (1) and (2), we write

Note: the 10Ω resistor does not make any difference because it is connected across the supernode.

MESH(LOOP) ANALYSIS
✓ A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.
✓ applies KVL to find unknown currents.
✓ Only applicable to a circuit that is planar (with no branches crossing one another).
Consider the fig. below

Fig. A circuit with two meshes.

✓ Paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes, but path abcdefa is not a mesh.
✓ The current through a mesh is known as mesh current.
Steps to determine mesh currents (without current source)

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Mesh 1: Applying KVL we obtain

implies ………....(1)
Mesh2: Applying KVL gives

implies …….(2)
Step 3: Putting Eqs. (1) and (2) in matrix form yields

………………………………………………..(3)
✓ Notice that the branch currents are different from the mesh currents unless the mesh is isolated.
✓ To distinguish between the two types of currents, we use i for a mesh current and I for a branch
current.
Mesh analysis with current sources
✓ If there is current source in a circuit it reduces number of equations.
Supermesh:
✓ results when two meshes have a current source in common.
✓ created by excluding the current source and any elements connected in series with it.
✓ Consider the following figure.

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Fig. (a) Two meshes having a current source in common, (b) a supermesh, created by excluding the current
source.
✓ applying KVL to the supermesh in Fig. (b) gives

or …………………….(1)
✓ Applying KCL to node 0 in Fig. (a) gives …………………………..(2)
✓ Solving Eqs. (1) and (2), we get
…………(3)
Properties of a Supermesh:

Linearity property
✓ It is the property of an element describing a linear relationship between cause and effect.
✓ It is a combination of both the homogeneity (scaling) property and the additivity property.
Homogeneity Property
✓ if the input is multiplied by a constant, then the output is multiplied by the same constant.
e.g. kiR=kv; where i=input multiplied by constant k, output v must be multiplied by constant k.

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Additivity Property
✓ Response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the responses to each input applied separately.
e.g. if v1=i1R and v2=i2R then applying (i1+i2) gives

✓ A resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current relationship satisfies both the homogeneity
and the additivity properties.
✓ In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and homogeneous.
Exercise
#1. For the circuit in Fig. on the right,
find io when vs = 12 V and vs = 24 V.

Solution
✓ Applying KVL to the two loops, we obtain

…….(1) and …….(2)

✓ But vx = 2i1. Now eqn (2) becomes: ……………………. (3)
✓ Adding Eqs. (1) and (3) yields

Substituting this in Eq. (1), we get

SUPERPOSITION
✓ Used in a circuit that has two or more independent sources.
✓ Determines the contribution of each independent source to the variable and then add them up.
✓ states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic
sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due to each independent source
acting alone.

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Notice:
✓ consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are turned off.
✓ Leave Dependent sources intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.
Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that
active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent
sources.
Example 1. Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit

Solution:
Since there are two sources, let: where v1 and v2 are the contributions due
to the 6V voltage source and the 3A current source, respectively.

1. To obtain v1, set the current source to zero, as shown in Fig.(a). Applying KVL to the
loop in Fig. (a) gives:

2. We may also use voltage division to get v1 by writing:

✓ To get v2, we set the voltage source to zero, as in Fig. 4.7(b). Using current division,

Hence, And we find

Example 2.
#Q. Find io in the circuit in Fig. on the right using superposition.
Solution:

The circuit involves a dependent source, which must be left intact.

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Let: ………………………. (1)

Fig.
Step 1. to obtain , turn off the 20-V source (fig.a) and apply mesh analysis.
Mesh1: ………………………………………………………………………..(2)

Mesh2: ………………………………….…………..(3)

Mesh3: ………………………………………….(4)
At node 0: ……………………………………………….....(5)
Substituting Eqs. (2) and (5) into Eqs. (3) and (4) gives two simultaneous equations

…… . (6) implies ………. (7)

becomes that shown in Fig. (b).

Mesh 4: KVL gives: …….... (8)
Mesh 5: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….(9)
But Substituting this in Eqs. (9) and (10) gives:

which we solve to get ..(10)

…………………………..(11)
Now substituting Eqs. (7) and (11) into Eq. (1) gives: ……. (12)
Exercise
1. Find i in the circuit in Fig below using the superposition principle.

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Answer: i = 0.75A
2. Using the superposition theorem, find vo in the circuit in circuit below.

answer: 12V
Source Transformation
✓ is the process of replacing a voltage source vs in series with a resistor R by a current
source is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.

✓ Consider the following figures.

a) Transformation of independent sources b) Transformation of dependent sources.

Note:
✓ arrow of the current source is directed toward the positive terminal of the voltage source.
✓ source transformation requires that: vs = isR or is =vs/R ……………………………...(1)
✓ source transformation is not possible in practical when R=0 and R = ∞.
Thevenin’s theorem
✓ states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh.

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✓ VTh = open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh = input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
Consider the following figures.

Fig. Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit by its Thevenin equivalent: (a) original circuit, (b)
the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
✓ Two circuits are said to be equivalent if they have the same voltage-current relation at their
terminals.
✓ If the terminals a-b are made open-circuited (by removing the load), no current flows.
✓ so the open-circuit voltage across the terminals a-b in Fig.(a) must be equal to the VTh in (b).
……………………………………………………………………………………………….… (1)

…………………………………………………………………………………... (2)
Consider a linear circuit terminated by a load RL (a) and its Thevenin’s equivalent circuit (b).

Fig. A circuit with a load:(a) original circuit, (b) Thevenin’s equivalent.

✓ From circuit (b):
……………. (3) and ………... (4)

Exercise
#1. Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit to the left of the terminals in the circuit
below. Then find i.

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#2. Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. below to the left of the terminals.

Norton’s theorem
✓ states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN
✓ IN = short-circuit current through the terminals and RN = input or equivalent resistance at
the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
Consider the figures below:

Fig. (a) Original circuit (b) Norton equivalent circuit.

,

Exercise
#1. Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit given below.

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Maximum Power Transfer

✓ Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance
as seen from the load (RL =RTh).
Consider this circuit.

✓ the power delivered to the load is:

……….(1)
✓ Prove the maximum power transfer theorem, differentiate p in Eq. (1) with respect to RL and set
the result equal to zero.

This implies that: ……………….(2)

Which yields: ……………………………………………………………………(3)
✓ Substituting eqn (3) in to eqn(1) gives maximum power like:

………………………………(4)
Exercise
1. Determine the value of RL that will draw the maximum power from the rest of the circuit in fig below.
Calculate the maximum power.

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CHAPTER 3
RESPONSE OF TRANSIENT CIRCUIT
3.1. INTRODUCTION
Under this chapter the first and second order circuits are going to be discussed briefly. They contain
the RL or RC and RLC circuits respectively.
3.2.Response of first order transient circuits
✓ A circuit response is the manner in which the circuit reacts to an excitation.
✓ applying Kirchhoff’s laws to RC and RL circuits produces differential equations.
✓ A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation.
✓ there are two types of circuits (RL and RC) and two ways to excite these circuits.
1. By initial conditions of the storage elements in the circuits (source free).
2. By independent sources (DC sources).
3.2.1. The Source free RC circuit
✓ occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected.
✓ The energy already stored in the capacitor is released to the
resistors.
✓ Consider a series combination of a resistor and an initially
✓ Charged capacitor, as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Fig. 3.1. A source-free RC circuit.
✓ objective is to determine the circuit response.
✓ assume the voltage v(t) across the capacitor.
✓ Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can assume that at time t =0, the initial voltage
is ……………………………………………………………..…………….(3.1)

✓ with the corresponding value of the energy stored as: ………… (3.2)

✓ Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit in Fig. 3.1, ……………….(3.3)

✓ By definition, iC=Cdv/dt and iR=v/R. Thus,

Or ……………………………. (3.4)

✓ This is a first-order differential equation.

✓ To solve it, we rearrange the terms as
…,,,…………………..(3.5)
✓ Integrating both sides, we get

lnA is the integration constant. Thus, ..(3.6)

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✓ Taking powers of e produces:

✓ But from the initial conditions, v(0) =A=V0. Hence, …………….(3.7)

✓ shows that the voltage response of the RC circuit is an exponential decay of the initial voltage.

✓ it is called the natural response of the circuit.

✓ Because the response is due to the initial energy stored and the physical characteristics of the circuit
and not due to some external voltage or current source
Note:The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in terms of voltages and currents) of the
circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation.

✓ The natural response is illustrated graphically in Fig. 3.2.

✓ Note that at t =0, we have the correct initial condition as in Eq. (1).
✓ As t increases, the voltage decreases toward zero.
✓ The rapidity with which the voltage decreases is expressed in terms of the time constant,
denoted by the lower case Greek letter tau, τ.

Fig. 3.2. The voltage response of the RC circuit.

Note: The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the response to decay by a factor of
1/e or 36.8 percent of its initial value.
✓ At t= τ, eqn. (3.7) becomes: Or ……. (3.8)

✓ In terms of the time constant, Eq. (3.7) can be written as: ……………(3.9)

✓ Current …………………….………………………(3.10)

✓ Power dissipated: ……………………………………………(3.11)

✓ The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t is

…. (3.12)
The Key to Working with a Source-free RC Circuit is Finding:
1. The initial voltage v(0)=V0 across the capacitor. 2. The time constant τ.
Example #1. In Fig. below, let vC(0)=15 V. Find vC, vx, and ix for t>0.

