1.

Circle

A circle is a set of points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point called the center. The
fixed distance from the center to any point on the circle is called the radius.

Equation of a circle in the Cartesian plane with center (h,k)(h, k) and radius rr:

(x−h)2+(y−k)2=r2(x - h)^2 + (y - k)^2 = r^2

 Properties:
o All points on the circle are equidistant from the center.
o The radius is constant for all points.
o The diameter is twice the radius, and the circumference is 2πr2\pi r.
o The area is πr2\pi r^2.

2. Parabola

A parabola is a curve formed by the set of all points that are equidistant from a fixed point
called the focus and a fixed line called the directrix. It can open up, down, left, or right,
depending on its orientation.

Equation of a parabola with vertex at (h,k)(h, k) and focus on the x-axis:

 For a parabola opening up or down: (x−h)2=4a(y−k)(x - h)^2 = 4a(y - k) where aa is the

distance from the vertex to the focus.
 For a parabola opening left or right: (y−k)2=4a(x−h)(y - k)^2 = 4a(x - h) where aa is the
distance from the vertex to the focus.

Properties:

 The focus is a point inside the parabola.

 The directrix is a line outside the parabola.
 Parabolas have one axis of symmetry passing through the vertex and focus.
 A parabola reflects any incoming ray parallel to its axis of symmetry to the focus.

3. Ellipse

An ellipse is a set of points such that the sum of the distances from any point on the ellipse to
two fixed points (called the foci) is constant.

Equation of an ellipse with center at (h,k)(h, k), semi-major axis aa, and semi-minor axis bb:

(x−h)2a2+(y−k)2b2=1\frac{(x - h)^2}{a^2} + \frac{(y - k)^2}{b^2} = 1

 If a>ba > b, the ellipse is elongated horizontally.

 If b>ab > a, the ellipse is elongated vertically.
Properties:

 The major axis is the longest diameter, passing through the center and both foci.
 The minor axis is the shortest diameter, perpendicular to the major axis.
 The foci are located on the major axis, symmetrically around the center.
 The eccentricity of an ellipse is 1−b2a2\sqrt{1 - \frac{b^2}{a^2}}, and it measures how
"elongated" the ellipse is.

4. Hyperbola

A hyperbola is a set of points where the absolute difference of the distances from any point on
the hyperbola to two fixed points (the foci) is constant.

Equation of a hyperbola centered at (h,k)(h, k), with semi-major axis aa and semi-minor axis bb:

(x−h)2a2−(y−k)2b2=1(for horizontal hyperbola)\frac{(x - h)^2}{a^2} - \frac{(y - k)^2}{b^2} =

1 \quad \text{(for horizontal hyperbola)}

or

(y−k)2b2−(x−h)2a2=1(for vertical hyperbola)\frac{(y - k)^2}{b^2} - \frac{(x - h)^2}{a^2} = 1 \

quad \text{(for vertical hyperbola)}

Properties:

 A hyperbola consists of two disconnected curves called branches, each of which is a

mirror image of the other.
 The asymptotes are the lines that the branches approach but never touch, and they are
given by the equations:
o y=±ba(x−h)y = \pm \frac{b}{a}(x - h) for a horizontal hyperbola.
o y=±ab(x−h)y = \pm \frac{a}{b}(x - h) for a vertical hyperbola.
 The foci are located on the transverse axis, outside the vertices.
 The eccentricity of a hyperbola is 1+b2a2\sqrt{1 + \frac{b^2}{a^2}}, which is greater
than 1, showing how "stretched" the hyperbola is.

