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MODULE I
Satellite Orbits and Trajectories

Orbit: Orbit is a trajectory that is periodically repeated.

Orbit:The path followed by the motion of an artificial satellite around Earth is
called an orbit.
Atrajectory: isapathtracedbyamovingbody.
Basic Principles
The motion of satellites around Earth is governed by two forces:
Centripetal force: is directed towards the centre of the Earth due to the
gravitational force of attraction of Earth.
This forcecausesthecircularmotion.
In the absence of this centripetal force, the satellite would have continued to
move in a straight line at a constant speed after injection.
The centripetal force directed at right angles to the satellite’s velocity towards
the centre of the Earth transforms the straight line motion to the circular or
elliptical one, depending upon the satellite velocity.
Centrifugal force: is a force that acts outwards from the centre of the Earth.
In the case of a satellite orbiting Earth, the satellite exerts a centrifugal force.
These two forces can be explained from Newton’s law of gravitation and
Newton’s second law of motion.
Newton’s Law of Gravitation: According to Newton’s law of gravitation, every
particle irrespective of its mass attracts every other particle with a gravitational
force whose magnitude is directly proportional to the product of the masses of
the two particles and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them and written as
Gm1m2
F
r2
where m1,m2=masses of the two particles
r=distance between the two particles

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G=gravitational constant=6.67×10−11 m3/kgs

The force with which the particle with mass m1 attracts the particle with mass
m2 equals the force with which particle with mass (m2) attracts the particle
with mass (m1).The forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion:

According to Newton’s second law of motion, the force equals the product of
mass and acceleration. In the case of a satellite orbiting Earth, if the orbiting
velocity is v, then the acceleration, called centripetal acceleration, experienced
by the satellite at a distance r from the centre of the Earth would be v2/r. If the
mass of satellite is m, it would experience a reaction force of mv2/r. This is the
centrifugal force directed outwards from the centre of the Earth and for a
satellite is equal in magnitude to the gravitational force.

Gm1m2 m2v 2

r2 r

Gm1 
v 
r r
where m1=mass of Earth
m2=mass of the satellite
μ=Gm1 =3.986013×105 km3/s2 =3.986013×1014 Nm2/kg.
The orbital period in such a case can be computed from

 r
3
2
T


In the case of an elliptical orbit, the forces governing the motion of the satellite
are the same. The velocity at any point on an elliptical orbit at a distance d
from the centre of the Earth is given by the formula

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  2 1 
v      
  d a 

where a=semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit.

The orbital period in the case of an elliptical orbit is given by

 a
3
2
T

Orbital Parameters:

The satellite orbit, which is elliptical is characterized by following orbital

elements and parameters:
1. Ascending and descending nodes
2. Equinoxes
3. Solstices
4 Apogee
5. Perigee
6.Eccentricity
7. Semi-major axis
8. Right ascension of the ascending node
9. Inclination
10. Argument of the perigee
11. True anomaly of the satellite
12. Angles defining the direction of the satellite.

1. Ascending and descending nodes:

The satellite orbit cuts the equatorial plane at two points (Nodes)

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(a) Descending node(N1) where the satellite passes from the northern
hemisphere to the southern hemisphere.

(b) Ascending node(N2) where the satellite passes from the southern
hemisphere to the northern hemisphere.

2. Equinoxes:

The inclination of the equatorial plane of Earth withrespect to the direction of

the sun,defined by the angle formed by the line joining the centre of the Earth
and the sun with the Earth’s equatorial plane follows a sinusoidal variation
and completes one cycle of sinusoidal variation over a period of 365 days.
The sinusoidal variation of the angle of inclination is defined by

 2 t 
Inclination angle (in degrees)= 23.4sin  
 T 
Where T is 365days
For t = T/2 and T, the inclination angle is zero and it occurs on 20-21 March,
called the spring equinox.
22-23 September, called the autumn equinox.
Both equinoxes are spaced 6 months apart.
The line of intersection of the Earth’sequatorial plane and the Earth’s orbital
plane that passes through the centre of the Earth is known as the line of
equinoxes.
The direction of the line of equinoxes with respect to the direction of the sun on
20-21 March determines a point at infinity called the vernal equinox (Y).

