MOBILE AD HOC

NETWORKS

1
 Mobile Ad-Hoc Network
(MANET)

q MANET is a collection of mobile nodes

which establish a network spontaneously
& communicate over a shared wireless
channel without pre-existing
infrastructure.

2
CONT . . .

3
 MANET: Definition
•construct a network without infrastructure, using
networking abilities of the participants
• a network constructed for a special purpose
• extended concept of mobility: network mobility
(moving routers)
• Simplest example: a single-hop ad hoc network

Single- hop
Multi-hop

4
 In MANET…
q Host movement frequent
q Topology change frequent
q No cellular infrastructure.
q Multi-hop wireless links.
q Data must be routed via intermediate
nodes.

5
 MANET..
• MANETs are formed dynamically by an autonomous
system of mobile nodes that are connected via
wireless links without using existing network
infrastructure or centralized administration.
• In MANETs, the nodes are free to move and randomly
and organize themselves arbitrary.
• the network may operate in a standalone fashion or
may be connected to the larger Internet.
• Routes between nodes potentially contain multiple
hops

6
 Multi-hop
• Limited range --> multi-hopping
• For many scenarios, communication with peers outside
immediate communication range is required
– Direct communication limited because of distance,
obstacle,...
– Solution: multi-hop network

7
 Basic Issues

• Mobility: nodes are not fixed at same position

• Energy: nodes may run out of battery and might not be
easy to get to them to recharge (Energy Constraint)
• Scalability : in some applications there is high traffic or
high number of nodes
• Communications limitation of the wireless medium
• Security: depends on the application

8
 Problems/challenges for ad hoc network

• Without a central infrastructure, things become much

more difficult
• Problems are due to
– Lack of central entity for organization available
– Limited range of wireless communication
– Mobility of participants
– Battery-operated entities
• Ease of snooping on wireless transmissions (security
hazards)

9
 Mobility: −> Suitable, adaptive protocol

• Most or some of the nodes

are mobile
• In many (not all!) ad hoc network
applications, participants move
around
– In cellular network: simply hand over
to another base station
• In mobile ad hoc networks (MANET)
– Mobility changes
neighborhood r relationship
– Must be compensated for
– E.g., routes in the network have to be changed
• Complicated by scale
– Large number of such nodes difficult to support 10
 Battery-operated devices  energy-
efficient operation

• Often (not always!), participants in an ad hoc network

draw energy from batteries
• Desirable: long run time for
– Individual devices
– Network as a whole
• −→ Energy-efficient networking protocols
– E.g., use multi-hop routes with low energy consumption
(energy/bit)
– E.g., take available battery capacity of devices into account
– How to resolve conflicts between different optimizations?

11
Routing in MANET

12
 Unicast Routing Protocols
• Many protocols have been proposed
• Some specifically invented for MANET
• Others adapted from protocols of wired networks

• No single protocol works well in all environments

– some attempts made to develop adaptive/hybrid protocols

• Standardization efforts in IETF

– MANET, MobileIP working groups
– http://www.ietf.org

13
 Routing Protocols in
MANET

q Proactive Routing Protocols

§ DSDV (Destination Sequenced Distance Vector)
§ LSR (Link State Routing)

q Reactive Routing Protocols

§ DSR (Dynamic Source Routing)
§ AODV (Ad-Hoc on-Demand Distance Vector)

q Hybrid Routing Protocols

§ ZRP (Zone Routing Protocol)

14
Proactive Routing Protocols

15
 Proactive routing
• Take reference from wired Routing algorithm and
protocol
– Distance vector routing algorithm, DSDV protocol
– Link state routing algorithm, OSPF protocol
• Then extended into ad hoc cases
– Information exchange in ad hoc à flooding
– Dynamic topology in ad hoc à detection of route loop

16
 Proactive…
• Distance vector-based: every node maintains the distance
of each destination
– DSDV: Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector
– WRP: Wireless routing protocol
• Link state-based: each node maintains a view of the
network topology
– OLSR: Optimized Link State Routing
• Combine DV and LS together
– FSR: Fisheye State Routing