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Fig. a) given ckt. b) Equivalent ckt (standard RC ckt)

Solution

The time constant is

Thus
Applying voltage division to given ckt gives:

Finally,

3.2.2. THE SOURCE FREE RL CIRCUIT

✓ Consider the series connection of a resistor and an inductor, as shown in Fig. 3.2.

fig.3.3 A source free RL circuit.

✓ inductor current cannot change instantaneously.
✓ So select as the response.
✓ At t =0, we assume that the inductor has an initial current I0, or …...(3. 13)

✓ with the corresponding energy stored in the inductor as ……...…(3.14)

✓ Applying KVL around the loop in Fig. 3.3 ……………………...…(3.15)

✓ …………………....(3.16)

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✓ Rearranging terms and integrating gives

…… (3.17)
✓ Taking the powers of e, we have ………………………………. (3.18)

✓ This shows that the natural response of the RL ckt is an exponential decay of the initial current.

✓ The current response is shown in Fig. 3.4 below.

fig. 3.4. The current response of the RL circuit.

✓ From eqn (3.18) the time constant for the RL circuit is …………………….... (3.19)

✓ Thus eqn (3.18) can be written as ………………………………. (3.20)

✓ voltage across the resistor is ……………………….… (3.21)

✓ The power dissipated in the resistor is ………………… (3.22)

✓ The energy absorbed

by the resistor is
……. (3.23)

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✓
initial energy stored in the inductor as in Eq. (3.14).
✓ Again, the energy initially stored in the inductor is eventually dissipated in the resistor.
The Key to Working with a Source-free RL Circuit is to Find
1. The initial current i(0)=I0 through the inductor.
2. The time constant τ of the circuit.

✓ With the two items, we obtain the response as the inductor current iL(t) = i(t)=i(0)e−t/τ
✓ Once we determine the inductor current iL, other variables (inductor voltage vL, resistor
voltage vR, and resistor current iR ) can be obtained.
✓ R in Eq. (3.19) is the Thevenin resistance at the terminals of the inductor.
Example 2. Assuming that i(0)=10 A, calculate i(t)and ix(t) in the circuit in Fig. 3.5.

fig. 3.5.
Solution:
Method 1: find Req by inserting V0 =1V at inductor terminal due to dependent source in fig 3.6(a)

fig.3.6.
✓ Applying KVL to the two loops results in

Implies:

Hence; The time constant is

✓ Thus, the current through the inductor is

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Method 2: directly applying KVL to the circuit as in Fig. 3.6(b).

For loop 1:

For loop 2:

After substitution: rearranging terms:

✓ Replace i1 with i and integrate: or

✓ Taking the powers of e, we finally obtain

✓ The voltage across the inductor is

Since the inductor and the 2-Ωresistor are in parallel,

Exercise
1. If the switch in Fig. below opens at t =0, find v(t) for t ≥0 and wC(0).

2. For the circuit in Fig. below, find i(t) fort>0.

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3.2.3.Singularity Function
Before the response of the circuit it is mandatory to discuss the unit step function as follows.
The unit step function u(t) is the function which is 0 for negative values of t and 1 for positive
values of t (fig a).
✓ In mathematical terms,

………………………………. (1)
Fig. (a) the unit step function
✓ It is dimensionless
✓ If the abrupt change occurs at t = t0 (where t0 > 0)
✓ instead of t = 0, the unit step function becomes:

………………………………. (2)
✓ u(t) is delayed by t0 seconds (fig. b) Fig (b)
✓ If the change is at t = −t0, the unit step function becomes

………………. (3)
✓ u(t) is advanced by t0 seconds (fig.c)
✓ step function used to represent an abrupt change in voltage or current. Fig (c)
✓ For example, the voltage

……………… (4) may be expressed in terms of the unit step

function as …………………………………..……………..(5)
✓ If we let t0 = 0, then v(t) is simply the step voltage V0u(t). (fig a below).
✓ its equivalent circuit is shown in (fig b below)

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Fig. (a) Voltage source of V0u(t), (b) its equivalent circuit.

✓ For current is as follows:
Fig. (a) Current source of I0u(t), (b) its equivalent circuit.
✓ for t < 0, there is an open circuit (i = 0), and
✓ i = I0 flows for t > 0.
✓ Unit step function is one of the singularity functions.
✓ Singularity function=function that either is discontinuous or has discontinuous derivatives.
✓ The derivative of the unit step function u(t) is the unit impulse function δ(t), which we
write as

…………………….. (6)
✓ The unit impulse function δ(t) is zero everywhere except at t = 0, where it is undefined.
✓ Visualized as very short duration pulse of unit area.

…………………………… (7)
Fig. The unit impulse function.
✓ The unit area is known as the strength of the impulse function.
✓ For an impulse function has a strength other than unity, the area of the impulse is equal to its
strength (see fig. below three impulses with area =10, 5 and -4 respectively).

fig. three impulse functions.

✓ impulse function affects other functions (see the evaluation of the following integration).

………... (8) where a < t0 < b.

✓ Since δ(t − t0) = 0 except at t = t0, the integrand is zero except at t0.
✓ Thus,

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Or …… (9)

✓ This shows that when a function is integrated with the impulse function, we obtain the value of
the function at the point where the impulse occurs.
✓ For to=0, eqn. (9) becomes:
…………………………………. (10)
✓ Integrating the unit step function u(t) results in the unit ramp function r(t); we write

or ……………….(11)
✓ The unit ramp function is zero for negative values of t and has a unit slope for positive values of t.
✓ a ramp is a function that changes at a constant rate.

Fig. The unit ramp function. (a) delayed by t0. (b) advanced by t0.
✓ For the delayed unit ramp function. For the advanced unit ramp function.

.......(12) …….(13)
Summary
✓ The three singularity functions (impulse, step, and ramp) are related by differentiation as

………………………………………… (14)
✓ Or by integration as

…………...………… (15)
Example 1.

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Express the voltage pulse in Fig(a) below in terms of the unit step. Calculate its derivative and sketch it.

Fig.(a) gate function. (b) Decomposition of the pulse in (a). (c) derivative of the pulse in (a).
Solution: the gate function switches on at t = 2 s and switches off at t = 5 s. It consists of the sum of two-
unit step functions as shown in Fig.(b). From the figure (b)

Taking the derivative of this gives: (see fig c)

3.2.4. Step Response of an RC Circuit

The step response of a circuit is
✓ its behavior when the excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage or a current source.
✓ the response of the circuit due to a sudden application of a dc voltage or current source.
Consider the circuit below:

Fig. An RC circuit with voltage step input. (a) RC circuit (b) equivalent circuit
✓ where Vs is a constant, dc voltage source and capacitor voltage is the circuit response to be determined.
✓ Since the voltage of a capacitor cannot change instantaneously:
✓ where v(0−) is the voltage across the capacitor just before switching and v(0+) is its voltage immediately
after switching.
✓ Applying KCL, we have

or ….(16) where v is the voltage across the capacitor.

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✓ For t > 0, Eq. (16) becomes:

…………………………………. (17)
✓ Rearranging terms gives:

or …………………………………………(18)
✓ Integrating both sides and introducing the initial conditions,

implies or …..(19)
✓ Taking the exponential of both sides

gives or …,(20)
✓ Thus,
………….………………………..(21)
✓ This is known as the complete response of the RC circuit to a sudden application of a dc voltage
source, assuming the capacitor is initially charged.

✓ If we assume that the capacitor is uncharged initially, we set V0 = 0; so that

which can be written alternatively as …....(22)

✓ This is the complete step response of the RC circuit when the capacitor is initially uncharged.
✓ The current through the capacitor is

or ……………….(23)
✓ From v(t) has two components. Thus, we may write it as:

…….. (24) where …….. (25) and …(26)

✓ vn is the natural response of the circuit and will decay to almost zero after five time constants.
✓ it is also called the transient response because it is a temporary response that will die out with time.
✓ vf is known as the forced response. i.e.it is produced by the circuit when an external “force” is applied
✓ It is also known as the steady-state response because it remains a long time after the circuit is excited.
Note: The complete response of the circuit is the sum of the natural response and the forced response.

Therefore can be written as: ..(27)

✓ where v(0) is the initial voltage at t = 0+ and v(∞) is the final or steady state value.

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✓ Thus, finding the step response of an RC circuit requires three things:

1. The initial capacitor voltage v(0).
2. The final capacitor voltage v(∞).
3. The time constant τ.
✓ if the switch changes position at time t = t0 instead of at t = 0, there is a time delay in the response
so that Eq. (27) becomes: …..(28)

✓ where v(t0) is the initial value at t = t0 +.

Note: Eq. (27) or (28) applies only to step responses, that is, when the input excitation is constant.
Example:
The switch in Fig. below has been in position A for a long time. At t = 0, the switch
moves to B. Determine v(t) for t > 0 and calculate its value at t = 1 s and 4 s.
solution: For t < 0, the switch is at position A.

