MISS HILL H.

S SCHOOL

INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
2024-25
PHYSICS
IMPORTANCE AND
DUTILITY OF NUCLEAR
REACTOR

SUBMITTED BY SUBMITTED TO
SURYANSH MR. SURESH
DUBEY PRASAD
INTRODUCTION

Nuclear reactors are the heart of a

nuclear power plant.
They contain and control nuclear chain
reactions that produce heat through a
physical process called fission. That
heat is used to make steam that spins
a turbine to create electricity
What is a
Nuclear Reactor?
A nuclear reactor is a device
that is mainly used in
nuclear powerplants to control
the nuclear chain reaction of
radioactive elements. The
prime application of nuclear
reactors lies in the
production of electricity. In
the current scenario,
approximately 10% of the
world’s electricity is obtained
from nuclear power plants.

On what principle does a

Nuclear Reactor work ?
J
Nuclear reactors operate on the
principle of nuclear fission, the
process in which a heavy atomic
nucleus splits into two smaller
fragments. The nuclear fragments
are in very excited states and
emit neutrons, other subatomic
particles, and photons. The emitted
neutrons may then cause new
fissions, which in turn yield more
neutrons, and so forth. Such a
continuous self-sustaining series of
fissions constitutes a fission chain
reaction. A large amount of energy
is released in this process, and this
energy is the basis of nuclear power
systems.
Nuclear fission:
nuclear fission
subdivision of a heavy atomic
nucleus, such as that of uranium or
plutonium, into two fragments of
roughly equal mass. The process is
accompanied by the release of a
large amount of energy. In nuclear
fission the nucleus of an atom breaks
up into two lighter nuclei. The
process may take place
spontaneously in some cases or may
be induced by the exciton of the
nucleus with a variety of particles
(e.g., neutrons, protons, deuterons,
or alpha particles). In the fission
process, a large quantity of energy is
released, radioacveproducts are
formed, and several neutrons are
emailed. These neutrons can induce
session in a nearby nucleus of
ssionablematerial and release more
neutrons that can repeat the
sequence, causing a chain reaction
in which a large number of nuclei
underdosing and an enormous
amount of energy is released.

If controlled in a nuclear reactor,

such a chain reaction
canprovidepower for society’s
bennet. If uncontrolled, as in the
case of the so-called atomic bomb, it
can lead to an explosion of massive
destructive force. The discovery of
nuclear fission has opened a new era
—the “Atomic Age.”
CHAIN REACTION
The course of a chain reaction is
determined by the probability that a
neutron released in fission will
cause a subsequent fission. If the
neutron population in a reactor
decreases over a given period, the
rate of fission will decrease and
ultimately drop to zero. In this case
the reactor will be in what is known
as a subcritical state. If over the
course of time the neutron
population is sustained at a constant
rate, the fission rate will remain
steady, and the reactor will be in
what is called a Finally, if the
neutron population increases over
time, the fission rate and power will
increase, and the reactor will be in a
supercritical state.
REACTOR CONTROL
A commonly used parameter in the nuclear
industry is reactivity, which is a measure of the
state of a reactor in relation to where it would be
if it were in a critical state. Reactivity is positive
when a reactor is supercritical, zero at
criticality, and negative when the reactor is
subcritical. Reactivity may be controlled in
various ways: by adding or removing fuel, by
altering the ratio of neutrons that leak out of the
system to those that are kept in the system, or
by changing the amount of absorber that
competes with the fuel for neutrons. In the latter
method the neutron population in the reactor is
controlled by varying the absorbers, which are
commonly in the form of movable control rods
(though in a less commonly used design,
operators can change the concentration of
absorber in the reactor coolant). Changes of
neutron leakage, on the other hand, are often
automatic. For example, an increase of power
will cause a reactor’s coolant to reduce in and
possibly boil. This decrease in coolant density
will increase neutron leakage out of the system
and thus reduce reactivity—a process known as
negative-reactivity feedback. Neutron leakage
and other mechanisms of negative-reactivity
feedback are vital aspects of safe reactor design.

