CLASS : X (2024 25)

SUBJECT : PHYSICAL SCIENCES

CONCEPT : CHAPTER WISE DEFINITIONS

CHAPTER - 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

Chemical change: A chemical change is a process in which one or more substances are
transformed into entirely new substances with different chemical properties and compositions.

Chemical Equation: A chemical equation is a symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in

which the reactants and products are expressed using their chemical formulas.

Reactants: The chemical substances that undergo chemical changes to form new substances.
Reactants are written on the left-hand side of a chemical equation.

Products: The chemical substances that are formed as a result of chemical reaction. Products
are written on the right - hand side of a chemical equation.

Skeletal Equation: A skeletal equation is an unbalanced chemical equation that represents the
reactants and products of a chemical reaction using their chemical formulas.

Law of Conservation of Mass: The Law of Conservation of Mass states that matter cannot be
created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. The total mass of the reactants is always equal to
the total mass of the products.

Balanced Chemical Equation: A balanced chemical equation is a chemical equation in which the
number of atoms of each element is equal on both the reactants' side and the products' side.

Combination Reaction: A combination reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which two or

more reactants combine to form a single product.

Exothermic Reactions: Reactions in which heat is released along with the formation of products
are called exothermic chemical reactions.

Decomposition Reaction: A decomposition reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which a

single compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances (elements or compounds).
Thermal Decomposition: Thermal decomposition is a type of decomposition reaction in which a
single substance breaks down into two or more simpler substances upon heating is known as
thermal decomposition.

Electrolytic Decomposition (Electrolysis): Electrolytic decomposition is a type of decomposition

reaction in which a compound breaks down into simpler substances when electric current is
passed through it.

Photolytic Decomposition (Photochemical Reaction): Photolytic decomposition is a type of

decomposition reaction in which a compound breaks down into simpler substances when
exposed to light energy (usually ultraviolet or visible light).

Endothermic reactions: Endothermic reactions are chemical reactions in which the reactants
absorb heat energy from the surroundings to form products.

Single Displacement Reaction (or Chemical Displacement Reaction): A single displacement

reaction (also known as a chemical displacement reaction) is a type of chemical reaction where
one element displaces another element from a compound, producing a new element and a new
compound.

Double Displacement Reaction (or Precipitation Reaction): A double displacement reaction is a

type of chemical reaction where two compounds react and exchange ions to form two new
compounds. In this reaction, the cations and anions of the reactants swap places to create two
new compounds.

Precipitation Reaction: In Double Displacement reaction, one of the products is an insoluble

solid (called a precipitate) that forms when two solutions are mixed. Hence it is referred to as
precipitation reaction.

Redox Reaction: A process, where oxidation and reduction are taking place simultaneously, is
called a redox (reduction - oxidation) reaction.

Oxidation: It is defined as the addition of oxygen to the substance or the removal of hydrogen
from the substance.

Reduction: A chemical reaction which involves addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen.

Oxidizing Agent: The substances which can add oxygen to other compounds are known as
oxidising agents. It is the source of oxygen.

Reducing Agent: Substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are called reducing
agents.

Corrosion: Corrosion is the gradual degradation or destruction of metals, particularly iron, due
to chemical reactions with substances in the environment, usually oxygen and moisture. The
most common form of corrosion is rusting of iron.

Rancidity: Rancidity is the process in which fats and oils undergo chemical changes, typically
due to the absorption of oxygen or exposure to light and heat, resulting in unpleasant odors and
flavors. This spoilage makes the food unfit for consumption.

CHAPTER - 2
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Acid: A substance that donates protons (H⁺ ions) or accepts a pair of electrons in a chemical
reaction. (or) A substance that produces hydrogen ions (H⁺) in aqueous solution and has a pH
less than 7.

Base: A substance that accepts protons (H⁺ ions) or donates a pair of electrons in a chemical
reaction. (or) A substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in aqueous solution and has a pH
greater than 7.