Fort > 0, the switch is in position B. RTh = 4 kῼ is connected to C. =2s

At t = 1, v(1) = 20.902 V and at t= 4; , v(4) = 27.97V

3.2.5 Step Response of an RL Circuit

✓ Here the circuit response is the inductor current i.
✓ Consider the RL circuit in Fig. (a) with its equivalent circuit (b).
✓ Let the response be the sum of the natural current and the forced current,

………………………………………………….(1)
✓ the natural response is always a decaying exponential, that is,

……………..……… (2)
where A is a constant to be determined.
✓ The forced response is the value of the current a long time after the switch in fig. (a)
is closed.
✓ the natural response essentially dies out after five time constants.
✓ At that time, the inductor becomes a short circuit, and the voltage across it is zero.
✓ The entire source voltage Vs appears across R.
✓ Thus, the forced response is
……………………………………………..……… (3)
✓ Substituting eqns. (2 and 3) in to (1) gives:

…………………………………………………………………………… (4)
✓ now determine the constant A form the initial value of i. that is:

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…… (5)
✓ Thus at t = 0, Eq. (4) becomes:
………………………………...……. (6)
✓ From this, we obtain A as:

……..…………………………………...…. (7)
✓ Substituting for A in Eq. (4), we get
…….………. (8)
✓ This is the complete response of the RL circuit.
✓ It is illustrated in Fig.(c).
✓ The response in Eq. (8) may be written as

……………. (9)
✓ where i(0) and i(∞) are the initial and final values of i.
✓ Thus, to find the step response of an RL circuit
requires three things:
1. The initial inductor current i(0) at t = 0+.
2. The final inductor current i(∞).
3. The time constant τ.
(c) Total response of the
RL circuit with initial
inductor current I0.
✓ item 1 from the given circuit for t < 0 and items 2 and 3 from the circuit for t > 0.
✓ if the switching takes place at time t = t0 instead of t = 0, eqn. (9) becomes:

………………………………… (10)
✓ If I0 = 0, then

or ……(11)
✓ This is the step response of the RL circuit.
✓ The voltage across the inductor is obtained from Eq. (11) using v = Ldi/dt. We get

or ……….. (12)
✓ the step responses in Eqs. (11) and (12) shown in fig. below.

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Fig. Step responses of an RL circuit with no initial inductor current: (a) current response, (b) voltage
response.
Example
Find i(t) in the circuit in Fig. below for t > 0. Assume that the switch has been closed for a long time.

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Checking: for t > 0, KVL must be satisfied; that is,

✓ This confirms the result.

Exercise
1. The switch in Fig. below has been closed for a long time. It opens at t = 0. Find i(t) for t > 0.

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3.3 Response of second order transient circuits

✓ A second-order circuit is characterized by a second-order differential equation.
✓ It consists of resistors and the equivalent of two energy storage elements.
✓ Typical examples of second-order circuits are RLC circuits.
✓ Consider the following figures.

Fig. Typical examples of second-order circuits: (a) series RLC circuit, (b) parallel RLC
circuit, (c) RL circuit, (d) RC circuit.

3.3.1. Finding Initial and Final Values

✓ There are two key points to keep in mind in determining the initial conditions.
1. carefully handling the polarity of voltage v(t) across the capacitor and the direction of the
current i(t) through the inductor.
2. the capacitor voltage and the inductor current are always continuous so that:
and
…………………………… (1)
✓ where t =0− denotes the time just before a switching event and t =0+ is the time just after the
switching event, assuming that the switching event takes place at t =0.
According to Passive sign convention,
1. current flow into the positive terminal of the capacitor when the capacitor is being charged, and out
of the positive terminal when the capacitor is discharging.

2. As well for inductor; current entering it by +ve and living it by –ve.

Example
1. The switch in Fig. below has been closed for a long time. It is open at t =0.

Solution:
(a) If the switch is closed a long time before t =0, it means that the circuit has reached dc steady state
at t=0. At dc steady state, the inductor acts like a short circuit, while the capacitor acts like an open
circuit, so we have the circuit in Fig. (a) at t =0−.

Thus,
✓ As the inductor current and the capacitor voltage cannot change abruptly,

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(b) At t =0+, the switch is open; the equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. (b). The same current flows
through both the inductor and capacitor.
Hence,

✓ Similarly, since
✓ We now obtain vL by applying KVL to the loop in Fig. (b). The result is

or
✓ Thus,

(c) For t>0, the circuit undergoes transience. But as t →∞, the circuit reaches steady state again. The
inductor acts like a short circuit and the capacitor like an open circuit, so that the circuit becomes
that shown in Fig.(c), from which we have

Exercise
1. The switch in Fig. below was open for a long time but closed at t =0. Determine:

3.3.2.The source free series RLC Circuit

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✓ Consider the series RLC circuit shown in Fig. below:

Fig. A source-free series RLC circuit.

✓ The circuit is being excited by the energy initially stored in the capacitor and inductor.
✓ The energy is represented by the initial capacitor voltage V0 and initial inductor current I0.
✓ Thus, at t =0,

………………………………….………………………….. (1)
✓ Applying KVL around the loop:

…………………………………………………………. (2)
✓ To eliminate the integral, we differentiate with respect to t and rearrange terms. We get

………………………………………………………………….. (3)
✓ This is a second-order differential equation.
✓ To solve it we have two initial conditions, such as the initial value of i and its first derivative or
initial values of some i and v.
✓ The initial value of i is given in Eq. (1).
✓ initial value of the derivative of i can be obtained from Eqs. (1) and (2); that is,

or …………………….….. (4)
✓ With the two initial conditions in Eqs. (1) and (4), we can now solve Eq. (3).
✓ Since the solution is in exponential form; let we assume solution as:
……………………………………… (5) where A and s are constants to be determined.
✓ Substituting Eq. (5) into Eq. (3) and carrying out the necessary differentiations, we obtain

or ………………… (6)
✓ Since is the assumed solution we are trying to find, only the expression in parentheses
can be zero:
……………………………………………………………………………….. (7)
✓ This quadratic equation is known as the characteristic equation of the differential Eq. (3)
✓ The two roots of Eq. (7) are

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and ……. (8)

✓ A more compact way of expressing the roots is

………………………………… (9)
✓ Where

……………………………………………………………… (10)
✓ The roots s1 and s2 are called natural frequencies, measured in nepers per second (Np/s),
✓ because they are associated with the natural response of the circuit;
✓ ω0 is known as the resonant frequency or strictly as the undamped natural frequency, expressed
in radians per second (rad/s);
✓ α is the neper frequency or the damping factor, expressed in nepers per second.
✓ In terms of α and ω0, Eq. (7) can be written as

……………………………………………………………………… (11)
✓ there are two possible solutions for i:

………………………………………………………….. (12)
✓ Thus, the natural response of the series RLC circuit is

…………………………………………………………………. (13)
✓ where the constants A1 and A2 are determined from the initial values i(0) and di(0)/dt.
✓ From Eq. (9), we can infer that there are three types of solutions:

Overdamped Case (α > ω0)

✓ This is when
✓ When this happens, both roots s1 and s2 are negative and real. The response is
which decays and approaches zero as t increases. Figure (a) illustrates a typical overdamped
response.
Critically Damped Case (α=ω0)
✓ Now and

✓ Then,
✓ This cannot be the solution, because the two initial conditions
cannot be satisfied with the single constant A3.
✓ Our assumption of an exponential solution is incorrect for the special case of critical damping.
✓ Substitute in eq. (3) that is in

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Gives or …. (14)

✓ let ……………………… (15) then, eqn. (14) becomes

✓ which is a first-order differential equation with solution where A1 is a constant.

✓ Equation (15) then becomes

or ……. (16)

✓ This can be written as

…………………………………………… (17). Integrating both sides yields

✓ eαt i =A1t +A2 implies that i = (A1t +A2)e-αt………………… (18) where A2 is another constant.
✓ Hence, the natural response of the critically damped circuit is

…………………………… (19)
Underdamped Case (α < ω0)
✓ Here The roots may be written as

and … (20)
Where
which is called the damping frequency.
✓ Both ω0 and ωd are natural frequencies because they help to determine the natural response;
✓ ω0 = undamped natural frequency, ωd = damped natural frequency.
✓ The natural response is
…………………. (21)

✓ Using Euler’s identities, ……….. (22)

✓ we get:
…….. (23)

✓ Replacing constants (A1+A2) and j(A1−A2) with constants B1and B2, we write

………………………………………………..... (24)
✓ Due to sine and cosine, the natural response is exponentially damped and oscillatory in nature.

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✓ The response has a time constant of 1/α and a period of T=2π/ωd.

Summary of RLC network

✓ The damping effect is due to the presence of resistance R.
✓ The damping factor α determines the rate at which the response is damped.
✓ If R = 0, then α = 0, and we have an LC circuit with 1/√LC as the undamped natural frequency.
✓ Since α < ω0, the response is undamped and oscillatory.
✓ The circuit is said to be lossless, because the dissipating or damping element (R) is absent.
✓ By adjusting the value of R, the response may be made undamped, overdamped, critically
damped, or underdamped.
✓ Oscillatory response is due to the presence of L and C
✓ This allows the flow of energy back and forth between the two.
✓ The critically damped case is the borderline between the underdamped and overdamped cases
and it decays the fastest.
✓ the overdamped case has the longest settling time.

3.3.3. The source free Parallel RLC Circuit

✓ Consider the parallel RLC circuit shown in Fig. below.

Fig. A source-free parallel RLC circuit.

✓ Assume initial inductor current I0 and initial capacitor voltage V0,

…………………………………… (1)
✓ three elements have the same voltage v across them and the current through each element is leaving
the top node.
✓ Thus, applying KCL at the top node gives

…………………………………………….... (2)
✓ Taking the derivative with respect to t and dividing by C results in

…………………………………………………... (3)
✓ the characteristic equation is obtained as

…………………………………………………………..... (4)
The roots of the characteristic equation are:

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or …………….… (5)
✓ where

✓ Again, there are three possible solutions:

✓ α > ω0 when L > 4R2C.