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3. Solstices. Solstices are the times when the inclination angle is at its
maximum, i.e. 23.4◦.
This time occurs twice a year
i) During 20-21June,called the summer solstice.
ii)During 21-22 December, called the winter solstice.
4. Apogee. Apogee is the point on the satellite orbit that is at the farthest
distance from the centre of the Earth. This apogee distance is calculated by
Apogee distance= a (1+e)
e = orbit eccentricity
a= semi-major axis

The apogee distance can also be computed from the known values of the
perigee distance and velocity at the perigee Vp.

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 2 2 
VP    
 Perigeedist an ce perigeedis tan ce  apogeedis tan ce 
 d cos  
Vp  V  
 perigeedis tan ce 
V being the velocity of the satellite at a distance from the centre of the Earth.
5. Perigee.Perigee is the point on the orbit that is nearest to the centre of the
Earth.

The perigee distance can be computed from the known values of orbit
eccentricity e and the semi-major axis a from
Perigee distance= a(1−e).
6. Eccentricity. The orbit eccentricity e is the ratio of the distance between the
centre of the ellipse and the centre of the Earth to the semi-major axis of the
ellipse. It can be calculated from
apogee  perigee
e
apogee  perigee
apogee  perigee
e
2a
a 2  b2
e
a
where a and b are semi-major and semi-minor axes respectively.
7. Semi-major axis. This is a geometrical parameter of an elliptical orbit. It
canbe computed from known values of apogee and perigee distances as
apogee  perigee
a
2
8. Right ascension of the ascending node.It gives information about the
orientation of the line which joins ascending and descending nodes, with
respect to the direction of the vernal equinox.

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It is expressed as an angle Ωmeasured from the vernal equinox towards the line
of nodes in the direction of rotation of Earth. The angle could be anywhere from
0◦ to 360◦.

This angle is important to ensure that the satellite orbits in the given plane.
This can be achieved by choosing an appropriate injection time depending
upon the longitude.
This angle can be computed as the difference between two angles.
One is the angle α between the direction of the vernal equinox and the
longitude of the injection point. Other is the angle β between the line of nodes
and the longitude of the injection point.
Cos i sin l
SIN  
Cos l Sin i
where∠i is the orbit inclination and l is the latitude at the injection point.

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9. Inclination (i). Inclination is the angle that the orbital plane of the satellite
makes with the Earths’s equatorial plane. It is measured as follows.
The line of nodes divides both the Earth’s equatorial plane as well as the
satellite’s orbital plane into two halves.
Inclination is measured as the angle between that half of the satellite’s orbital
plane containing the trajectory of the satellite from the descending node to the
ascending node to that half of the Earth’s equatorial plane containing the
trajectory of a point on the equator from n1 to n2, where n1 and n2 are
respectively the points vertically below the descending and ascending nodes.

The inclination angle(i) can be determined from the latitude l at the injection
point and the angle Az between the projection of the satellite’s velocity vector
on the local horizontal and north.
It is givenby cosi =sinAzcosl
10. Argument of the perigee.This parameter defines the location of the major
axis of the satellite orbit. It is measured as the angle ω between the line joining
the perigee and the centre of the Earth and the line of nodes from the
ascending node to the descending node in the same direction as that of the
satellite orbit.

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11.True anomaly of the satellite. This parameter is used to indicate the

position of the satellite in its orbit. This is done by defining an angle θ, called
the true anomaly of the satellite, formed by the line joining the perigee and the
centre of the Earth with the line joining the satellite and the centre of the
Earth.