17
 Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector
(DSDV)
• Each node maintains a routing table which stores
– next hop, cost metric towards each destination
– a sequence number that is created by the destination itself
• Each node periodically forwards routing table to neighbors
– Each node increments and appends its sequence number when
sending its local routing table
• Each route is tagged with a sequence number; routes with greater
sequence numbers are preferred
• Each node advertises a monotonically increasing even sequence
number for itself
• When a node decides that a route is broken, it increments the
sequence number of the route and advertises it with infinite
metric
• Destination advertises new sequence number
18
 DSDV
Route Selection: update information is compared to own routing table
1. Select route with higher destination sequence number (This ensure to
use always newest information from destination)
2. Select the route with better metric when sequence numbers are equal.
X Y Z

• When X receives information from Y about a route to Z: let destination

sequence number for Z at X be S(X), S(Y) is sent from Y
− If S(X) > S(Y), then X ignores the routing information received from Y
− If S(X) = S(Y), and cost of going through Y is smaller than the route
known to X, then X sets Y as the next hop to Z
− If S(X) < S(Y), then X sets Y as the next hop to Z, and S(X) is updated
to equal S(Y)
19
 Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)
• Nodes C and E are multipoint relays of node A
– Multipoint relays of A are its neighbors such that each two-
hop neighbor of A is a one-hop neighbor of one multipoint
relay of A
– Nodes exchange neighbor lists to know their 2-hop neighbors
and choose the multipoint relays
B F J

A E H
C K
G
D

Node that has broadcast state information from A

20
 Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)
• Nodes C and E forward information received from A
• Nodes E and K are multipoint relays for node H
• Node K forwards information received from H

B F J

A E H
C K
G
D

Node that has broadcast state information from A

21
 OSLR….
• OLSR
– Inherits Stability of Link-state protocol
– Selective Flooding
– only MPR retransmit control messages:
• Minimize flooding
– Suitable for large and dense networks

22
 OSLR-Multipoint relays
• MPRs = Set of selected neighbor nodes
• Minimize the flooding of broadcast packets
• Each node selects its MPRs among its on hop neighbors
– The set covers all the nodes that are two hops away

• MPR Selector = a node which has selected node as MPR

• The information required to calculate the multipoint relays:
– The set of one-hop neighbors and the two-hop neighbors

• Set of MPRs is able to transmit to all two-hop neighbors

• Link between node and it’s MPR is bidirectional.

23
 OSLR-Multipoint relays….
• To obtain the information about one-hop neighbors:
– Use HELLO message (received by all one-hop neighbors)

• To obtain the information about two-hop neighbors:

– Each node attaches the list of its own neighbors

• Once a node has its one and two-hop neighbor sets:

– Can select a MPRs which covers all its two-hop neighbors

24
 OSLR-Multipoint relays….

Node 1 Hop Neighbors 2 Hop Neighbors MPR(s)

B A,C,F,G D,E C

E
D

F
A

Figure: Network example for MPR selection

25
 Fisheye State Routing (FSR)

• Fisheye vision
– Fishes do have 360° (or almost) vision.
–Fishes do have a higher concentration of optic nerves
close to their focal point than elsewhere in their eye.
–As a result fisheye captures with high detail the
points near the focal point

26
 FSR
• Observation and problem
– When destination is far away, details about path are
not relevant – only in vicinity are details required
– reducing control traffic at the expense of routing table
accuracy
• Motivation
– Look at the graph as if through a fisheye lens, to
reduce the size of the routing update messages
– Regions of different accuracy of routing information
• Solution
– Fisheye State Routing 27
 FSR

• Solution
– Fisheye lens
• Relative to each node, the network is divided in different
scopes, more frequent routing updates for nodes with
smaller scope
– FSR uses different exchange periods for different
entries in the routing table
• Each node maintains topology table of network (as in LS)
• Unlike LS: only distribute link state updates locally.

28
Scope of FSR

29
 FSR
• Routing update frequency decreases with distance to
destination
• Higher frequency updates within a close zone and lower
frequency updates to a remote zone
• Highly accurate routing information about the immediate
neighborhood of a node; progressively less detail for areas
further away from the node
• Major scalability benefit
– control traffic decreases significantly
• Unsolved problems
– Route table size still grows linearly with network size
– Out of date routes to remote destinations
30
 Summary of proactive routing
• Table-Driven Routing Protocol:
– continuously evaluate the routes
– attempt to maintain consistent, up-to-date routing
information
• when a route is needed, one may be ready
immediately
– when the network topology changes
• the protocol responds by propagating updates throughout
the network to maintain a consistent view