✓ The roots of the characteristic equation are real and negative. The response is

……………………………………………………..…. (6)

✓ For α = ω, L = 4R2C. The roots are real and equal so that the response is

…………………………………………………………. (7)

✓ When α < ω0, L < 4R2C.

✓ In this case the roots are complex and may be expressed as ….. (8)
✓ Where
………………………………………………….. (9)

✓ The response is ………………. (10)

✓ The constants A1 and A2 in each case can be determined from the initial conditions.
✓ We need v(0) from (1) and dv(0)/dt from (1 and 2).

or ……….. (11)
✓ Having found the capacitor voltage v(t) for the parallel RLC circuit
✓ iR =v/R and vC = Cdv/dt.
Notice: inductor current i(t) is first found for the RLC series circuit, whereas the capacitor voltage v(t) is
first found for the parallel RLC circuit.
Example:
Find v(t) for t > 0 in the RLC circuit of Fig. below.

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Solution:
✓ When t < 0, the switch is open; the inductor acts like a short circuit while the capacitor behaves
like an open circuit.
✓ The initial voltage across the capacitor is the same as the voltage across the 50𝛀 resistor;
✓ that is,

✓ The initial current through the inductor is

……………….. (12)
✓ When t > 0, the switch is closed. The voltage source along with the 30Ω resistor is separated from the
rest of the circuit.
✓ The parallel RLC circuit acts independently of the voltage source as shown below.
✓ Next, we determine that the roots of the characteristic equation are

or
✓ Since α > ω0, we have the overdamped response

…………………………………………. (13)

✓ At t = 0, ….. (14)
✓ Taking the derivative of v(t) in Eq. (13)

✓ Imposing the condition in Eq. (12)

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✓ or ……. (15)
Solving Eqs. (14) and (15) gives

✓ Thus, the complete solution in Eq. (17) becomes

3.3.4. Step Response of a Series RLC Circuit

✓ Consider the series RLC circuit shown in below.

Fig. Step voltage applied to a series RLC circuit

✓ Applying KVL around the loop for t>0,

But ………………………….………….…….. (1)

✓ Substituting for i in Eq. (1) and rearranging terms,

………………………………………………….……….. (2)
✓ The solution to Eq. (2) has two components: the natural response vn(t)and the forced response vf(t);
that is,

……………………………………………………………………… (3)
✓ The natural response is the solution when we set Vs =0
✓ Its response for the overdamped, underdamped, and critically damped cases are:

✓ The forced response is the steady state or final value of v(t).

…………………………………………………………………………… (4)
✓ Thus, the complete solutions for the overdamped, underdamped, and critically damped cases are:

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✓ The values of the constants A1 and A2 are obtained from the initial conditions: v(0) and dv(0)/dt.

3.3.5. Step Response of a Parallel RLC Circuit

✓ Consider the parallel RLC circuit shown in Fig. below.

Fig. Parallel RLC circuit with an applied current.

✓ Applying KCL at the top node for t>0,

but ………………………………………………… (5)

✓ Substituting for v in Eq. (5) and dividing by LC, we get

…………………………………………………………. (6)
✓ The complete solution of eqn. (6) is

…………….………………………………………………………… (7)
✓ The final value of the current through the inductor is the same as the source current Is. Thus,

✓ The constants A1 and A2 in each case can be determined from the initial conditions for i and di/dt.
✓ once the inductor current iL=i is known, we can find v=Ldi/dt = vL = vC = vR.
3.3.6. General 2nd Order Circuits
✓ Given a second-order circuit, we determine its step response x(t) (which may be voltage or current)
by taking the following four steps:

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1. first determine the initial conditions x(0) and dx(0)/dt and the final value x(∞)
2. find the natural response xn(t) by turning off independent sources and applying KCL and KVL. Once a
second-order differential equation is obtained, determine its characteristic roots. Depending on whether
the response is overdamped, critically damped, or underdamped, obtain xn(t) with two unknown
constants.
3. obtain the forced response as
…………………………………………………………………………… (8)
4. The total response is

…………………………...…………………………………………. (9)
✓ finally determine the constants associated with the natural response by imposing the initial conditions
Examples
1. For the circuit in Fig. below find v(t)and i(t) for t>0. Consider these cases: R=5Ω, R=4Ω, and R=1Ω.

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capacitor voltage. In Fig. above, vf =24 V. Thus,

✓ We now need to find A1 and A2 using the initial conditions.

or ………………….. (1)

Then it becomes:

…… (2) At t =0 … (3)
✓ From eqns. (1) and (3) A1= −64/3 and A2 = 4/3.
✓ Substituting in eqn for v(t):

………………………..………………………. (4)
✓ Since the inductor and capacitor are in series for t>0, the inductor current is the same as the capacitor
current. Hence,

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✓ Multiplying Eq. (2) by C=0.25 and substituting the values of A1 and A2 gives

………………………………………………………….. (5)

………. (6)

From Eq. (5)

………….………………………………………… (7)
At t =0,

……………………………………………………………. (8)
From eqns. (6) and (8)

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Thus eqn. (5) becomes:

……….………………………………………… (9)
✓ The inductor current is the same as the capacitor current, that is,

✓ Multiplying Eq. (7) by C=0.25 and substituting the values of A1 and A2 gives

. Note that i(0)=4.5 A, as expected.

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v(t) becomes:

Then

✓ critically damped response approaches the step input

of 24 V fastly.

Fig. Response for three degrees of damping

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2. In the circuit below, find i(t) and iR(t) for t>0.

or

………………….. (1)

……………………... (2)
✓ Taking the derivative of i(t)in Eq. (1),

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so that at t=0, ….. (3)

✓ But

✓ Substituting this into Eq. (3) and incorporating Eq. (2), we get

(1)
gives the complete solution as

Exercise
1. Having been in position a for a long time, the switch in Fig. below is moved to position b at t =0.
Find v(t) and vR(t) for t>0.

2. Find i(t) and v(t) for t>0 in the circuit below.

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CHAPTER 4
AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
4.1. Introduction
✓ The lessons in previous sections were dc circuits
✓ those circuits excited by constant or time-invariant sources
✓ but now onwards ac circuits will be discussed.
✓ the source voltage or current in AC circuits is time-varying.
4.2. Sinusoids
✓ A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.
✓ Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage sources are called ac circuits.
✓ Consider the sinusoidal voltage ………………… (1)
where

✓ The sinusoid is shown as fig follow.

Fig.
✓ From the two plots

implies that ………………………………………… (2)

✓ The fact that v(t) repeats itself every T seconds is shown by replacing t by t + T in Eq.
(1). We get

………….. (3)
✓ Hence, ……………………………….…………………………………………………. (4)

✓ that is, v has the same value at t + T as it does at t and v(t) is said to be periodic.

✓ In general,

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✓ period T is the time of one complete cycle or the number of seconds per cycle.
✓ Its reciprocal is the number of cycles per second, known as the cyclic frequency f of the
sinusoid. Thus,

……………… (5). From (2) and (5) ……………………….. (6)

✓ While ω is in radians per second (rad/s), f is in hertz (Hz).
✓ General expression for the sinusoid is

… (7) where (ωt + φ) is the argument and φ is the phase.

✓ Both argument and phase can be in radians or degrees.
✓ Let us examine the two sinusoids with their graphs:

……. (8)

Fig. Two sinusoids with different phases.

✓ The starting point of v2 occurs first in time; hence v2 leads v1 by φ or that v1 lags v2 by φ.
✓ If φ ≠0, v1 and v2 are out of phase. If φ = 0, then v1 and v2 are in phase; they reach their
minima and maxima at exactly the same time.
✓ When comparing two sinusoids, it is convenient to express both as either sine or cosine
with positive amplitudes.
✓ This is achieved by using the following trigonometric identities:

……………………… (9)
✓ With these identities, it is easy to show that

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……………………………………… (10)
✓ Graphical relations as an alternative to using the trigonometric identities in Eqs. (9) and
(10).

Fig. A graphical means of relating cosine and sine:

✓ Angles are measured positively counterclockwise from the horizontal

✓ graphical technique can also be used to add two sinusoids of the same frequency when
one is in sine form and the other is in cosine form.
✓ Consider the figures below

Fig.
✓ From triangle (a)

where ……. (11)

✓ From (b)
……………………… (12)
Example 1
Find the amplitude, phase, period, and frequency of the sinusoid

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4.3. PHASORS
✓ A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
✓ provide a simple means of analyzing linear circuits excited by sinusoidal sources.
✓ A complex number z can be written in rectangular form as

… (13) where x is the real part of z; y is the imaginary part of z.

✓ z can be represented in three ways:

……………………………………….. (14)

✓ thus, ……………..……………. (15)

✓ Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are better performed in rectangular form;
✓ multiplication and division are better done in polar form.
✓ Given the complex numbers

the following operations are important.

✓ Addition:
✓ Subtraction:
✓ Multiplication:
✓ Division: Reciprocal: Square Root:

✓ Complex Conjugate:

✓ The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity.