12. Angles defining the direction of the satellite. The direction of the
satellite is defined by two angles, the first by angle γ between the direction of
the satellite’s velocity vector and its projection in the local horizontal.
The second by angle Az between the north and the projection of the satellite’s
velocity vector on the local horizontal.
Injection Velocity and Resulting Satellite Trajectories:
The horizontal velocity with which a satellite is injected into space by the
launch vehicle with the intention of imparting a specific trajectory to the
satellite has a direct bearing on the satellite trajectory. The phenomenon is best
explained in terms of the three cosmic velocities.
The general expression for the velocity of a satellite at the perigee point (VP),
assuming an elliptical orbit, is given by

 2    2   
V p    
 r   R  r  
where R =apogee distance
r =perigee distance
μ = GM =constant

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CASE I
The first cosmic velocity V1 is the one at which apogee and perigee distances
are equal, i.e. R = r, and the orbit is circular.


The above expression then reduces to V1 
r
Thus, irrespective of the distance r of the satellite from the centre of the Earth,
if the injection velocity is equal to the first cosmic velocity, the satellite follows
a circular orbit and moves with a uniform velocity equal to √(μ/r).
For a satellite at 35786km above the surface of the Earth, the first cosmic
velocity is3.075km/s and the orbital period is 23 hours 56 minutes, which is
equal to the time period of one sidereal day .
(sidereal day – the time taken by Earth to complete one full rotation around its
axis with reference to distant stars.)This confirms why a geostationary satellite
needs to be at a height of 35786km above the surface of the Earth.

CASE II
Iftheinjectionvelocityhappenstobelessthanthefirstcosmicvelocity,thesatellitefollo
ws a ballistic trajectory and falls back to Earth.

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CASE III
If injection velocity is greater than the first cosmic velocity and less than the
second cosmic velocity, i.e. V>√(μ/r) and V<√(2μ/r), the orbit is elliptical.
The orbit eccentricity is between 0 and 1.
The injection point in this case is the perigee.
CASE IV
For the injection velocity equals√(2μ/r), the apogee distance R becomes infinite.
The orbit takes the shape of a parabola.
The orbit eccentricity is 1. This is the second cosmic velocity v2. At this
velocity, the satellite escapes Earth’s gravitational pull.

CASE V
For an injection velocity greater than the second cosmic velocity,the trajectory
is hyperbolic within the solar system and the orbit eccentricity is greater than
1.If the injection velocity is increased further, a stage is reached where the
satellite succeeds in escaping from the solar system. This is known as the third
cosmic velocity and is related to the motion of planet Earth around the sun.
The third cosmic velocity (V3) is mathematically expressed as

 2
V3  
 r
 
 V 2t 3  2 2 


Where Vt is the speed of Earth’s revolution around the sun.
For elliptical orbits, the greater the injection velocity from the first cosmic
velocity, the greater is the apogee distance. This is evident from the generalized
expression for the velocity of the satellite in elliptical orbits according to which
Vp =velocity at the perigee point.

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 1 1 
V p   2     
  r R  r 

Types of Satellite Orbits/

Classification of Satellite Orbits

Orientation of the Eccentric Distance from Earth

orbital

I) Based on Orientation of the orbital plane

The orbital plane of the satellite can have various orientations with respect to
the equatorial plane of Earth. The angle between the two planes is called the
angle of inclination of the satellite.
There are three orbits:
(a) Equatorial orbits,
(b) Polar orbits
(c) Inclined orbit
(d) Direct or Prograde orbit:
(e) Retrograde orbit.:
(a) Equatorial orbit,
The angle of inclination is zero, i.e. the orbital plane of the satellite coincides
with the Earth’s equatorial plan.
A satellite in the equatorial orbit has a latitude of 0◦

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(b) Polar orbit:The angle of inclination equal to 90◦, the satellite is said to be
in the polar orbit.

(c) Inclined orbits:The angle of inclination between 0◦ and 180◦, the orbit is
said to be an inclined orbit.