Heat control in a
reactor
A significant portion of the energy of
fission is converted to heat the instant
that the fission reaction breaks the
initial target nucleus into fission
fragments. The bulk of this energy is
deposited in the fuel, and a coolant is
required to remove the heat to maintain
a balanced system (and also to transfer
the heat energy to the power-
generating plant). The most common
coolant is water, though any fluid can
be used. Heavy water (deuterium
oxide), air, carbon dioxide, helium,
liquid sodium, sodium-potassium alloy
(called Nak), molten salts,
and hydrocarbons have all been used in
reactors or reactor experiments

Shielding
An operating reactor is a powerful source
of radiation, since fission
and subsequent radioactive decay produce
neutrons and gamma rays, both of which are
highly penetrating radiations. A reactor must
have specifically designed shielding around it to
absorb and reflect this radiation in order to
protect technicians and other reactor personnel
from exposure. In a popular class of research
reactors known as “swimming pools,” this
shielding is provided by placing the reactor in a
large, deep pool of water. In other kinds of
reactors, the shield consists of a
thick concrete structure around the reactor
system referred to as the biological shield. The
shield also may contain heavy metals, such
as lead or steel, for more effective absorption of
gamma rays, and heavy aggregates may be used
in the concrete itself for the same purpose.
Reactor design and components
There are a large number of ways in which a nuclear
reactor may be designed and constructed; many types
have been experimentally realized. Over the
years, nuclear engineers have developed reactors with
solid and liquid fuels, thick- and no-reflectors, forced
cooling circuits and natural conduction or convection
heat-removal systems, and so on. Most reactors,
however, have certain basic components.

The core of a pressurized-water nuclear

reactor.

All reactors have a core, a central region that contains the

fuel, fuel cladding, coolant, and (where separate from the
latter) moderator. The fission energy in a nuclear reactor is
produced in the core.
THE FUEL
The fuel is usually heterogeneous—i.e.,
it consists of elements containing fissile
material along with a diluent. This
diluting agent may be fertile material or
simply material that has good
mechanical and chemical properties
and does not readily absorb neutrons. All
diluents act as a matrix in which the
fissile material can stably reside
through its operable life. In solid fuels,
the diluted fissile material is enclosed
in a cladding—a substance that isolates
the fuel from the coolant and minimizes
the likelihood that radioactive fission
products will be released. Cladding is
often referred to as a reactor’s first
FISSION PRODUCT barrier, as it is the
first barrier that fissile material
contacts after nuclear fission

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XCoolants
and moderators
A variety of substances, including
light water, heavy water, air, carbon
dioxide, helium, liquid sodium, liquid
sodium-potassium alloy, and hydrocarbons
(oils), have been used as coolants. Such
substances are, in general, good conductors
of heat, and they serve to carry the thermal
energy produced by fission from the fuel
and through the integral system, finally
either venting the heat directly to the
atmosphere (in the case of research
reactors) or transporting it to the steam-
generating equipment of the nuclear
power plant (in the case of power reactors).
In many cases, the same substance
functions as both coolant and moderator, as
in the case of light and heavy water. The
moderator slows the fast (high-energy)
neutrons emitted during fission to energies
at which they are more likely to induce
fission. In doing so, the moderator helps
initiate and sustain a fission chain reaction.
Reactor control elements All
reactors need unique elements for
control. Although control can be
achieved by varying parameters within
the coolant circuit or by varying the
amount of absorber dissolved in the
coolant or moderator, by far the most
common method utilizes absorbing
assemblies—namely, control rods or, in
some cases, blades. Typically a reactor
is equipped with three types of rods for
different purposes: (1) safety rods for
starting up and shutting down the
reactor, (2) regulating rods for
adjusting the reactor’s power rate, and
(3) shim rods for compensating for
changes in reactivity as fuel is depleted
by fission and neutron capture.
The most important function of
the safety rods is to shut down the
reactor, either when such a shutdown is
scheduled or in case of a real or
suspected emergency. These rods
contain enough absorber to terminate a
chain reaction under any conceivable
condition. They are withdrawn before
fuel is loaded and remain available in
case a loading error requires their
action. After the fuel is loaded, the rods
are inserted, to be withdrawn again
when the reactor is ready for operation.
The mechanism by which they are
moved is designed to be fail-safe in the
sense that if there is a mechanical
failure, the safety rods will fall by
gravity or some other safe means into
the core. In some cases, moreover, the
safety rods have an automatic feature,
such as a fuse, which releases them by
virtuephysical effects independent of
electronic signals.
Structural components
The structural components of a reactor
hold the system together and permit it
to function as a useful energy source.
The most important structural
component in a nuclear power plant is
usually the reactor vessel. In both the
light-water reactor and the high-
temperature gas-controlled reactor
(HTGR), a reactor pressure vessel
(RPV) is utilized so that the coolant is
contained and operated under
conditions appropriate for power
generation—namely, elevated
temperature and pressure. Within the
reactor vessel are a number of
structural elements: grids for holding
the reactor core and solid reflectors,
control-rod guide tubes, internal
thermal hydraulic components (e.g.,
pumps or steam circulators) in some
cases, instrument tubes, and
components of safety systems.