……………………………………………………..… (16)

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…………………………….…………………………………. (17)
Given a sinusoid: can be expressed as

……..……………………… (18)

✓ Or ……………………………………………………... (19)
✓ Thus, ……………...…………………………………………. (20)
✓ where ………………………………………...………… (21)
✓ V is thus the phasor representation of the sinusoid v(t).
✓ is called sinor. It is the multiplication of phasor (V) and time factor .
✓ v(t) is the projection of the sinor Vejωt on the real axis, as shown below.

Fig.

Note: To get the phasor corresponding to a sinusoid, express the sinusoid in the cosine form so
that the sinusoid can be written as the real part of a complex number.
✓ Then take out the time factor ejωt and whatever is left is the phasor corresponding to the
sinusoid.
✓ By suppressing ejωt, transform the sinusoid from the time domain to the phasor domain.

i.e. ……………. (22)

✓ the phasor domain is also known as the frequency domain. Because the response depends
on ω. Omega is constant hence frequency is not explicitly shown in phasor domain.

✓ ………… (23)
✓ Differentiating a sinusoid is equivalent to multiplying its corresponding phasor by jω.
✓ Integrating a sinusoid is equivalent to dividing its corresponding phasor by jω.
The differences between v(t) and V

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1. v(t) is the instantaneous or time-domain representation, while V is the frequency or

phasor-domain representation.
2. v(t) is time dependent, while V is not.
3. v(t) is always real with no complex term, while V is generally complex.
Note: phasor analysis applies only when frequency is constant; it applies in manipulating two or
more sinusoidal signals only if they are of the same frequency.
Exercise

Brainstorm:
Find the voltage v(t) in a circuit described by the integrodifferential equation

using the phasor approach.

4.3.1. Phasor relationships for Circuit Elements (R, L and C)

✓ transform the voltage-current relationship from the time domain to the frequency
domain for each element.
✓ assume the passive sign convention.
For Resistor (R)
✓ If current is through it is given as voltage across it is

…….. (1) in phasor form:

✓ But the phasor representation of the current is Hence …. (2)
✓ From eqn. (2) voltage and current are in phase, as illustrated in the phasor diagram below

Fig. Phasor diagram for the resistor.

For the inductor L
✓ assume the current through it is
✓ The voltage across the inductor is …… (3)
✓ From

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It becomes: ……………………………………… (4)

✓ This transforms to the phasor

this implies ….. (5)

✓ This shows that the voltage has a magnitude of ωLIm and a phase of φ+90◦
✓ Here voltage and current are 90◦ out of phase.

fig. Phasor diagram for the inductor; I lags V.

For the capacitor (C)
✓ assume the voltage across it is v =
✓ The current through the capacitor is ………………………… (6) then

……………………….. (7)
✓ Here also voltage and current are 90◦ out of phase.

fig. Phasor diagram for the capacitor; I leads V.

4.3.2. IMPEDANCE and ADMITTANCE

a) Impedance (Z)
✓ It is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor current I, measured in ohms.
✓ opposition which the circuit exhibits to the flow of sinusoidal current.
✓ For resistor, inductor and capacitor it can be as follows.

……………………….. (8)

✓ For complex number it is given as

✓ where R = ReZ is the resistance and X = ImZ is the reactance.
✓ impedance is inductive when X is positive or capacitive when X is negative.
✓ The impedance in polar form is as follows: …………………… (9)

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and …… (10)
b) Admittance (Y)
✓ It is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in Siemens (S).
✓ i.e. it is the ratio of the phasor current to the phasor voltage: .…. (11)
✓ as complex quantity: …………………………………………… (12)
✓ where G =ReY is called the conductance and B =ImY is called the susceptance.

…… (13) By rationalization, …….. (14)

✓ Equating the real and imaginary parts gives …….… (15)

Example
Find v(t) and i(t) in the circuit shown in Fig below.

✓ The voltage across the capacitor is

✓ Converting I and V to the time domain, we get

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✓ Notice that i(t) leads v(t) by 90◦ as expected.

c) Impedance combinations
Series connection

….. (17).
Parallel connection

… (18) fig. N impedances in series and parallel

✓ the equivalent admittance is

✓ The delta-to-wye and wye-to-delta transformations that we applied to resistive circuits

are also valid for impedances.

✓ Apply voltage division principle for series and current-division principle for parallel.

Example 2
Find the input impedance of the circuit in Fig below. Assume that the circuit operates at
ω = 50 rad/s.

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Thus,
Exercise
Determine the input impedance of the circuit in Fig. below at ω = 10 rad/s.

4.4. Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis

✓ Steps for analyzing ac circuits.
1. Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency domain.
2. Solve the problem using circuit techniques
3. Transform the resulting phasor to the time domain.
4.4.1. Nodal Analysis
e.g. ComputeV1 and V2 in the circuit below.

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Solution:

✓ Nodes 1 and 2 form a supernode. Applying KCL at the supernode gives

or …………………… (1)
✓ But a voltage source is connected between nodes 1 and 2, so that

…………………..………………………………………….. (2)
✓ Substituting Eq. (2) in Eq. (1) results in

…………………….. (3)
Then ………………………...… (4)
4.4.2. Mesh Analysis
Example: Solve for Vo in the circuit in Fig. below using mesh analysis.

Solution:

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✓ meshes 3 and 4 form a supermesh due to the current source between the meshes.
For mesh 1, KVL gives

or ………... (1)
For mesh 2, …………………………………………………………….……………….. (2)

For the supermesh, ……………...…. (3)

✓ Due to the current source between meshes 3 and 4, at node A,

……………………………………………………………………………. (4)
✓ Combining Eqs. (1) and (2)
…………………..………………………………… (5)
✓ Combining Eqs. (2) to (4)
…….………………………………………… (6)
From Eqs. (5) and (6), we obtain the matrix equation

We obtain the following determinants

Current I1 is obtained as

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4.4.3. Superposition Theorem

✓ Best in circuit with different frequencies.
Example
Find vo in the circuit below using the superposition theorem.

Solution:
Let …………………………………………………. (1)

Where v1 is due to the 5-V dc, v2 is due to the 10 cos 2t V and v3 is due to the 2 sin 5t A.
✓ a capacitor is an open circuit to dc while an inductor is a short circuit to dc. Or

By voltage division,

…… (2)
✓ To find v2, set to zero both the 5-V and the 2sin5t and transform the circuit to the frequency
domain.

The equivalent circuit is

Let

By voltage division,

In the time domain,

………………………………………….…………. (3)
✓ To obtain v3, set the voltage sources to zero and transform circuit to the frequency domain.

The equivalent circuit is

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✓ Let

✓ By current division,

In the time domain,

………..……………………. (4)
Substituting Eqs. (2) to (4) into Eq. (1), we have

4.4.4. Source Transformation

4.4.5. THEVENIN and NORTON Equivalent Circuits

4.4.6. Op amp AC circuits

✓ two important properties of an ideal op amp:
1. No current enters either of its input terminals.
2. The voltage across its input terminals is zero
Example
1. Determine vo(t) for the op amp circuit below if vs =3 cos 1000t V.

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Solution:
✓ transform the circuit to the frequency domain shown below

Applying KCL at node 1:

Or …………………………………………………………………….. (1)
At node 2, KCL gives

This leads to ………………………………………………………………… (2)

✓ Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (1) yields

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Hence

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4.4 AC Power Analysis and Poly Phase Circuits

4.4.6 AC Power Analysis
✓ The most common form of electric power is 50- or 60-Hz ac power.
✓ The choice of ac over dc allowed high-voltage power transmission.
4.4.7. Instantaneous Power and Average Power
a. instantaneous power
✓ it is the power at any instant of time.
✓ It is the rate at which an element absorbs energy.
Given by ……………………………………………………… (1)
✓ Instantaneous quantities are denoted by lowercase letters.
✓ Let the voltage and current at the terminals of the circuit be

………………………………………………...……… (2)
✓ Then the instantaneous power absorbed by the circuit is

…………………. (3)
✓ applying trigonometric identity

to eqn. (3) gives

….……. (4)
✓ Eqn. (4) has to parts
1. Time independent part which depends on the phase difference between the V and I.
2. Sinusoidal function whose frequency is 2ω, which is twice the ω of the V or I.
Graphically

Fig. The instantaneous

power p(t) entering a circuit.

✓ p(t) is periodic, p(t) = p(t + T0), and has a period of T0 = T/2, since its frequency is
twice that of voltage or current.
✓ The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore difficult to measure.
b) Average Power

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✓ It is the average of the instantaneous power over one period.

✓ It is more convenient to measure.
✓ It is given by

……………………………………………………………. (5)
✓ Substituting p(t) in Eq. (4) into Eq. (5) gives

…… (6)
✓ The first integrand is constant, and the average of a constant is the same constant.
✓ The second integrand is a sinusoid and its average over its period is zero.
✓ Hence average power becomes

…………………………………………………… (7)
Note: p(t) is time-varying while P does not depend on time.
✓ To find p(t), v(t) and i(t) must be in time domain.
✓ But finding P is possible whether V and I are expressed in time or frequency domain.
✓ To use phasors, notice that

…………… (8)
✓ Then real part is same as average power and hence

Case 1: if V and I are in phase (purely resistive circuit or resistive load R)

........... (9)

Case 2: if (purely reactive circuit)

……………………………………………………………. (10)
Summary
✓ A resistive load (R) absorbs power at all times, while a reactive load (L or C) absorbs
zero average power.
Exercise
1. In the circuit below, calculate average power P absorbed by the resistor, inductor and
supplied by the voltage source.