(d) Direct or Prograde orbit: The angle of inclinations between 0◦and90◦,the

satellite travels in the same direction as the direction of rotation of the
Earth.

(e) Retrograde orbit.:The angle of inclinations between 90◦and180◦,the satellite

orbits in a direction opposite to the direction of rotation of the Earth.

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II ) Based on Eccentricity of the Orbit

On the basis of eccentricity, the orbits are classified as
a)Elliptical :The orbit eccentricity lies between 0 and 1,
b) Circular: The eccentricity is zero,

NOTE: For geostationary satellites INSAT-3B, an Indian satellite in the

INSAT series providing communication and meteorological services, the
eccentricity is 0.0002526
GOES-9 and Meteosat-7 geostationary satellites, both offering weather
forecasting services,are0.0004233and 0.0002526 respectively.
Molniya Orbit:
Eccentricity and orbit inclination are 0.75 and 65◦ respectively.
The apogee and perigee points are about 40000km and 400km respectively
from the surface of the Earth.

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It is a 12 hour orbit and a satellite in this orbit spends about 8 hours above a
particular high latitude station before diving down to a low level perigee at an
equally high southern latitude.
It is widely used by Russia and other countries of the former Soviet Union to
provide communication services.

Molniya orbit.
III ) Distance from Earth
Depending upon the distance,orbits are classified as

a) Low Earth orbits (LEOs),

Is at a height of 160 to 500km above the surface of the Earth.
Have much shorter orbital periods and smaller signal propagation
delays.
Speed is 7.8Km /Sec.
Advantages:
Due to lower propagation delay it is highly suitable for communication
applications
Due to lower propagation paths, the power required for signal
transmission is also less.
Satellites are of small physical size and are inexpensive to build.
Limitations:
• Poor Coverage: Due to a shorter orbital period of 1.30Hrs these satellites
remain over a particular ground station for a short time. Hence, several
of these satellites are needed for 24 hour coverage.
• Small field of view: which means they can only observe and communicate
with a small portion of the Earth at any given time. To provide
continuous coverage, a large network of satellites is required.

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• Fast orbital decay: LEO satellites rapid orbital decay due to atmospheric
drag and the Earth's oblateness. This means that satellites need to be
periodically re-boosted to maintain stable orbits.
• Network complexity: LEO satellites orbit the Earth many times per day,
so many ground stations are needed to communicate with them. These
stations also need to use different frequencies to avoid interfering with
each other.
• Increased risk of collisions: As more objects are placed in LEO, the risk of
collisions increases exponentially.
• Temperature swings: Satellites in LEO experience temperature swings of
60 to −150°C as they pass into the Earth's shadow during their orbit.
• Space debris: Solar arrays on LEO satellites can be damaged by space
debris left behind by earlier satellites.

Applications:
• One important application of LEO satellites for communication is the
project Iridium, which is a global communication system conceived by
Motorola .A total of 66 satellites are arranged in a distributed
architecture, with each satellite carrying 1/66 of the total system
capacity. The system is intended to provide a variety of
telecommunication services at the global level. The project is
named‘Iridium’ as earlier the constellation was proposed to have 77
satellites and the atomic number of iridium is 77.
 surveillance,
 weather forecasting,
 remote sensing
 scientific studies.

INDIAN SATELLITES IN LEO ORBIT
• EOS-01
Launched in 2020, this satellite focuses on agriculture, forestry, and disaster
management.
• EOS-02
Launched in 2022, this satellite is primarily for technological demonstrations.
• EOS-04
Launched in 2022, this radar imaging satellite is used for all-weather
observation.

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• XPoSat
This satellite is dedicated to scientific research in space-based polarisation
measurements of X-ray emission from celestial sources.
b) Medium Earth orbits (MEOs)

Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites orbit at a distance of approximately

10000 to 20000km above the surface of the Earth.
They have an orbital period of 6 to 12 hours.
The transmission distance and propagation delays are greater than those
for LEO satellites.
These orbits are used for communication and navigation applications.