31
 Proactive Routing in
Protocols
q Unsuitable for such a dynamic network
q For example, consider link-state routing that
sends out network-wide floods for every link-
state change …
q Even in the absence of any existing connections,
considerable overhead spent in maintaining
“network state”

32
 Goal
q Low overhead route computation
q Ability to recover from frequent failures at
low-cost
q Scalable (with respect to mobility and
number of hosts)
q Robust

33
 Reactive Routing Protocol

q Determine route if and when needed

q Source initiates route discovery
q Even if network state changes, any re-
computation done only when any existing
connections are affected

34
 Hybrid Protocol

q Adaptive
q Combination of proactive and reactive

35
 Protocol Trade-Offs
q Proactive protocols
§ Always maintain routes
§ Little or no delay for route determination
§ Consume bandwidth to keep routes up-to-date
§ Maintain routes which may never be used

q Reactive protocols
§ Lower overhead since routes are determined on
demand
§ Significant delay in route determination
§ Employ flooding (global search)
§ Control traffic may be bursty 36
Reactive Routing Protocols

37
 Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
• When node S wants to send a packet to node
D, but does not know a route to D, node S
initiates a route discovery

• Source node S floods Route Request (RREQ)

• Each node appends own identifier

when forwarding RREQ

38
 CONT . . .

q Route Request (RREQ) contains:

§ Unique ID
§ A list of node (Initially Empty)
§ Source
§ Destination
§ . . .

39
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

S Z
E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S

40
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y
Broadcast transmission

[S] Z
S
E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents transmission of RREQ

[X,Y] Represents list of identifiers appended to RREQ

41
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S [S,E]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A [S,C] G
H D
K
I N

• Node H receives packet RREQ from two neighbors:

potential for collision

42
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
F [S,E,F]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
[S,C,G] K
I N

• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward

it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once

43
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
F [S,E,F,J]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I [S,C,G,K] N

• Nodes J and K both broadcast RREQ to node D

• Since nodes J and K are hidden from each other, their
transmissions may collide

44
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
[S,E,F,J,M]
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D

is the intended target of the route discovery
45
 Route Discovery in DSR

• Destination D on receiving the first RREQ, sends a

Route Reply (RREP)

• RREP is sent on a route obtained by reversing the

route appended to received RREQ

• RREP includes the route from S to D on which

RREQ was received by node D

46
 Route Reply in DSR
Y

Z
S RREP [S,E,F,J,D]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents RREP control message

47
 Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
• Node S on receiving RREP, caches the route
included in the RREP

• When node S sends a data packet to D, the entire route is

included in the packet header
– hence the name source routing

• Intermediate nodes use the source route included in a

packet to determine to whom a packet should be
forwarded

48
 Data Delivery in DSR
Y

DATA [S,E,F,J,D] Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Packet header size grows with route length

49
 DSR Optimization: Route
Caching
• Each node caches a new route it learns by any means
• When node S finds route [S,E,F,J,D] to node D, node S also
learns route [S,E,F] to node F
• When node K receives Route Request [S,C,G] destined for
node, node K learns route [K,G,C,S] to node S
• When node F forwards Route Reply RREP [S,E,F,J,D], node F
learns route [F,J,D] to node D
• When node E forwards Data [S,E,F,J,D] it learns route [E,F,J,D]
to node D
• A node may also learn a route when it overhears Data
• Problem: Stale caches may increase overheads
50
 Dynamic Source Routing: Advantages
• Routes maintained only between nodes who
need to communicate
– reduces overhead of route maintenance

• Route caching can further reduce route discovery

overhead

• A single route discovery may yield many routes to

the destination, due to intermediate nodes replying
from local caches
51
 Dynamic Source Routing:
Disadvantages
• Packet header size grows with route length due to source
routing
• Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes
in the network
• Potential collisions between route requests
propagated by neighboring nodes
– insertion of random delays before forwarding RREQ
• Increased contention if too many route replies come
back due to nodes replying using their local cache
– Route Reply Storm problem
• Stale caches will lead to increased overhead

52
 Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing
(AODV)

§ DSR includes source routes in packet headers

• Resulting large headers can sometimes degrade
performance
– particularly when data contents of a packet are small
• AODV attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining
routing tables at the nodes, so that data packets do not
have to contain routes