Strong Acid: An acid that completely dissociates into its ions in an aqueous solution.

Weak Acid: An acid that partially dissociates into its ions in an aqueous solution.

Strong Base: A base that completely dissociates into its ions in an aqueous solution.

Weak Base: A base that partially dissociates into its ions in an aqueous solution.

Indicator: A substance that changes color to indicate the pH level of a solution or the presence
of a specific substance.

Litmus: A water-soluble dye obtained from lichens, used as an indicator to test whether a
solution is acidic or basic.
Natural Indicator: A substance obtained from natural sources, such as plants, that is used to
indicate the acidity or alkalinity of a solution by changing color.
Artificial Indicator: A synthetic substance used to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of a solution,
typically by changing color at specific pH levels.

Olfactory Indicator: A substance that changes its smell when exposed to an acidic or basic
solution.

Drying Tube: A tube filled with a drying agent used to absorb moisture or water vapor from
gases in a chemical experiment.

Neutralisation Reaction: A chemical reaction in which an acid reacts with a base to form salt
and water.

Dilution: Mixing an acid or base with water results in a decrease in the concentration of ions
(H3O+/OH–) per unit volume. Such a process is called dilution and the acid or the base is said to
be diluted.

pH (power of H+ ion concentration) Scale: A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution,

based on the concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺), ranging from 0 to 14.

Acid Rain: Rainwater that has a low pH (typically below 5.6) due to the presence of dissolved
acidic gases, primarily sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ).

Acidity: A condition where the stomach produces excess hydrochloric acid (HCl), leading to
discomfort or heartburn.

Antacids: Substances that neutralize excess stomach acid, providing relief from acidity or
heartburn.

Tooth Decay: The process in which acid-producing bacteria in the mouth break down sugars,
leading to the demineralization of tooth enamel and the formation of cavities.

Chlor-Alkali Process: An industrial process that involves the electrolysis of sodium chloride
(NaCl) solution to produce chlorine gas (Cl₂), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and hydrogen gas (H₂).
Baking Powder: A mixture of acidic and alkaline substances (such as sodium bicarbonate i.e.,
Baking Soda and tartaric acid) used to increase the volume and lighten the texture of baked
goods.

Water of crystallisation: Water of crystallisation is the fixed number of water molecules present
in one formula unit of a salt.

Hydrated Salt: A salt that contains a specific amount of water of crystallization within its
crystalline structure.

Anhydrous Salt: A salt that does not contain any water of crystallization in its structure.

Effervescence: The rapid release of gas from a liquid, often seen as bubbles or fizzing, typically
due to a chemical reaction or the escape of dissolved gas. An example of effervescence is the
release of carbon dioxide.

CHAPTER - 3
METALS AND NONMETALS

Metallic Lustre: The shiny, reflective surface appearance characteristic of metals due to the
reflection of light by free electrons on their surface.

Malleability: The property of a material, especially metals, to be hammered or rolled into thin
sheets without breaking.

Ductility: The property of a material, especially metals, to be stretched into thin wires without
breaking.

Sonority: The ability of a substance, particularly metals, to produce a ringing sound when
struck.

Anodizing: An electrochemical process that increases the thickness of the natural oxide layer on
the surface of metal, usually aluminum, to improve its resistance to corrosion and enhance its
appearance.

Amphoteric Oxides: The metal oxides that can react with both acids and bases to form salts and
water are known as amphoteric oxides.
Aqua Regia (Royal Water): A highly corrosive mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl)
and concentrated nitric acid (HNO₃), typically in a 3:1 ratio, used to dissolve noble metals like
gold and platinum.

Reactivity Series: The arrangement of metals in a series in the decreasing order of their
reactivity is called activity or reactivity series of metals.

Ionic Bond: A type of chemical bond formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to
another, resulting in the attraction between positively charged cations and negatively charged
anions.

Metallurgy: The extraction of metals from their ores and then refining them for use is known
as metallurgy.