Advantages of MEO satellites include:

• Fuel efficiency: MEO satellites are more fuel efficient than
LEO satellites.
• Station-keeping: MEO satellites are easier to station-keep than LEO
satellites.
• Satellite size: MEO satellites are smaller and less complex than GEO
satellites.
• Coverage: MEO satellites can provide stable coverage for almost the
entire globe with just six satellites.

c) Geostationary Earth orbits (GEOs)

A geosynchronous Earth orbit is a prograde orbit whose orbital period is

equal to Earth’s rotational period.
For the satellite to have such an orbital velocity, it needs to be at a
height of about 36000km, 35786km to be precise, above the surface of
the Earth.
In order to remain in GEO,a satellite must fulfil the following conditions:
1. It must have a constant latitude, which is possible only at 0◦ latitude.
2. The orbit inclination should be zero.
3. It should have a constant longitude and thus have a uniform angular
velocity, which is possible when the orbit is circular.
4. The orbital period should be equal to 23 hours 56 minutes, which
implies that the satellite must orbit at a height of 35 786km above the
surface of the Earth.
5. The satellite motion must be from west to east.
If these conditions are met, then as the satellite moves from a position O1 to
O2 in its orbit, appoint vertically below on the equator moves with the same
angular velocity and moves from E1 to E2, as shown in Figure below.

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GEO is Prograde Orbit:

Geostationary Earth orbit Vs Geosynchronous Orbit:

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Applications:
Satellites in geostationary orbits are used to relaying communication and TV
broadcast signals around the globe.
They also perform meteorological and military surveillance functions very
effectively.

Difference B/W GEO and LEO

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Orbital Perturbations
The satellite once placed in its orbit, experiences various perturbations which
cause variations in its orbital parameters with time.These include
Solar and lunar attraction,
Magnetic field interaction,
Solar radiation pressure,
Asymmetry of Earth’s gravitational field.
Due to these factors, the satellite orbit tends to drift and its orientation also
changes and hence the true orbit of the satellite is different from that defined
using Kepler’s laws.
The satellite’s position thus needs to be controlled both in the east–west and in
the north–southdirections.
Position control in east–westlocationneeded to prevent radio frequency (RF)
interference from neighbouring satellites.In the case of a geostationary satellite,
a 1◦ drift in the east or west direction is equivalent to a drift of about 735 km
along the orbit.
The north–south orientation has to be maintained to have proper satellite
inclination.

As the satellite experiences non-uniform gravitational force by earth,its

longitudinal location shifts and also it experiences gravitational pulls of sun
and moon.
[NOTE: Non-uniform gravitational force by earth is due toEarth is not a perfect
sphere, is flattened at the poles, equatorial diameter is about 20–40 km more
than the average polar diameter,the equatorial radius of the Earth is not
constant and the average density of Earth is not uniform due to all these
reasons non-uniform gravitational field around the Earth exist.]

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The an Earth orbits around the sun is ellipse whose plane is inclined at angle
of 7◦with respect to the equatorial plane of the sun. The Earth is tilted around
23◦ away from the normal to the ecliptic. The moon revolves around the Earth
with an inclination of around 5◦ to the equatorial plane of the Earth.Hence,the
satellite in orbit is subjected to a variety of out-of-plane forces which change
the inclination on the satellite’s orbit.As the perturbed orbit is not an ellipse
anymore, the satellite does not return to the same point in space after one
revolution.
Theattitudeandorbitcontrolsystemmaintainsthesatellite’spositionanditsorientati
onand keeps the antenna pointed correctly in the desired direction.
The orbit control is performed by firing thrusters in the desired
directionorbyreleasingjetsofgas.Thrustersandgasjets
areusedtocorrectthelongitudinaldriftsandtheinclinationchanges.
Satellite Stabilization
Common techniques used to control satellite attitude are
1. Spin stabilization
2. Three-axis or body stabilization.
1.Spin Stabilization
In this technique, the satellite body is spun at a rate between 30 and 100 rpm
about an axis perpendicular to the orbital plane. The rotating body offers

inertial stiffness, which prevents the satellite from drifting from its desired
orientation.Spin-stabilized satellites are generally cylindrical in shape.To
maintain stability, the moment of inertia about the desired spin axis should at
least be 10% greater than the moment of inertia about the transverse axis.