Summary of Key Properties:

Shape Equation Key Properties

Center at (h,k)(h, k), radius rr, constant
Circle (x−h)2+(y−k)2=r2(x - h)^2 + (y - k)^2 = r^2
distance to center
(x−h)2=4a(y−k)(x - h)^2 = 4a(y - k) or
Parabola Focus, directrix, one axis of symmetry
(y−k)2=4a(x−h)(y - k)^2 = 4a(x - h)
Two foci, major and minor axes,
(x−h)2a2+(y−k)2b2=1\frac{(x - h)^2}{a^2}
Ellipse eccentricity 1−b2a2\sqrt{1 - \frac{b^2}
+ \frac{(y - k)^2}{b^2} = 1
{a^2}}
 Shape Equation Key Properties
Two branches, foci, asymptotes,
(x−h)2a2−(y−k)2b2=1\frac{(x - h)^2}{a^2} -
Hyperbola eccentricity 1+b2a2\sqrt{1 + \
\frac{(y - k)^2}{b^2} = 1
frac{b^2}{a^2}}

Each of these curves is a conic section, and their shapes and properties are influenced by the way
they are derived from intersecting a cone with a plane.

1. Circle

A circle is a set of points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point called the center. The
fixed distance from the center to any point on the circle is called the radius.

Equation of a circle in the Cartesian plane with center (h,k)(h, k) and radius rr:

(x−h)2+(y−k)2=r2(x - h)^2 + (y - k)^2 = r^2

 Properties:
o All points on the circle are equidistant from the center.
o The radius is constant for all points.
o The diameter is twice the radius, and the circumference is 2πr2\pi r.
o The area is πr2\pi r^2.

2. Parabola

A parabola is a curve formed by the set of all points that are equidistant from a fixed point
called the focus and a fixed line called the directrix. It can open up, down, left, or right,
depending on its orientation.

Equation of a parabola with vertex at (h,k)(h, k) and focus on the x-axis:

 For a parabola opening up or down: (x−h)2=4a(y−k)(x - h)^2 = 4a(y - k) where aa is the

distance from the vertex to the focus.
 For a parabola opening left or right: (y−k)2=4a(x−h)(y - k)^2 = 4a(x - h) where aa is the
distance from the vertex to the focus.

Properties:

 The focus is a point inside the parabola.

 The directrix is a line outside the parabola.
 Parabolas have one axis of symmetry passing through the vertex and focus.
 A parabola reflects any incoming ray parallel to its axis of symmetry to the focus.

3. Ellipse
An ellipse is a set of points such that the sum of the distances from any point on the ellipse to
two fixed points (called the foci) is constant.

Equation of an ellipse with center at (h,k)(h, k), semi-major axis aa, and semi-minor axis bb:

(x−h)2a2+(y−k)2b2=1\frac{(x - h)^2}{a^2} + \frac{(y - k)^2}{b^2} = 1

 If a>ba > b, the ellipse is elongated horizontally.

 If b>ab > a, the ellipse is elongated vertically.

Properties:

 The major axis is the longest diameter, passing through the center and both foci.
 The minor axis is the shortest diameter, perpendicular to the major axis.
 The foci are located on the major axis, symmetrically around the center.
 The eccentricity of an ellipse is 1−b2a2\sqrt{1 - \frac{b^2}{a^2}}, and it measures how
"elongated" the ellipse is.

4. Hyperbola

A hyperbola is a set of points where the absolute difference of the distances from any point on
the hyperbola to two fixed points (the foci) is constant.

Equation of a hyperbola centered at (h,k)(h, k), with semi-major axis aa and semi-minor axis bb:

(x−h)2a2−(y−k)2b2=1(for horizontal hyperbola)\frac{(x - h)^2}{a^2} - \frac{(y - k)^2}{b^2} =

1 \quad \text{(for horizontal hyperbola)}

or

(y−k)2b2−(x−h)2a2=1(for vertical hyperbola)\frac{(y - k)^2}{b^2} - \frac{(x - h)^2}{a^2} = 1 \

quad \text{(for vertical hyperbola)}

Properties:

 A hyperbola consists of two disconnected curves called branches, each of which is a

mirror image of the other.
 The asymptotes are the lines that the branches approach but never touch, and they are
given by the equations:
o y=±ba(x−h)y = \pm \frac{b}{a}(x - h) for a horizontal hyperbola.
o y=±ab(x−h)y = \pm \frac{a}{b}(x - h) for a vertical hyperbola.
 The foci are located on the transverse axis, outside the vertices.
 The eccentricity of a hyperbola is 1+b2a2\sqrt{1 + \frac{b^2}{a^2}}, which is greater
than 1, showing how "stretched" the hyperbola is.