Enrichment of Ore: The process of removing impurities (gangue) from an ore to increase the
concentration of the desired metal.

Gangue: The unwanted impurities such as sand, rock, and other materials present along with
the desired ore in a mineral deposit.

Roasting: The sulphide ores are converted into their respective metal oxides by heating strongly
in the presence of excess air. This process is known as roasting.

Calcination: The carbonate ores are changed into their respective metal oxides by heating
strongly in limited air. This process is known as calcination.

Thermite Reaction: A metallurgical process in which a metal oxide is reduced to its metal by
using aluminum powder as a reducing agent, producing intense heat.

Electrolytic Reduction: A process in which metal ions in a molten or aqueous solution are
reduced to metal by passing an electric current through the electrolyte.

Refining: The process of purifying a metal or substance by removing impurities or unwanted

materials to obtain a high-purity product.

Anode Mud: The insoluble impurities that settle at the bottom of the anode during the process
of electrolysis, particularly in the refining of metals like copper.
Corrosion: The natural, chemical process in which metals react with substances in their
environment (like air, moisture, or acids) and are gradually damaged or worn away, often
forming oxide layers like rust.

Rusting: The process of oxidation in which iron or its alloys react with oxygen and moisture,
forming a reddish-brown compound known as iron oxide (rust).

Galvanization: The process of coating iron or steel with a thin layer of zinc to protect it from
corrosion.

Alloying: An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a nonmetal.

CHAPTER - 4
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Covalent Bond: A chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms,
typically nonmetals.

Single Covalent Bond: A covalent bond in which two atoms share one pair of electrons, typically
forming a stable bond between them.

Double Covalent Bond: A covalent bond in which two atoms share two pairs of electrons to
form a stronger bond between them.

Triple Covalent Bond: A covalent bond in which two atoms share three pairs of electrons,
forming a stronger bond between them.

Tetravalency: The property of an element, particularly carbon, to form four covalent bonds with
other atoms, due to the presence of four electrons in its outermost shell.

Catenation: The ability of an element, particularly carbon, to form long chains or rings by
bonding with itself through covalent bonds.

Allotropy: The existence of an element in more than one structural form (allotropes) in the
same physical state.

Saturated Hydrocarbon: A hydrocarbon in which all carbon atoms are bonded to the maximum
possible number of hydrogen atoms, having only single bonds between carbon atoms.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbon: A hydrocarbon that contains one or more double or triple bonds
between carbon atoms, allowing for fewer hydrogen atoms compared to saturated
hydrocarbons.

Functional Group: A specific group of atoms within a molecule that is responsible for its
chemical properties and reactivity.

Homologous Series: A group of organic compounds that have the same functional group,
similar chemical properties, and differ by a CH₂ unit in their molecular structure.

Alkane: A saturated hydrocarbon that contains only single bonds between carbon atoms, with
the general formula CnH2n+2.

Alkene: An unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains at least one double bond between carbon
atoms, with the general formula CnH2n.

Alkyne: An unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains at least one triple bond between carbon
atoms, with the general formula CnH2n-2.

Isomerism: The phenomenon where two or more carbon compounds have the same molecular
formula but different structural formulas leading to different chemical properties.

Nomenclature: The system of naming chemical compounds according to specific rules, ensuring
that each compound has a unique and universally accepted name.

Combustion: A chemical reaction in which a carbon compound reacts with oxygen, releasing
energy in the form of heat and light, typically resulting in the formation of carbon dioxide and
water.

Oxidising agents: The substances that are capable of adding oxygen to others. These substances
are known as oxidising agents.

Addition Reaction: A chemical reaction in which two or more molecules combine to form a
single product, typically involving unsaturated compounds like alkenes or alkynes, where the
double or triple bond is broken to add atoms or groups.
Substitution Reaction: A chemical reaction in which one atom or group of atoms in a molecule
is replaced by another atom or group of atoms, commonly occurring in alkanes.

Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed in
the reaction itself.

Hydrogenation: A chemical reaction in which hydrogen is added to an unsaturated compound

(like an alkene or alkynes), typically in the presence of a catalyst, resulting in the formation of a
saturated compound.

Dehydration Reaction: A chemical reaction in which a water molecule (H₂O) is removed from a
compound, often resulting in the formation of an alkene or a new product such as an alcohol
turning into an ether.

Vinegar: 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar

Glacial Acetic acid: The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often freezes
during winter in cold climates. This gave rise to its name glacial acetic acid.

Esterification: A chemical reaction in which an acid (usually a carboxylic acid) reacts with an
alcohol to form an ester and water.

Saponification: A chemical reaction in which a fat or oil reacts with an alkali (such as sodium
hydroxide) to produce glycerol (glycerine) and soap (sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids).
(OR)
The process of making soap by reacting a fat or oil with a strong base, typically sodium
hydroxide (NaOH), resulting in the formation of glycerol and soap (alkali salts of fatty acids).
(OR)
Alkaline hydrolysis of triesters of higher fatty acids producing soaps is called saponification.

Micelle: A structure formed by soap or detergent molecules in water, where the hydrophobic
tails of the molecules cluster inward, while the hydrophilic heads face outward, allowing the
micelle to trap oily dirt and facilitate its removal.
(OR)
A spherical aggregate of soap molecules in water is called micelle.

Soft Water: Water that has low mineral content, particularly low levels of calcium (Ca²⁺) and
magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions, and does not form scum with soap.
Hard Water: Water that contains high levels of dissolved minerals, mainly calcium (Ca²⁺) and
magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions, which can form scum with soap and scale in pipes.

Scum: A solid precipitate formed when hard water reacts with soap, typically made up of
calcium or magnesium salts of fatty acids, which does not dissolve in water.

Hydrophilic End: The water-attracting part of a molecule, such as a soap or detergent molecule,
which is typically polar and interacts favorably with water molecules.

Hydrophobic End: The water-repelling part of a molecule, such as a soap or detergent molecule,
which is typically non-polar and interacts with oils or grease rather than water.

CHAPTER - 5
LIGHT - REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

Light: Light is a form of energy that provides us with the sensation of vision.

Reflection: Reflection is the phenomenon of bouncing back of light rays when it strikes an highly
polished opaque surface.

Regular Reflection: The reflection of light from a smooth and polished surface where the
reflected rays are parallel, producing a clear and well-defined image.

Irregular Reflection: The reflection of light from a rough or uneven surface where the reflected
rays scatter in different directions, not producing a clear image.

Laws of Reflection:
(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, and
(ii) The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence and the reflected ray, all
lie in the same plane.

Lateral Inversion: The phenomenon where the left and right sides of an image appear reversed
compared to the object, as seen in a plane mirror.

Real Image: An image that is formed when light rays converge at a point after reflection or
refraction and can be projected on a screen.
Virtual Image: An image formed when light rays appear to diverge from a point, and the image
cannot be projected on a screen.

Concave Mirror: A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved inwards, that is, faces
towards the centre of the sphere, is called a concave mirror.

Convex Mirror: A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards, is called a
convex mirror.

Pole (P): The centre of the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is a point called the pole.

Center of curvature (C): The point that lies at the center of the sphere from which a spherical
mirror is a segment, and it is equidistant from all points on the mirror's surface.

Radius of Curvature (R): The radius of the sphere of which the reflecting surface of a spherical
mirror forms a part, is called the radius of curvature of the mirror.

Principal Axis: An imaginary straight line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature
of a spherical mirror. This line is called the principal axis.

Principal focus of a concave mirror (F): A number of rays parallel to the principal axis are falling
on a concave mirror, and are all meeting/intersecting at a point on the principal axis of the
mirror. This point is called the principal focus of the concave mirror.