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Two types of spinning configurations are used to stabilize satellite.

Simple spinner configuration
Dual spinner configuration
Simple spinner configuration
In this configuration the satellite payload and other subsystems are placed in
the spinning section, while the antenna and the feed are placed in the de-spun
platform.The de-spun platform is spun in a direction opposite to that of the
spinning satellite body.
Dual spinner configuration
The entire payload along with the antenna and the feed is placed on the de-
spun platform and the other subsystems are located on the spinning body.
In both configurations, solar cells are mounted on the cylindrical body of the
satellite.
Intelsat-1 to Intelsat-4, Intelsat-6 and TIROS-1 are some of the popular spin-
stabilized satellites.
2. Three-axis or body stabilization
In this technique,the stabilization is achieved by controlling the movement of
the satellite along the three axes, i.e. yaw, pitch and roll, with respect to a
reference.
This technique uses reaction wheels or momentum wheels.
The active control system, applies small corrective forces on the wheels to
correct the undesirable changes in the satellite orbit.
Three-axis stabilized satellites use momentum wheels.
The basic control technique used here is to speed up or slow down the
momentum wheel depending upon the direction in which the satellite is
perturbed.
The satellite rotates in a direction opposite to that of speed change of the
wheel.
For example, an increase in speed of the wheel in the clock wise direction will
make the satellite to rotate in a counter clockwise direction.
An alternative approach is to use reaction wheels. Three reaction wheels are
used, one for each axis. They can be rotated in either direction depending upon
the active correction force.
The satellite body is generally box shaped for three-axis stabilized satellites.

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Some popular satellites belonging to the category of three-axis stabilized

satellites include Intelsat-5, Intelsat-7, Intelsat-8, GOES-8, GOES-9, TIROS-N
and the INSAT series of satellites.
Comparison between Spin-stabilized and Three-axis Stabilized Satellites
Sl.No Spin stabilization Three-axis Stabilized
1 have less power generation have more power generation capability
capability
2 No additional mounting additional mounting area available for
area available for complex complex antennae structures.
antennae structures.
3 simpler in design Complex design
4 less expensive More expensive
5 Extendible solar array is not Extendible solar array used in these
used satellites are unable to provide power
when the satellite is in the transfer
orbit
Orbital Effects on Satellite’s Performance:
The motion of the satellite has significant effects on its performance. These
include
 Doppler shift,
 Effect due to variation in the orbital distance,
 Effect of solar eclipse
 Sun’s transit outrage.
Doppler Shift
The geostationary satellites appear stationary with respect to an Earth station
terminal. However, there are some variations between the satellite and the
Earth station terminal.
As the satellite is moving with respect to the Earth station terminal, the
frequency of the satellite transmitter also varies with respect to the receiver on
the Earth station terminal. If the frequency transmitted by satellite is ft, then
the received frequency fr is given by equation.

f r  ft  f   vt 
    
ft  ft   v p 
Vt is the component of the satellite transmitter velocity vector directed towards
the Earth station receiver.
Vpis the phase velocity of light in free space (3×108 m/s).