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4.4.8. Maximum Average Power Transfer

✓ Here the load impedance ZL is equal to the complex conjugate of the Thevenin
impedance ZTh.
✓ In rectangular form, the Thevenin impedance ZTh and the load impedance ZL are

…………………………………………………………. (11)
✓ The current through the load is

……………… (12)
✓ the average power delivered to the load is

………………..… (13)
To Prove (ZL = Z*Th) for Maximum Average Power Transfer
✓ Equate partial derivative of P with zero:

= 0 gives ………. (14)

= 0 gives .… (15)
✓ Hence for maximum average power transfer, ZL must be selected so that

and i.e. …… (16)

✓ Substituting this in eqn. (13) gives:
……..………………….. (17)
Note: for maximum average power transfer to a purely resistive load (XL =0), the load impedance
(or resistance) is equal to the magnitude of the Thevenin impedance.

…………………………………………………….. (20)
Exercise
1. For the circuit below, find ZL that absorbs the maximum average power. Calculate that
maximum average power.

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4.4.9. Effective or RMS value

✓ The effective value of a periodic current is the dc current that delivers the same average
power to a resistor as the periodic current.
Consider the following circuits:

Fig. Finding the effective current: (a) ac circuit, (b) dc circuit

✓ Objective: to find Ieff that will transfer the same power to resistor R as the sinusoid i.
✓ The average power absorbed by the resistor in the ac circuit is

…………………………………………. (1)
✓ while the power absorbed by the resistor in the dc circuit is

………………………………………………………………………….. (2)
✓ Equating the expressions in Eqs. (1) and (2) and solving for Ieff, we obtain

…………………..……………………………………… (3)
✓ The effective value of the voltage is found in the same way as current; that is

…………………………….…………………………… (4)
✓ This indicates that the effective value is the (square)root of the mean (or average) of the
square of the periodic signal.
✓ Thus, the effective value is often known as the root-mean-square value, or rms value for
short; and we write

………………………………………………….. (5)
✓ For any periodic function x(t )in general, the rms value is given by

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………...………………………………………………… (6)
Note: The effective value of a periodic signal is its root mean square (rms) value.
✓ For sinusoid ,the effective or rms value is

………………………….….. (7)
Similarly, for ……………….………… (8)
Note: eqns. (7 and 8) are only valid for sinusoidal signals.
✓ The average power can be written in terms of the rms values as

…………………. (9)
Similarly, the average power absorbed by a resistor R can be written as

…………………………………………………………….... (10)
Example
1. Determine the rms value of the current waveform in Fig. below. If the current is passed
through a 2Ω resistor, find the average power absorbed by the resistor.

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4.4.10. Apparent Power and Power Factor

(a) Apparent Power
✓ It is the product of the rms values of voltage and current.

………………………… (1).
✓ Measured in VA
(b) Power Factor
✓ It is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current.
✓ It is also the cosine of the angle of the load impedance.

✓ it is the ratio of the average power to the apparent power,

where
✓ value of pf ranges between zero and unity.

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✓ For a purely resistive load, pf =1. And for a purely reactive load, pf =0.
✓ In between these two extreme cases, pf is said to be leading or lagging.
✓ Leading power factor means that current leads voltage, which implies a capacitive load.
✓ Lagging power factor means that current lags voltage, implying an inductive load.
Exercises
1.

2. Calculate the power factor of the entire circuit below as seen by the source. What is
the average power supplied by the source?

4.4.11. Complex Power (S)

✓ product of the rms voltage phasor and the complex conjugate of the rms current phasor.
……………………………………………………………………… (2)

Where and
Thus eqn. (2) can be

……………...…….. (3)
✓ Its real part is real power P and its imaginary part is reactive power Q.
✓ complex power in terms of the load impedance Z.

……………………………………………………………….. (4)
✓ Since Z = R+jX, eqn. (4) becomes

…………………………………….. (5) Where

………………………………………………………………. (6)
From eqn. (3)

✓ The real power P is the average power in watts delivered to a load; it is the only useful
power. It is the actual power dissipated by the load.

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✓ The reactive power Q is a measure of the energy exchange between the source and the
reactive part of the load. The unit of Q is the volt-ampere reactive(VAR)
Note:

power triangle
✓ it has four items; the apparent/complex power, real power, reactive power, and the
power factor angle.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. (a) and (c) are power triangles whereas (b) impedance triangle
Example

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4.4.12. Conservation of AC power

✓ The complex, real, and reactive powers of the sources equal the respective sums of the
complex, real, and reactive powers of the individual loads
Consider the series and parallel circuits below:

The complex power supplied by the source is

✓ Applying KCL to (a) gives: then

………. (7)
✓ Applying KVL to (b) gives: then

…. (8)
✓ Where S1 and S2 denote the complex powers delivered to loads Z1 and Z2, respectively.
✓ for a source connected to N loads,
……………………………………………………… (9)

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4.4.13. Power Factor Correction

✓ It is the process of increasing the pf without altering the v or i to the original load
✓ most loads are inductive; hence their pf is corrected by adding a capacitor parallel to the
load as below.

Fig. Power factor correction: (a) original inductive load. (c) Phasor Diagram
(b) inductive load with improved power factor.
✓ Where pf for (a) and for (b)
✓ Consider the power triangle below:

Fig. Power triangle illustrating power factor correction.

✓ If the original inductive load has apparent power S1, then

…………………… (1)
✓ If pf is increased from cosθ1 to cosθ2 new reactive power is

✓ The reduction in the reactive power is caused by the shunt capacitor, that is,
…………………………………. (2)
✓ But ………………………. ………………… (3)
✓ The value of the required shunt capacitance C is determined as

…………………………………...….. (4)
✓ For capacitive load, an inductor is connected across the load for power factor correction.
✓ Shunt L, can be found as follows:

……………………. (5)
✓ Where QL=Q1−Q2, d/ce b/n new and old reactive power.

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Example

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4.5. Polyphase Circuits

Circuits can be classified in to
1. Single-phase circuits or
2. Poly-phase circuits
Single-phase circuits
✓ Sources have the same Phases, magnitudes and frequency
✓ Look at circuits below

Fig. Single-phase systems: (a) two-wire type, (b) three-wire type.

Poly-phase circuits
✓ ac sources operate at the same frequency but different phases.
✓ They could be circuits with
➢ a two-phase three-wire system or
➢ a three-phase four wire system as below:

Fig. (a) Two-phase three-wire system. (b) Three-phase four-wire system.

Note: Three-phase systems are important for at least three reasons.
1. nearly all electric power is generated and distributed in three-phase
2. the instantaneous power in a three-phase system can be constant.
3. for the same amount of power, the 3ϕ system is more economical than the 1ϕ.
✓ For example: amount of wire required for a 3ϕ system is less than that required for an
equivalent 1ϕ system.
4.5.1. Balanced 3ϕ Voltages
✓ Are equal in amplitude and frequency ω and are out of phase with each other by 120◦.
✓ There are two phase sequences:
1. abc or positive sequence (a),
2. acb or negative sequence (b).

✓ Mathematically (+ve sequence):

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………………………………………… (1)
✓ Where Vp is the effective or rms value and Van leads Vbn, which in turn leads Vcn.
✓ (-ve sequence):

………………………………………… (2)
✓ For eqn. (2):
✓ Van leads Vcn, which in turn leads Vbn.
Consider the following three-phase generator and phase voltages graph

Fig. (a) A three-phase generator. (b) The generated voltages are 120◦ apart from each other.
✓ If rotor rotates counter clock wise (+ve sequence) and clockwise dirn (-ve sequence).
✓ Summation individual phase voltages in balanced 3ϕ voltages is zero. i.e.

………………………...……………………………………. (3)
Prove from phase sequences:

……… (4)
Phase sequence: is the time order in which the voltages pass through their respective maxima.
Exercise: 1.

Balanced Load
✓ is one in which the phase impedances are equal in magnitude and in phase.
✓ For a balanced wye-connected load,
……………….. (5) Where ZY is the load impedance per phase.

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✓ For a balanced delta-connected load,

…... (6) where Z∆ is the load impedance per phase.
There are four possible connections between sources and loads:
1. Y-Y connection 2. Y-∆ connection 3. ∆ -Y connectin 4. ∆ − ∆ connection
3.3.5 Balanced Y-Y connection
✓ A three-phase system with a balanced Y-connected source and a balanced Y-connected load.
✓ Consider the figure below:

Fig. A balanced Y-Y system, showing the source, line, and load impedances.
(total impedance per-phase) …….………………………… (1)
Zs and Zl are often very small compared with ZL. hence, then the figure is reduced to

Fig. Balanced Y-Y connection.

✓ Assuming the positive sequence, the phase voltages (or line-to neutral voltages) are

, …… (2)
✓ line –voltages (line-to-line voltages) are related to phase voltages as follows:

…….... (3)

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✓ Thus, where and .... (4)

✓ Line voltage leads its corresponding phase voltage by 30◦.
✓ Graphically:

Fig. Phasor diagrams illustrating the relationship between line voltages and phase voltages.
✓ Applying KVL to balanced Y-Y circuits, line currents are given as:

………… (5)
(line currents add-up to zero) or
✓ In the Y-Y system, the line current is the same as the phase current.
✓ So we need analyze single-phase (per-phase) and find other currents by phase sequence.
For example: phase (a)

yields: ………………………… (6)

Fig. A single-phase equivalent circuit.
3.3.6 Balanced Y-∆ connection
✓ consists of a balanced Y-connected source feeding a balanced ∆-connected load.
✓ This is the most practical three-phase system. It is given as figure below:

no neutral connection here.