Principal focus of a convex mirror (F): A number of rays parallel to the principal axis are falling
on a convex mirror, and the reflected rays appear to come from a point on the principal axis.
This point is called the principal focus of the convex mirror.

Focal length (f): The distance between the pole and the principal focus of a spherical mirror is
called the focal length.

Aperture: The diameter of the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is called its aperture.

Mirror Formula: The formula that gives the relation between the focal length (f), object
distance (u), and image distance (v). It can be defined as "the reciprocal of focal length (f) is
equal to the sum of reciprocals of image distance (v) and object distance (u).

Object distance (u): The distance of the object from its pole is called the object distance (u).
Image distance (v): The distance of the image from the pole of the mirror is called the image
distance (v).

Linear Magnification (m): Magnification produced by a spherical mirror gives the relative extent
to which the image of an object is magnified with respect to the object size. It is expressed as
the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. It is usually represented by the
letter "m".

Refraction of Light: The phenomenon of change in direction of light when it passes obliquely
from one transparent medium to another medium at the boundary separating the two media is
called refraction of light.
(OR)
When light travels obliquely from one transparent medium to another transparent medium, the
direction of propagation of light in the second medium changes. This phenomenon is known as
refraction of light.

Optically Rarer Medium: A medium in which the speed of light is greater compared to another
medium. It has a lower refractive index.

Optically Denser Medium: A medium in which the speed of light is lesser compared to another
medium. It has a higher refractive index.

Lateral displacement: Lateral displacement is the perpendicular distance between the path of
an incident ray of light and the path of the emergent ray after passing through a transparent
medium with parallel sides, such as a glass slab.

Laws of refraction of light:

(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media
at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for the
light of a given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s law of
refraction.

Refractive Index (n) or Absolute refractive index (n): The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum
to the speed of light in a given medium. It is a measure of how much the light bends when
entering the medium.
Relative Refractive Index: The ratio of the refractive index of one medium to the refractive
index of another medium. It determines how light bends when passing from one medium to
another.

Lens: A transparent optical device made of glass or any other transparent material, bounded by
two refracting surfaces, at least one of which is curved, that converges or diverges light rays
passing through it.

Convex lens: Lens may have two spherical surfaces, bulging outwards. Such a lens is called a
double convex lens. It is simply called a convex lens. It is thicker at the middle as compared to
the edges. Convex lenses converge light rays and are also called converging lenses.

Concave Lens: A double concave lens is bounded by two spherical surfaces, curved inwards. It is
thicker at the edges than at the middle. Such lenses diverge light rays and are also called
diverging lenses. A double concave lens is simply called a concave lens.

Principal focus of a convex lens (F): Several rays of light parallel to the principal axis are falling
on a convex lens. These rays, after refraction from the lens, are converging to a point on the
principal axis. This point on the principal axis is called the principal focus of the lens.

Principal focus of a concave lens (F): Several rays of light parallel to the principal axis are falling
on a concave lens. These rays, after refraction from the lens, are appearing to diverge from a
point on the principal axis. This point on the principal axis is called the principal focus of the
concave lens.

Principal Axis: An imaginary straight line passing through the two centres of curvature of a lens
is called its principal axis.

Optic Centre (O): The central point of a lens is its optical centre.

Aperture: The effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens is called its aperture.

Thin Lenses: Lenses whose aperture is much less than its radius of curvature and the two
centres of curvatures are equidistant from the optical centre O. Such lenses are called thin
lenses with small apertures.

Focal length (f): The distance of the principal focus from the optical centre of a lens is called its
focal length. The letter f is used to represent the focal length.
Center of curvature (C): The centre of curvature of a lens is defined as the centre of the
spherical surface from which the lens has been cut. Thus, each surface of the lens is a part of a
sphere.

Radius of curvature (R): The radius of the sphere of which the lens surface is a part is called the
radius of curvature.