• AODV retains the desirable feature of DSR that routes

are maintained only between nodes which need to
communicate

53
 AODV
• Route Requests (RREQ) are forwarded in a manner
similar to DSR

• When a node re-broadcasts a Route Request, it sets up a

reverse path pointing towards the source
– AODV assumes symmetric (bi-directional) links

• When the intended destination receives a Route

Request, it replies by sending a Route Reply (RREP)

• Route Reply travels along the reverse path set-up when

Route Request is forwarded
54
 AODV (CONT . . .)

q Contents of RREQ packet

<source_addr, source_Sequence#, broadcast_id,

dest_addr, dest_sequence#,hop_cnt>

§ Destination reply using RREP unicasting

<source_addr, dest_addr, dest_sequence#,

hop_cnt, lifetime>
55
 Route Requests in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S

56
 Route Requests in AODV
Y
Broadcast transmission

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents transmission of RREQ

57
 Route Requests in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents links on Reverse Path

58
 Reverse Path Setup in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward

it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once

59
Reverse Path Setup in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

60
 Reverse Path Setup in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D

is the intended target of the RREQ

61
 Forward Path Setup in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Forward links are setup when RREP travels along

the reverse path

Represents a link on the forward path

62
 Route Request and Route Reply
• Route Request (RREQ) includes the last known sequence
number for the destination

• An intermediate node may also send a Route Reply (RREP)

provided that it knows a more recent path than the one
previously known to sender
• Intermediate nodes that forward the RREP, also record the next
hop to destination

• A routing table entry maintaining a reverse path is purged after a

timeout interval
• A routing table entry maintaining a forward path is purged if not
used for a active_route_timeout interval

63
 Link Failure
• A neighbor of node X is considered active for a routing table
entry if the neighbor sent a packet within
active_route_timeout interval which was forwarded using
that entry

• Neighboring nodes periodically exchange hello message

• When the next hop link in a routing table entry breaks, all active
neighbors are informed

• Link failures are propagated by means of Route Error (RERR)

messages, which also update destination sequence numbers

64
 Route Error
• When node X is unable to forward packet P (from node S to node
D) on link (X,Y), it generates a RERR message

• Node X increments the destination sequence number for D cached at

node X

• The incremented sequence number N is included in the RERR

• When node S receives the RERR, it initiates a new route discovery

for D using destination sequence number at least as large as N

• When node D receives the route request with destination sequence

number N, node D will set its sequence number to N, unless it is
already larger than N

65
 AODV: Summary
• Routes need not be included in packet headers
• Nodes maintain routing tables containing entries only for
routes that are in active use
• At most one next-hop per destination maintained at
each node
– DSR may maintain several routes for a single destination
• Sequence numbers are used to avoid old/broken routes
• Sequence numbers prevent formation of routing loops

• Unused routes expire even if topology does not change

66
Hybrid Routing Protocols

67
 Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)
• ZRP combines proactive and reactive approaches
• All nodes within hop distance at most d from a node X
are said to be in the routing zone of node X
• All nodes at hop distance exactly d are said to be
peripheral nodes of node X’s routing zone

• Intra-zone routing: Proactively maintain routes to all

nodes within the source node’s own zone.
• Inter-zone routing: Use an on-demand protocol (similar
to DSR or AODV) to determine routes to outside zone.
Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP), Nicklas Beijar
68
 Routing Zones
• Each node S in the network has a routing zone.
This is the proactive zone for S as S collects
information about its routing zone in the manner
of the DSDV protocol.

• If the radius of the routing zone is k, each node in

the zone can be reached within k hops from S.

• The minimum distance of a peripheral node from

S is k (the radius).
69
 A Routing Zone

K L

A
B
I
G
S
C E
D

H
J

• All nodes except L are in the routing zone of S with radius 2.

70
 Nodes in a Routing Zone

• The coverage of a node´s trasmitter is the set of

nodes in direct communication with the node.
These are also called neighbours (one hop away).

• For S, if the radius of the routing zone is k, the

zone includes all the nodes which are k-hops
away.

71
 Neighbour Discovery Protocol

• Like other ad hoc routing protocols, each node

executes ZRP to know its current neighbours.