Fig. Balanced Y-∆ connection
✓ Assuming the positive sequence, the phase voltages are again
, ……………. (7)

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✓ the line voltages are: and

✓ line voltages are equal to the voltages across the load impedances for this system
configuration.
✓ From these voltages, we can obtain the phase currents as

………………….. (8)
✓ These currents have the same magnitude but are out of phase with each other by 120◦.
✓ applying KVL around loop aABbna also gives

or
✓ The line currents are obtained from the phase currents by applying KCL at nodes A, B,
and C.
✓ Thus, …………….…… (9)

0 ……
(10)
✓ Hence, where and …. (11)

(a) (b)
Fig. Phasor diagram illustrating the relationship between phase (a) and line currents and A
single-phase equivalent circuit of a balanced Y-∆ circuit (b).
✓ each of the phase currents leads the corresponding line current by 30◦.
3.3.7 Balanced ∆ − ∆ connection
✓ It is one in which both the balanced source and balanced load are ∆-connected. See fig. below.

Fig. Balanced ∆ − ∆ connection

✓ Assuming a positive sequence, the phase voltages for a delta-connected source are

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, ……….... (12)
✓ The line voltages are the same as the phase voltages (assuming there is no line impedances).
…………...………… (13)
✓ Hence, the phase currents are

and ………………… (14)

(line currents)
(line and phase current magnitude relations)
3.3.8 Balanced ∆ − 𝒀 connection
✓ consists of a balanced ∆-connected source feeding a balanced Y-connected load.

Fig. Balanced ∆ − 𝒀 connection

✓ assuming the abc sequence, the phase voltages of a delta-connected source are

and ……………….… (15)

✓ method 1:Applying KVL to loop aANBba (to find line currents):

or Thus,

…………………….. (16) but hence:

………………………… (17)
✓ Substituting Eq. (17) into Eq. (16) gives

…………...……………………………………………….. (18)
✓ From positive phase sequence,

Method 2: transforming delta source to Y source.

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Same line currents: ,

Exercises
1. Calculate the line currents in the three-wire Y-Y system of Fig. below:

Solution:
The three-phase circuit given is balanced; its single-phase equivalent circuit is given below:

then

(+ve sequence)
2. ….

or

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3. …

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4. ..

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3.3.9 Power in a Balanced System

✓ For a Y-connected load, the phase voltages are

………….. (1)
✓ If , the phase currents lag behind their corresponding phase voltages by θ. Thus.

✓ The total instantaneous power in the load is the sum of the instantaneous powers in 3ϕ that is,

✓ Applying the trigonometric identity

gives:

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✓ Thus the total instantaneous power in a balanced three-phase system is constant

✓ average power per phase is : …………….…………………….. (2)
✓ the reactive power per phase is: ………………………………...…. (3)
✓ The apparent power per phase is: ……………………………...………….. (4)
✓ The complex power per phase is: ……………….……. (5)
✓ The total average power is the sum of the average powers in the phases:

……… (6)
✓ the total reactive power is

…………………………..……… (7)
✓ and the total complex power is

…………………………………...…….. (8)

✓ Alternatively: ……………………………………... (9)

3.3.10 Unbalanced 3𝝓 system
✓ It is due to unbalanced voltage sources or an unbalanced load.
✓ is solved by direct application of mesh and nodal analysis.
✓ Consider the figure belows: sources are balanced but the loads are not.

Fig. Unbalanced three-phase Y-connected load.

✓ The line currents are determined by Ohm’s law as

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…………………………….. (1)
✓ Here neutral current is not zero and applying KCL at node N gives it as

………………………………………………………………. (2)
Note: To calculate power in an unbalanced 3𝝓 system requires finding power in each phase using
✓ The total power is not simply three times the power in one phase but the sum of the powers in
the three phases.

Example:
1. The unbalanced Y-load has balanced voltages of 100 V and the acb sequence. Calculate the
line currents and the neutral current.

✓ the current in the neutral line is

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CHAPTER 5
5. Magnetically Coupled Circuits and Frequency Response
5.1. Magnetically Coupled Circuits
✓ Are circuits those affect each other through the magnetic field generated by one of them.
✓ E.g. Transformer
5.1.1. Mutual Inductance
✓ It is a phenomenon by which the magnetic flux caused by current in one coil of the two inductors
(or coils) in a close proximity to each other, links with the other coil and induce voltage in it.
✓ It is the ability of one inductor to induce a voltage across a neighboring inductor, measured in
henrys (H).
✓ Consider the circuit below (for single inductor):

Fig. Magnetic flux produced by a single coil with N turns (a single inductor)
✓ According to Faraday’s law, the voltage v induced in the coil is given as follows:

…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
✓ Flux Φ is produced by current i so that any change in Φ is caused by a change in the current.
✓ Hence:

or where …………..…………… (2)

✓ This inductance is commonly called self-inductance, because it relates the voltage induced in
a coil by a time-varying current in the same coil.
Consider the figure below (for two inductors):

Fig. Mutual inductance M21 of coil 2 with respect to coil 1.

✓ Coil 1 has self-inductance L1 and N1 turns, while coil 2 has self-inductance L2 and N2 turns.
✓ No current in coil 2 and Hence the entire magnetic flux Φ1 is due to current in coil 1 and
…………………………………………………………………….. (3)
Where Φ11 links only coil 1 and Φ12 links both coils.
✓ Since the entire flux Φ1l inks coil 1, the voltage induced in coil 1 is

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, , L1 is the self-inductance of coil 1.

✓ only flux Φ12 links coil 2, so the voltage induced in coil 2 is

✓ ,
M21 is known as the mutual inductance of coil 2 with respect to coil 1.
✓ Subscript 21 indicates that the inductance M21 relates the voltage induced in coil 2 to the current
in coil 1.
✓ Suppose current i2 flow in coil 2, while coil 1 carries no current (Fig. below).

Fig. Mutual inductance M12 of coil 1 with respect to coil 2.

✓ Entire flux due to current in coil 2

………………………………………………………………. (4)
✓ The entire flux Φ2 links coil 2, so the voltage induced in coil 2 is

………………….………………….. (5)
✓ Since only flux Φ21 links coil 1, the voltage induced in coil 1 is

where …..…….. (6)

the mutual inductance of coil 1 with respect to coil 2.
Note: mutual coupling only exists when the inductors or coils are in close proximity, and the circuits are
driven by time-varying sources.
Dot Convention states that
1. If a current enters the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference polarity of the mutual voltage in
the second coil is positive at the dotted terminal of the second coil.
2. If a current leaves the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference polarity of the mutual voltage in
the second coil is negative at the dotted terminal of the second coil.

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Fig. Examples illustrating how to apply the dot convention.

Where it is the mutual inductance between the two coils.
Note: the reference polarity of the mutual voltage depends on the reference direction of the inducing
current and the dots on the coupled coils.
Dot Convention For Coupled Coils In Series

total inductance is

(for coil a) …….…….. (7)

(for coil b)………. (8)

Example (1 and 2):consider the circuit below:

Fig. (1) Time-domain ckt analysis with coupled coils. (2) frequency Domain
✓ Applying KVL to coil 1 gives (1) For coil 2, KVL gives (1) (aiding)

✓ From circuit (2) KVL to coil 1 gives KVL to (coil 2) gives (opposing )

✓ mutual inductance and the dots placement are the “givens”of the circuit problem like R, L&C.
Exercise
1. Calculate the phasor currents I1 and I2 in the circuit below.

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Solution:
For coil 1, KVL gives

or …………….. (1)
For coil 2, KVL gives

or ………… (2)
Substituting eqn. (2) in to (1) gives

or ….….. (3)
From eqns. (2) and (3)

5.1.2. Energy in a coupled Circuit

✓ the energy stored in an inductor is given by

……………………………………………………………………………… (1)
✓ for magnetically coupled coils consider a circuit given below:

Fig. The circuit for deriving energy stored in a coupled circuit.

✓ assume that currents i1 and i2 are zero initially, so that the energy stored in the coils is zero.
✓ If i1 increases from zero to I1 while maintaining i2=0, the power in coil 1 is

then the energy stored in the cicuit is

……………………………… (2)

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and the energy stored in the circuit is

…………………. (3)
✓ The total energy stored in the coils when bothi1 andi2 have reached constant values is

……………………………………... (4)

………………………………………………………. (5)
✓ Since the total energy stored should be the same regardless of how we reach the final conditions,
comparing Eqs. (4) and (5) leads us to conclude that

……………………………………………………. (6) And

………...……………………………………. (7)
✓ This is when both currents entering dot terminal.
✓ If one current enters one dotted terminal while the other current leaves the other dotted terminal,
the mutual voltage is negative, so that the mutual energy MI1I2 is also negative. That is:

………….…………………………………… (8)
✓ The instantaneous energy stored in the circuit is:

………………………………………………… (9)
Note: The positive sign is selected for the mutual term if both currents enter or leave the dotted
terminals of the coils; the negative sign is selected otherwise.
✓ The energy stored in the circuit cannot be negative because the circuit is passive. Hence

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………………………………………………… (10)
✓ To get the upper limit of M, complete the square of eqn. (10), by adding and subtracting the
term then it gives

……………………… (11) The squared term is

never negative; at its least it is zero. hence Or
✓ The extent to which the mutual inductance M approaches the upper limit is specified by the
coefficient of coupling k, given by

or
✓ The coupling coefficient is the fraction of the total flux emanating from one coil that links the
other coil.

or ................................... (12)
✓ If k = 1, the coils are said to be perfectly coupled.
✓ Therefore, the coupling coefficient k is a measure of the magnetic coupling between two coils;
0 ≤ k ≤ 1.
✓ For k < 0.5, coils are said to be loosely coupled; and for k >0.5, they are said to be tightly
coupled.