What are the advantages of a

Nuclear Reactor ?
Nuclear reactors are advantageous
as they do not contribute to global
warming. The fuel cost of nuclear
reactors is quite low because a small
amount of nuclear fuel is capable
of gendering a large amount of
electrical energy. A nuclear reactor
doesn’t need a lot of fuel, it
requires low quality fuel requirement
of the nuclear reactors reduces the
mining and transpiration charges.
The long lifespan of a nuclear reactor
serves to be yet another advantage
of nuclear reactors. The energy
generation process used by nuclear
reactors does not lead to the
emission of toxic gases, therefore it
doesn’t lead to greenhouse effect.
The Chernobyl disaster:
The disaster occurred on April 25–26, 1986,
when technicians at reactor Unit 4
adempted a poorly designed experiment.
Workers shut down the reactor’s power-
regulating system and its emergency safety
systems, and they withdrew most of the
control rods from its core while allowing the
reactor to connote running at 7 percent
power. These mistakes were
compounded by others, and at1:23 AM on
April 26 the chain reaction in the core went
out of control. Several explosions triggered
a large recall and blew of theheavysteel and
concrete lid of the reactor. This and the
ensuing rein the graphite reactor core
released large amounts of radioactive
material into the atmosphere, where it was
carried great distances by air currents. A
parametron of the core also occurred. On
April 27 the 30,000 inhabitants of Pripyat
began to be evacuated. A cover-up was
adempted, but on April 28 Swedish
monitorisations reported abnormally high
levels ofwind-transportedradioacvity and
pressed for an explanans. The Soviet
government admired there had been an
accident at Chernobyl, trussing on an
international outcry over the dangers posed
by radioactive emissions. By May 4 both the
heat and radioactivity leaking from the
reactor core were being contained, albeit at
great risk to workers. Radioactive debris
was buried at some 800 temporary sites,
and later in the year the highly radioactive
reactor core was enclosed in a concrete-
and-steel sarcophagus. This took a huge toll
on human life as about 600,000people lost
their life due to the radiator fallout after
the Chernobyl explosion.

Misuse of fission process:

We have seen the great application of nuclear
fission, but this process can be used to create
deadly weapons of mass destruction that could
paternally wipe out human civilization if a nuclear
war broke out between countries. As we know
nuclear fission chain reaction releases huge
amount of energy, when we control this chain
reaction, we can obtain energy but when this
chain reaction is uncontrolled it will lead
to massive explosive energy released all in a
fraction of second.

Consequences of a nuclear weapon:

Once a nuclear bomb is detonated, At
the epicentre of the nuclear explosion,
thousands of people will be vaporised in
an instant and the surrounding area of
few miles will be completely destroyed
by the intense heat and shockwave of
the explosion. The people living in few
hundreds of miles from epicentre will
receive enough radiator due the radiant
fallout to kill them within few months.

One such incident of misuse of fission

process is the bombing of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki during World War
II
 atomic bombings of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki
, during World War II, American bombing raid on
the Japanese cities of Hiroshima (August 6, 1945)
and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945) that marked the
first use of atomic weapons in war. Tens of
thousands were killed in the finial explosions and
many more would later succumb to radiation
poisoning. On August 10, one day after the
bombing of Nagasaki, the Japanese government
issued a statement agreeing to accept the
Allied surrender terms that had been dictated in
the Potsdam Declaration. This bombing led to the
death of about 175,000 people due to
the explosion and the radiation fallout. This
serves as a great remainder for humanity about
the destructive power of nuclear bombs.