• Each node transmits a hello message at regular

intervals to all nodes within its transmission
range.
• If a node P does not receive a hello message from
a previously known neighbour Q, P removes Q
from its list of neighbours.
72
ZRP: Example with Zone Radius = K

S performs route
discovery for D

B
S
A C
D
E
F

Denotes route request

73
 ZRP: Example with K = 2

S performs route
discovery for D

B
S
A C
D
E
F

E knows route from E to D,

Denotes route reply so route request need not be
forwarded to D from E

74
 ZRP: Example with K = 2

S performs route
discovery for D

B
S
A C
D
E
F

Denotes route taken by Data

75
 Interzone Routing
• The interzone routing discovers routes to the
destination reactively.

• Consider a source (S) and a destination (D). If D is

within the routing zone of S, the routing is
completed in the intrazone routing phase.

• Otherwise, S sends the packet to the peripheral

nodes of its zone through bordercasting.
76
 Bordercasting
• The bordercasting to peripheral nodes can be
done mainly in two ways :
– By maintaining a multicast tree for the peripheral
nodes. S is the root of this tree.
– Otherwise, S maintains complete routing table for its
zone and routes the packet to the peripheral nodes by
consulting this routing table.

77
 Interzone Route Discovery
• S sends a route request (RREQ) message to the
peripheral nodes of its zone through
bordercasting.

• Each peripheral node P executes the same

algorithm.
– First, P checks whether the destination D is within its
routing zone and if so, sends the packet to D.
– Otherwise, P sends the packet to the peripheral nodes
of its routing zone through bordercasting.
78
An Example of Interzone Routing

S C
B

D H

79
 Route Reply in Interzone Routing
• If a node P finds that the destination D is within
its routing zone, P can initiate a route reply.

• Each node appends its address to the RREQ

message during the route request phase. This is
similar to route request phase in DSR.

• This accumulated address can be used to send

the route reply (RREP) back to the source node S.
80
 Route Reply in Interzone Routing
• An alternative strategy is to keep forward and
backward links at every node´s routing table
similar to the AODV protocol. This helps in
keeping the packet size constant.

• A RREQ usually results in more than one RREP

and ZRP keeps track of more than one path
between S and D. An alternative path is chosen in
case one path is broken.

81
 Route Maintenance

• When there is a broken link along an active

path between S and D, a local path repair
procedure is initiated.
• A broken link is always within the routing zone
of some node.
B
A

82
 Route Maintenance
• Hence, repairing a broken link requires
establishing a new path between two nodes
within a routing zone.

• The repair is done by the starting node of the link

(node A in the previous diagram) by sending a
route repair message to node B within its routing
zone.
• This is like a RREQ message from A with B as the
destination.
83
 How to Prevent Flooding of the
Network
• Interzone routing may generate many copies of
the same RREQ message if not directed correctly.

• The RREQ should be steered towards the

destination or towards previously unexplored
regions of the network.
• Otherwise, the same RREQ message may reach
the same nodes many times, causing the flooding
of the network.

84
 Routing Zones Overlap Heavily
• Since each node has its own routing zone, the
routing zones of neighbouring nodes overlap
heavily.

• Since each peripheral node of a zone forwards

the RREQ message, the message can reach the
same node multiple times without proper
control.
• Each node may forward the same RREQ multiple
times.
85
 Guiding the Search in Inter Zone
Routing

The search explores new regions of the network.

86
 Routing Summary

• Protocols
– Typically divided into proactive, reactive and hybrid
– Plenty of routing protocols. Discussion here is far from
exhaustive
• Actual trade-off depends a lot on traffic and mobility
patterns
– Higher traffic diversity (more source-destination pairs)
increases overhead in on-demand protocols
– Higher mobility will always increase overhead in all
protocols

87
Transport in MANET

88
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• Studies comparing different routing protocols for MANET typically
measure UDP performance
• Several performance metrics are used
– routing overhead per data packet
– packet delivery delay
– throughput/loss
• Many variables affect performance
– Traffic characteristics
– Mobility characteristics
– Node capabilities
• Difficult to identify a single scheme that will perform well in all
environments
• Several relevant studies [Broch98Mobicom, Das9ic3n,
Johansson99Mobicom, Das00Infocom, Jacquet00Inria]
On the evaluation of TCP in MANETs,
89
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Reliable ordered delivery
– Reliability achieved by means of retransmissions if necessary

• End-to-end semantics
– Receiver sends cumulative acknowledgements for in-sequence packets
– Receiver sends duplicate acknowledgements for out-of-sequence packets