Example
1. Consider the circuit in Fig. below. Determine the coupling coefficient. Calculate the energy
stored in the coupled inductors at time t =1s if

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Fig. Frequency-domain equivalent of the circuit

now apply mesh analysis. For mesh 1,

…………………………………………………….. (1)
For mesh 2,

or ………………………………….... (2)
Substituting this into Eq. (1) yields

and
In the time-domain,

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The total energy stored in the coupled inductors is

5.1.3. Transformer
✓ It is a four-terminal device comprising two (or more) magnetically coupled coils.
✓ Has two windings
✓ primary winding: is the coil directly connected to the voltage source.
✓ Secondary winding: is the coil connected to the load.
(a) Linear transformer: it is the transformer of which coils are wound on a magnetically linear
material. That is material with constant magnetic permeability.

Fig. A linear transformer

Applying KVL to the two meshes gives:

…………………………………………. (1)
After finding current one; input impedance as seen from source becomes:

………………………………. (2)

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is the primary impedance and the second term is due to the coupling between the primary
and secondary windings.
✓ it is known as the reflected impedance ZR, and is given as:

…………………………………………………………. (3)
✓ eqn. (3) is not affected by the location of the dots on the transformer.
Equivalent circuit of linear transformer

(T or Y) (π equivalent)
Fig. Determining the equivalent circuit of a linear transformer.
✓ The voltage-current relationships for the primary and secondary coils give the matrix equation.

……………………………………………….. (4)
✓ By matrix inversion, this can be written as

…… (5)
✓ For the T (or Y) network

………………….….. (6)
✓ Since circuits are equivalent; equating eqns. (4 and 6) gives:

………………… (7)
✓ For the π or Δ; nodal analysis gives the terminal equations as

………….. (8)

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✓ Equating terms in admittance matrices of Eqs. (5) and (8), we obtain

……………..……………. (9)
(b) Ideal Transformer
✓ It is one with perfect coupling (k = 1).
✓ is a unity-coupled, lossless transformer in which the primary and secondary coils have infinite
self-inductances.
✓ It has the following properties:

(circuit symbol)
✓ The vertical lines between the coils indicate an iron core as distinct from the air core used in
linear transformers.

✓ Consider the circuit below:

Fig. Relating primary and secondary quantities in an ideal transformer

✓ the same magnetic flux φ goes through both windings.
✓ According to Faraday’s law, the voltage across the primary winding is

… (10) while that across the secondary winding is ... (11)

✓ Dividing eqn. (11) by (10) gives:

which is turns or transformation ratio. In terms of phasor:

✓ No losses in an ideal transformer; hence:

then ………………………………………………… (12)

✓ When n=1, we generally call the transformer an isolation transformer.
1. A step-down transformer = secondary voltage is less than its primary voltage (n < 1).
2. A step-up transformer = secondary voltage is greater than its primary voltage (n >1).
✓ The ratings of transformers are usually specified as V1/V2 (voltages are (rms values)).
Note: If V1 and V2 are both positive or both negative at the dotted terminals, use +n Otherwise, use –n

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✓ If I1 and I2 both enter into or both leave the dotted terminals, use –n Otherwise, use +n.
✓ The complex power in the primary winding is

…………………………………… (13)
✓ the complex power supplied to the primary is delivered to the secondary without loss.
✓ The input impedance is

because,
Rules for replacing transformer by equivalent circuits:
1. To eliminate transformer by reflecting secondary winding to primary side:
a) Divide the secondary impedance by n2
b) divide the secondary voltage by n, and
c) multiply the secondary current by n

2. To eliminate transformer by reflecting primary winding to secondary side:

a) multiply the primary impedance by n2
b) multiply the primary voltage by n, and
c) divide the primary current by n.
Example:
1. An ideal transformer is rated at 2400/120 V, 9.6 kVA, and has 50 turns on the secondary side.
Calculate: (a) the turns ratio, (b) the number of turns on the primary side, and (c) the current ratings
for the primary and secondary windings.

(c) Ideal Autotransformer

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✓ It is a transformer in which both the primary and the secondary are in a single winding.
✓ It has a single continuous winding with a connection point called a tap between the primary
and secondary sides. See ckts below:

(a) Step-down (b) step-up

(a) (b)

(a) (b)
(d) 3∅ Transformer
✓ For the same kVA rating,it is always smaller and cheaper than 3 single-phase transformers.
✓ Connected by one of the four connections such as Y-Y,∆ − ∆,Y-∆, and ∆-Y. For all;

5.2. Frequency Response

✓ It is the variation in circuit behavior with change in signal frequency.
✓ It is also the variation in gain and phase with frequency.
5.2.1. Transfer Function
✓ The transfer function H(ω) of a circuit is the frequency-dependent ratio of a phasor output Y(ω) (an
element voltage or current) to a phasor input X(ω) (source voltage or current). Thus,

………………….……………… (1) assuming zero initial conditions.

✓ There are four possible transfer functions in the circuit.

i=input and o = output…………. (2)

5.2.2. Resonance
✓ It is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the capacitive and inductive reactances are equal
in magnitude, thereby resulting in a purely resistive impedance.

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✓ It occurs in any circuit that has at least one inductor and one capacitor.
a) Series Resonance
✓ Consider the series RLC circuit shown below:

Fig. The series resonant circuit

✓ The input impedance is

or ….. (3)
✓ Resonance results when the imaginary part of the transfer function is zero, or

…………… ………………………………………….. (4)

✓ The value of ω that satisfies this condition is called the resonant frequency ω0. Thus, the resonance
condition is

or
Note that at resonance:
1. The impedance is purely resistive, thus,Z=R. In other words, the LC series combination acts like
a short circuit, and the entire voltage is across R.
2. The voltageVs and the current I are in phase, so that the power factor is unity.
3. The magnitude of the transfer function H(ω)=Z(ω) is minimum.
4. The inductor voltage and capacitor voltage can be much more than the source voltage.
The frequency response of the circuit’s current magnitude

………………………………… (5) is shown below.

Fig. The current amplitude versus frequency for the series resonant circuit above.

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✓ The average power dissipated by the RLC circuit is

…………………………..………………………………………………….. (6)
✓ The highest power dissipated occurs at resonance, when I =Vm/R, so that

……………………………………………………………………………... (7)
✓ At certain frequencies ω=ω1,ω2, the dissipated power is half the maximum value; that is,

......………………………………………… (8)
✓ Hence,ω1 and ω2 are called the half-power frequencies.
✓ They are obtained by setting Z = √2R and writing:

………………………………………………….… (9)
✓ Solving for ω, we obtain

………………………………………….………. (11)
Relation of half-power frequencies with the resonant frequency.
✓ Multiply ω1 and ω2 and substitute 1/LC by ωo. then rearrange to get:

……………………………………………………………………………….. (12)
✓ Showing that the resonant frequency is the geometric mean of the half-power frequencies.
Note: the height of the curve is determined by R while the width of the response curve depends on the
bandwidth B. where ……………………………… (13) half-power bandwidth.
Quality Factor (Q)
✓ It measures the “sharpness”of the resonance in a resonant circuit.
✓ It relates the maximum or peak energy stored to the energy dissipated in the circuit per cycle of
oscillation:

………………………………...…. (14)
✓ It is a measure of the energy storage property of a circuit in relation to its energy dissipation property.
✓ In the series RLC circuit, the peak energy stored is

while the energy dissipated in one period is hence;

or ………………….. (15)

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✓ From eqns. (11 int 13) and utilizing eqn. (15)

or ……………………………………………………….. (16)
Thus the quality factor of a resonant circuit is the ratio of its resonant frequency to its bandwidth.
✓ For high-Q circuits (Q≥10), the half-power frequencies are, for all practical purposes, symmetrical
around the resonant frequency and can be approximated as

……………………………………………….. (17)
Note: a resonant circuit is characterized by five related parameters: ω1, ω2, ω0, B, and Q.
b) Parallel Resonance
✓ Consider the circuit below:

Fig. The parallel resonant circuit.

✓ The admittance is:

or ………... (18)
✓ Resonance occurs when the imaginary part of Y is zero,

or …………………………………………… (19)
✓ Notice that at resonance, the parallel LC combination acts like an open circuit, so that the entire
currentsflows through R.
✓ the inductor and capacitor current can be much more than the source current at resonance.
✓ By replacing R,L, and C in the expressions for the series circuit with 1/R,1/C, and 1/L respectively,
we obtain for the parallel circuit.

………………………………………… (20)

and …………...……….. (21)

✓ half-power frequencies in terms of the quality factor.

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….. (22)
Again, for high-Q circuits (Q≥10)

…………..……………………………….. (23)
Exercise
1. Calculate the resonant frequency of the circuit below.

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