Principal Focus (F): A point on the principal axis of a lens at which parallel rays of light after
passing through the lens converge (in case of convex lens) or appear to diverge (in case of
concave lens) after passing through the lens is called focus (or principal focus).

Lens Formula: The formula that gives the relationship between object distance (u), image
distance (v) and the focal length (f ). It can be defined as the reciprocal to the focal length (f) is
equal to the difference of reciprocals of image distance (v) and object distance (u).

Linear Magnification (m): Magnification is defined as the ratio of the height of the image and
the height of the object. Magnification is represented by the letter m.

Power of Lens (P): The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays achieved by a lens is
expressed in terms of its power. The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal
length. It is represented by the letter P.

CHAPTER - 6
HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD

Least distance of distinct vision: The minimum distance, at which objects can be seen most
distinctly without strain, is called the least distance of distinct vision. It is also called the near
point of the eye.

Farpoint: The farthest point up to which the eye can see objects clearly is called the far point of
the eye. It is infinite for a normal eye.

Cataract: The crystalline lens of people at old age becomes milky and cloudy. This condition is
called cataract. This causes partial or complete loss of vision. It is possible to restore vision
through a cataract surgery.
Power of accommodation: The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length by the ciliary
muscles to see near as well as far objects clearly and distinctly is called the power of
accommodation of the eye lens.

Myopia: Myopia is also known as nearsightedness or shortsightedness. A person with myopia

can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see distant objects distinctly.

Hypermetropia: Hypermetropia is also known as far-sightedness. A person with hypermetropia

can see distant objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects distinctly.

Presbyopia: The power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases with ageing. For most
people, the near point gradually recedes away. They find it difficult to see nearby objects
comfortably and distinctly without corrective eye-glasses. This defect is called Presbyopia.

Angle of Prism: The angle between its two lateral faces is called the angle of the prism.

Angle of deviation: The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray bend at an angle to
the direction of the incident ray. This angle is called the angle of deviation.

Spectrum: The band of the coloured components of a light beam is called its spectrum.

Dispersion of Light: The phenomenon of splitting white light into its constituent colors when it
passes through a prism or similar medium.

Rainbow: A natural spectrum of colors formed in the sky due to the dispersion, refraction, and
reflection of sunlight by water droplets in the atmosphere.

Atmospheric Refraction: The bending of light as it passes through layers of the Earth's
atmosphere with varying optical densities.

Tyndall Effect: The scattering of light by particles in a colloid or a very fine suspension, making
the path of light visible.

Scattering of Light: The process of re-emission of absorbed light by the atoms or molecules of
the atmosphere in all directions with different intensity is called scattering of light.

CHAPTER - 7
ELECTRICITY
Electric circuit: A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit.

Electric current (I): Electric current is expressed by the amount of charge (Q) flowing through a
particular area in unit time (t).
(OR)
It is the rate of flow of electric charges.

1 Ampere: One ampere is constituted by the flow of one coulomb of charge per second.

Electric Charge (Q): It is the property of subatomic particles that causes it to experience a force
when placed in an electromagnetic field.

Electric Potential (V): The electric potential difference between two points in an electric circuit
carrying some current as the work done to move a unit charge from one point to the other.

1 Joule: When 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to the
other.

Ohm's Law: The potential difference, V, across the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric
circuit is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its temperature
remains the same. This is called Ohm’s law.

Resistance (R): Resistance is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it.

1 ohm: The resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm if a current of 1 ampere flows through
it when a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across its ends.

Variable resistance: A component used to regulate current without changing the voltage source
is called variable resistance.

Specific Resistance (Resistivity): The specific resistance or resistivity of a material is the

resistance offered by a conductor of unit length and unit cross-sectional area.

Resistors in Series: The total potential difference across a combination of resistors in series is
equal to the sum of potential difference across the individual resistors.
Resistors in Parallel: The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistances joined
in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.

Closed circuit: The circuit in which electric current flows is called a closed circuit.