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Variation in the Orbital Distance:

Ismore predominant in low and medium Earth orbiting satellites as compared
to the geostationary satellites.
Solar Eclipse
There are times when the satellites do not receive solar radiation due to
obstruction from a celestialbody.
Duringtheseperiodsthesatellitesoperateusingonboardbatteries.Thebattery is
designed so as to provide continuous power during the period of the eclipse.
Ground control stations perform battery conditioning routines prior to the
occurrence of an eclipse.These include discharging the batteries close to their
maximum depth of discharge and then fully recharging them just before the
eclipse occurs.
Sun Transit Outrage
There are times when the satellite passes directly between the sun and the
Earth.The Earth station antenna will receive signals from the satellite as well
as the microwave radiation emitted by the sun.
This might cause temporary outrage if the magnitude of the solar radiation
exceeds the fade margin of the receiver.
The traffic of the satellite may be shifted to other satellites during such periods.

Eclipses
when the sunlight fails to reach the satellite’s solar panel due to an obstruction
from acelestial body is called eclipse wrt to satellites.
Eclipse is due to the satellite coming in the shadow of the Earth.

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The satellite fails to receive light if it passes through the eumbra,which is the
dark central region of the shadow, and receives very little light if it passes
through the penumbra,which is the less dark region surrounding the umbra.

the duration of an eclipse increases from zero to about 72 minutes starting 21

days before the equinox and then decreases from 72 minutes to zero during 21
days following the equinox.

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Lunar Eclipse:
Another type of eclipse known as the lunar eclipse occurs whenthe moon’s
shadow passes across the satellite.
This is much less common and occurs once in 29 years.

Look Angles of a Satellite

1. azimuth angle
2. elevation angles
In the case where an Earth station is within the footprint or coverage area of a
geostationary satellite, it can communicate with the satellite by simply pointing
its antenna
towardsit.TheprocessofpointingtheEarthstationantennaaccuratelytowardsthesa
tellitecan be accomplished if the azimuth and elevation angles of the Earth
station location are known.
In order to determine the look angles of a satellite, its precise location should
be known. The location of a satellite is very often determined by the position of
the sub-satellite point. The sub-satellite point is the location on the surface of
the Earth that lies directly between the satellite and the centre of the Earth.

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Azimuth Angle: The azimuth angle A of an Earth station is defined as the angle
produced by the line of intersection of the local horizontal plane and the plane
passing through the Earth station, the satellite and the centre of the Earth
with the true north.
Depending upon the location of the Earth station and the sub-satellite point,
the azimuth angle can be computed as follows:
Earth station in the northern hemisphere:
A =180◦−A1 . when the Earth station is to the west of
the satellite
A =180◦+A1 . when the Earth station is to the east of
the satellite
Earth station in the southern hemisphere:
A =3600+A1 .when the Earth station is to the west of
the satellite.
A =360◦−A . when the Earth station is to the east of
the satellite.
where A1 can be computed from

 tan  s  L  
A1  tan 1  
 Sin 1 
Where θs=satellite longitude θL =Earth station longitude θl=Earth station
latitude

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Elevation Angle:
The Earth station elevation angle E is the angle between the line of intersection
of the local horizontal plane and the plane passing through the Earth station,
the satellite and the centre of the Earth with the line joining the Earth station
and the satellite. It can be computed from
Kepler’s laws:
German astronomer Johannes Kepler described the motion of planets around
the sun in solar system
Kepler’s 1st law:
For any elliptical motion, the law of conservation of energy is valid at all points
on the orbit.

The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to another.

In the context of satellites, it means that the sum of the kinetic and the
potential energy of a satellite always remain constant.

The kinetic and potential energies of a satellite at any point at a distance r from
the centre of the Earth are given by

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Kepler’s 2nd law: For any satellite in an elliptical orbit, the dot product of its
velocity vector and the radius vector at all points is constant. Hence, vprp =
vara = vr cos γ

Kepler’s 3rd law:

According to the Kepler’s third law, also known as the law of periods, the
square of the time period of any satellite is proportional to the cube of the
semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit.
As the distance from sun increases the time taken by the planet to complete
one revolution increases.

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Note: Problems on Kepler’s Laws are solved in class. Ref class notes.

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