• Implements congestion avoidance and control using sliding-window

– Window size is minimum of
• receiver’s advertised window - determined by available buffer space at the
receiver
• congestion window - determined by the sender, based on feedback from the
network
– Congestion window size bounds the amount of data that can be sent per round-trip
time

90
 Detection of packet loss in TCP

• Retransmission timeout (RTO)

– sender sets retransmission timer for only one packet
– if Ack not received before timer expiry, the packet is assumed
lost
– RTO dynamically calculated, doubles on each timeout
• Duplicate acks
– sender assumes packet loss if it receives three consecutive
duplicate acknowledgements (dupacks)
• On detecting a packet loss, TCP sender assumes that
network congestion has occurred and drastically reduces
the congestion window

91
 TCP in MANET
Several factors affect TCP performance in MANET:
• Wireless transmission errors
– may cause fast retransmit, which results in
• retransmission of lost packet
• reduction in congestion window
– reducing congestion window in response to errors is
unnecessary
• Multi-hop routes on shared wireless medium
– Longer connections are at a disadvantage compared to shorter
connections, because they have to contend for wireless
access at each hop

• Route failures due to mobility

92
 Impact of Multi-hop Wireless Paths
TCP throughput degrades with increase in number of hops
Packet transmission can occur on at most one hop among
three consecutive hops
– Increasing the number of hops from 1 to 2, 3 results in
increased delay, and decreased throughput
• Increasing number of hops beyond 3 allows
simultaneous transmissions on more than one link,
however, degradation continues due to contention
between TCP Data and Acks traveling in opposite
directions
• When number of hops is large enough (>6), throughput
stabilizes [Holland99]
93
 Impact of Node Mobility
TCP throughput degrades with increase in mobility but not always
mobility causes
link breakage, Route is TCP sender times out.
resulting in route repaired Starts sending packets again
failure

No
throughput
No throughput
despite route repair

Larger route repair

delays are especially
TCP data and acks harmful
en route discarded
94
 Mobility

D D D
C C C

B B B A
A
A

§Low speed: (Route from A to D is broken for ~1.5 seconds)

•When TCP sender times after 1 second, route still broken.
•TCP times out after another 2 seconds, and only then resumes
§High speed: (Route from A to D is broken for ~0.75 seconds)
•When TCP sender times out after 1 second, route is repaired
§TCP timeout interval somewhat (not entirely) independent of speed
§Network state at higher speed may sometimes be more favorable than
lower speed

95
 Impact of Route Caching
TCP performance typically degrades when caches are used for route
repair

• When a route is broken, route discovery returns a cached route from

local cache or from a nearby node
• After a time-out, TCP sender transmits a packet on the new route.
However, typically the cached route has also broken after it was
cached

timeout due timeout, cached timeout, second cached

to route failure route is broken route also broken

• Another route discovery, and TCP time-out interval

• Process repeats until a good route is found

96
 Caching and TCP performance

• Caching can result in faster route repair

– Faster does not necessarily mean correct
– If incorrect repairs occur often enough, caching performs
poorly
• If cache accuracy is not high enough, gains in routing
overhead may be offset by loss of TCP performance due
to multiple time-outs
• Need mechanisms for determining when cached routes
are stale

97
 Impact of Acknowledgements
• TCP Acks (and link layer acks) share the wireless bandwidth with
TCP data packets
• Data and Acks travel in opposite directions
– In addition to bandwidth usage, acks require additional receive-send
turnarounds, which also incur time penalty
• Reduction of contention between data and acks, and frequency of
send-receive turnaround
• Mitigation [Balakrishnan97]
– Piggybacking link layer acks with data
– Sending fewer TCP acks - ack every d-th packet (d may be chosen
dynamically)
– Ack filtering - Gateway may drop an older ack in the queue, if a new ack
arrives

98
 TCP Parameters after Route Repair
• Window Size after route repair
– Same as before route break: may be too optimistic
– Same as startup: may be too conservative
– Better be conservative than overly optimistic
– Reset window to small value; let TCP learn the window size
• Retransmission Timeout (RTO) after route repair
– Same as before route break: may be too small for long routes
– Same as TCP start-up: may be too large and respond slowly to
packet loss
– new RTO could be made a function of old RTO and route
lengths