Open circuit: If electric contact is broken at any point along the path or if the switch is turned
off, there is no current flow and it is called an open circuit.

Conductors: Those substances that have a very low electrical resistivity are called conductors as
they allow electric current to pass through it easily.

Resistors: Those substances that have comparatively higher resistivity are called resistors.

Insulators: Those substances that have infinitely high resistivity are called insulators as they do
not allow current to pass through it.

Heating effect of electric current: When electric current flows in a purely resistive circuit
electrical energy gets fully converted into heat energy.

Joule’s law of heating: The law implies that heat produced in a resistor is
(i) directly proportional to the square of current for a given resistance,
(ii) directly proportional to resistance for a given current, and
(iii) directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the resistor.

Electric power (P): The rate at which electric energy is dissipated or consumed in an electric
circuit.

1 watt (W): It is the power consumed by a device that carries 1 A of current when operated at a
potential difference of 1 V.

Unit: The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kW h), commonly known as ‘unit’.

CHAPTER - 8
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Magnet: An object or material that produces a magnetic field, which attracts ferromagnetic
materials like iron, nickel, and cobalt.
Magnetic Compass: A navigational instrument consisting of a freely rotating magnetic needle
that aligns itself with Earth's magnetic field, pointing towards the magnetic north and south
poles.

Magnetic Field: The region surrounding a magnet, in which the force of the magnet can be
detected, is said to have a magnetic field.

Uniform Magnetic Field: A magnetic field in which the magnetic field lines are parallel,
equidistant, and have the same magnitude and direction throughout the region.

Non uniform Magnetic Field: A magnetic field in which the magnetic field lines are neither
parallel nor equidistant, indicating that the magnitude or direction of the field varies from point
to point.

Right-hand thumb rule: Imagine that you are holding a current-carrying straight conductor in
your right hand such that the thumb points towards the direction of current. Then your fingers
will wrap around the conductor in the direction of the field lines of the magnetic field.

Maxwell’s corkscrew rule: If we consider ourselves driving a corkscrew in the direction of the
current, then the direction of the rotation of the corkscrew is the direction of the magnetic
field.

Solenoid: A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the shape of
a cylinder is called a solenoid.

Fleming's left hand rule: According to this rule, stretch the thumb, forefinger and middle finger
of your left hand such that they are mutually perpendicular. If the first finger points in the
direction of magnetic field and the second finger in the direction of current, then the thumb will
point in the direction of motion or the force acting on the conductor.

Clock face rule: If the current flows in the clockwise direction, the face of the coil behaves like
the south pole and if the current flows in the anticlockwise direction, the face of the coil
behaves like the north pole.

Electromagnet: A strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid can be used to magnetise a
piece of magnetic material, like soft iron, when placed inside the coil. The magnet so formed is
called an electromagnet.
Direct Current (D.C): The electric current which always flow in the direction is called direct
current or DC.

Alternate Current (A.C): The electric current which reverses its direction after a certain fixed
interval of time is called alternating current or AC.

Live wire: One of the wires in the main supply, usually with red insulation cover, is called live
wire (or positive).

Neutral wire: Another wire in the main supply, with black insulation, is called neutral wire (or
negative).

Earthing: Earthing of an appliance is the connecting of the metallic body of an electric appliance
to the earth (at zero potential) by a conducting wire to prevent electric shock.

Overloading: A condition in an electrical circuit where the current flowing exceeds the safe limit
of the circuit, often due to the connection of too many devices or a short circuit, which can lead
to overheating and damage.
(OR)
When the current drawn from the mains is more than the safer limit, overheating occurs and
may cause a fire. This is called overloading.

Short circuit: when the live wire and the neutral wire come into direct contact. In such a
situation, the current in the circuit abruptly increases. This is called short-circuiting.

Fuse Wire: A safety device made of a thin wire with a low melting point, designed to melt and
break the circuit when excessive current flows through it, thereby preventing damage to
electrical appliances.

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