99
 Improving TCP Throughput
• Network feedback
– Network knows best (why packets are lost)
– Need to modify transport & network layer to receive/send
feedback
- Need mechanisms for information exchange between layers
• Inform TCP of route failure by explicit message
• Let TCP know when route is repaired
– Probing
– Explicit notification
– Better route caching mechanisms

• Reduces repeated TCP timeouts and backoff

100
 Other interesting problems:
• Applications for MANET
• Address assignment
• QoS issues
• Improving interaction between
protocol layers

101
Energy in MANET

102
 Energy

• In ad hoc networks the devices are battery powered

• So the computation and communication capacity of each device is
constrained
• Devices that expend their whole energy can be recharged when
they leave the network
• Energy resources and computation workloads have different
distributions within the network
• Therefore it is beneficial to redistribute spare energy resources
to satisfy varying workloads in the network

103
 Main reason for Energy management in
ad hoc networks
• Limited Energy Reserve: The improvement in battery
technologies is very slow
• Difficulties in replacing the batteries: E.g. in battlefields or
emergency applications
• Lack of central coordination: In ad hoc networks as distributed
networks some nodes may work as relay nodes; when relay
traffic is heavy the power consumption is high
• Constraints on the battery source: The batteries should be small
and not heavy; So low power is available at each node
• Selection of optimal transmission power: Higher
transmission power results in high

104
 Classification..

• Energy management scheme

how to consume?
how to supply?
= power control
105
 Classification..

• Battery management :
– Concerned with problems that lie in the selection of battery
technologies, finding the optimal capacity of the battery
• Transmission power management:
– Attempt to find an optimum power level for the nodes in
the ad hoc wireless network
• System power management:
– Deals mainly with minimizing the power required by hardware
peripherals of a node (such as CPU, DRAM and LCD display)

106
 Battery Management Schemes

• The lifetime of a node is determined by the

capacity of its energy source and the energy
required by the node.
• There are some device dependent approaches
that increase the battery lifetime by exploiting its
internal characteristics.
• Key Fact: Batteries recover their charge when idle
– Use some batteries and leave others to idle/recover

107
 Battery …
A) Device depending schemes:
I. Battery scheduling techniques:
• In a battery package of L cells, a subset of batteries can be
scheduled for transmitting a given packet leaving other cells
o recover their charge. There are some approaches to select
the subset of cells, e.g.:
B) Data link Layer Battery Management
Lazy Packet Scheduling:
• Reduce the power ⇒ Increase the transmission time (lower
bit rate)
• But this may not suit practical wireless environment packets
– a transmission schedule is designed taking into account the delay
constraints of the packets 108
 Transmission power management

• What is power control?

– In IEEE802.11 MAC protocol:
• Each node transmits packets at the same power level:
maximal possible power level.
• Transmission power may be higher than enough
• May generate unnecessary interference and energy
consumption
– In a wireless ad hoc network, the power control
problem is to choose the appropriate transmit power
level for every packet to ensure that the transmitted
packet is received correctly.
109
 Transmission power management
Power Control in IEEE 802.11 Ad Hoc Mode
• A power control MAC protocol allows nodes to vary
transmit power level on a per-packet basis
• When C transmits to D at a high power level, B cannot
receive A’s transmission due to interference from C

• If C reduces transmit power, it can still communicate to D

– Reduces energy consumption at node C
– Allows B to receive A’s transmission (spatial reuse) 110
 Transmission power management
• But difference in transmit power can lead to increased
collisions
• In following example suppose nodes A and B use lower
power level than nodes C and D
• When A is transmitting to B, C and D may not sense the
transmission
• When C and D transmit to each other using higher
power, their transmission may collide with the on-going
transmission from A to B

111
 Transmission power management
• As a solution to this problem, RTS-CTS are transmitted at
the highest possible power level but DATA and ACK at
the minimum power level necessary to communicate
• In figure nodes A and B send RTS and CTS respectively
with highest power level such that node C receives the
CTS and defers its transmission
• By using a lower power level for DATA and ACK packets,
nodes can save energy

112
 Transmission power management
• In the previous scheme, RTS-CTS handshake is used to
decide the transmission power for subsequent DATA and
ACK which can be achieved in two different ways
1. Suppose node A wants to send a packet to node B. Node A
transmit RTS at power level pmax (maximum possible). When
B receives the RTS from A with signal level pr, B calculates the
minimum necessary transmission power level, pdesired. For the
DATA packet based on received power level, pr, transmitted
power level, pmax, and noise level at the receiver B. Node B
specifies pdesired in its CTS to node A. After receiving CTS,
node A sends DATA using power level pdesired.

113
 Transmission…
2. When a destination node receives an RTS, it
responds by sending a CTS (at power level pmax).
When source node receives CTS, it calculates pdesired
based on received power level, pr, and transmitted
power level (pmax) as
Pdesired= (pmax / pr) x Rxthresh x c
where Rxthresh is minimum necessary received signal
strength and c is a constant

114
 System power management scheme
• Efficient design of the hardware brings about
significant reduction in the power consumed.
• This can be effected by operating some of the
peripheral devices in power-saving mode by
turning them off under idle conditions.
• System power consists of the power used by all
hardware units of the node. This power can be
conserved significantly by applying the following
schemes:
– Processor power management schemes
– Device power management schemes 115
 Summary

• Power control is important in wireless ad hoc

networks for at least two reasons:
(i) It can impact on battery life
(ii)It can impact on the traffic carrying capacity of
the network.

116
Vulnerability of MANET

Wireless
Links
Different
requirement
Dynamic
s for
Topology
different
appl. Vulnerabilit
y
Resource Cooperative
Constraints ness
Lack of
clear line of
defense

117
 Security in MANET
q Goal
§ Authentication
§ Confidentiality
§ Integrity
§ Non-repudiation
§ Isolation and detection

118
 Security in MANET
q Authentication: A node must know the
identity of the peer it is communicating
with.
q Confidentiality: Ensure certain
information is never disclosed to
unauthorized entity.
q Integrity: Message being transmitted is
not corrupted.

119
 Security in MANET
q Non-repudiation: The sender cannot later
deny sending information & the receiver
cannot deny reception.
q Isolation & detection: Require the
protocol can identify misbehaving node &
render them unable to interfere with
routing.

120
 Classification of attack in
MANET

By the mechanism they

By their source attack

• Basic mechanism
• Internal
• Security mechanism
• External

By their type

• Passive
• Active

121
 Attack: Internal or
External Source
q An external source of attack is not a
legitimate user of the network.
q An internal source attacker is an
authorized node.
§ These can disrupt the network
communication intentionally.

122
 Attacks: Passive Attacks
q Eavesdropping Attack: Are attacks by
external or internal nodes.
§ The attacker can analyses broadcast
messages to reveal some useful
information about the network.

123
 Attacks: Passive Attacks
q Traffic Analysis: Determine the
location and identity of
communicating hosts and could
observe the frequency and length of
messages being exchanged.

124
 Attacks: Active Attacks
q Dropping Attacks: Malicious nodes &
selfish nodes deliberately drop all
packets that are not destined for them.

125
 Attacks: Active Attacks
q Modification Attacks: Insider
attackers modify packets to disrupt
the network.
q Fabrication Attacks: T h e a tta ck er
forges network packet.

126
 Attacks: Active Attacks
q Timing Attacks: An attacker attacks
other nodes by causing itself to
appear closer to those nodes than it
really is.

127
 Attacks: By Mechanism
q Basic Mechanisms: Routing disruption
and resource consumption.
q Security Mechanisms: Key
management.

128
 Black hole Attack in AODV
F
M

D
C
E

Objective: A wants to send data to E

Node M is malicious node
129
 Black hole Attack in AODV
F
M
<A,1,1,E, ,0>

D
C
E

A will send RREQ packet to all it’s neighbor

130
Black hole Attack in AODV
<A,1,1,E, ,0>
F
M

A
<A,1,1,E, ,0>
D
C
E

131
Black hole Attack in AODV
<E,A,120,2>
F
M

A
<A,1,1,E, ,0>
D
C
E

132
 Black hole Attack in AODV
F
M
Dest Next Hop Seq
E M 3 120

A
<E,A,120,2>
<A,1,1,E, ,0>
D
C
E

133
 Black hole Attack in AODV
F
est Next Hop Seq M
E M 3 120

A
Data, E
<A,1,1,E, ,0>
D
C
E

134
 Black hole Attack in AODV
F
est Next Hop Seq M
E M 3 120 Data, E

A
<A,1,1,E, ,0>
D
C
E

M drops the data or send it to other malicious node

135
 THANK YOU!!

Q&A?
136