Summary of Key Properties:

 Shape Equation Key Properties
Center at (h,k)(h, k), radius rr, constant
Circle (x−h)2+(y−k)2=r2(x - h)^2 + (y - k)^2 = r^2
distance to center
(x−h)2=4a(y−k)(x - h)^2 = 4a(y - k) or
Parabola Focus, directrix, one axis of symmetry
(y−k)2=4a(x−h)(y - k)^2 = 4a(x - h)
Two foci, major and minor axes,
(x−h)2a2+(y−k)2b2=1\frac{(x - h)^2}{a^2}
Ellipse eccentricity 1−b2a2\sqrt{1 - \frac{b^2}
+ \frac{(y - k)^2}{b^2} = 1
{a^2}}
Two branches, foci, asymptotes,
(x−h)2a2−(y−k)2b2=1\frac{(x - h)^2}{a^2} -
Hyperbola eccentricity 1+b2a2\sqrt{1 + \
\frac{(y - k)^2}{b^2} = 1
frac{b^2}{a^2}}

Each of these curves is a conic section, and their shapes and properties are influenced by the way
they are derived from intersecting a cone with a plane.

Here’s a definition of each term along with explanations of their significance and how they are
calculated:

1. Mean (Arithmetic Mean)

The mean is the average of a set of numbers, obtained by adding all the values together and then
dividing by the number of values.

Formula for the mean (μ\mu or xˉ\bar{x}) of a dataset:

Mean=∑xin\text{Mean} = \frac{\sum{x_i}}{n}

Where:

 ∑xi\sum{x_i} is the sum of all the values in the dataset.

 nn is the number of data points.

Example: For the dataset: 2,4,6,8,102, 4, 6, 8, 10,

Mean=2+4+6+8+105=305=6\text{Mean} = \frac{2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10}{5} = \frac{30}{5} = 6

Significance: The mean provides a measure of the central tendency of the data, but it can be
sensitive to outliers (extremely high or low values).

2. Median
The median is the middle value of a dataset when it is ordered from least to greatest. If the
dataset has an odd number of values, the median is the middle value. If there is an even number
of values, the median is the average of the two middle values.

Steps to calculate the median:

1. Arrange the data in ascending order.

2. If the number of data points is odd, the median is the middle value.
3. If the number of data points is even, the median is the average of the two middle values.

Example: For the dataset: 2,4,6,8,102, 4, 6, 8, 10,

 The middle value is 6, so the median is 6.

For the dataset: 2,4,6,82, 4, 6, 8,

 The middle values are 4 and 6. The median is 4+62=5\frac{4 + 6}{2} = 5.

Significance: The median is not affected by extreme outliers, so it is a better measure of central
tendency when the dataset has skewed data or outliers.

3. Mode

The mode is the value that occurs most frequently in a dataset. A dataset can have:

 No mode if all values occur with the same frequency.

 One mode (unimodal) if one value occurs most frequently.
 More than one mode (multimodal) if two or more values occur with the same highest
frequency.

Example: For the dataset: 2,4,4,6,82, 4, 4, 6, 8,

 The mode is 4 (since it occurs twice, more than any other number).

For the dataset: 2,4,6,82, 4, 6, 8,

 There is no mode because each value occurs only once.

Significance: The mode is useful for identifying the most common or frequent value in a dataset.

4. Standard Deviation (SD)

The standard deviation measures the spread or dispersion of a dataset. It indicates how much
individual data points deviate, on average, from the mean.

Formula for the standard deviation (σ\sigma for population, ss for sample):

 For a population:

σ=∑(xi−μ)2N\sigma = \sqrt{\frac{\sum{(x_i - \mu)^2}}{N}}

 For a sample:

s=∑(xi−xˉ)2n−1s = \sqrt{\frac{\sum{(x_i - \bar{x})^2}}{n - 1}}

Where:

 xix_i is each individual data point.

 μ\mu (or xˉ\bar{x}) is the mean of the dataset.
 NN (or nn) is the total number of data points.

Example: For the dataset: 2,4,6,8,102, 4, 6, 8, 10, the mean is 6.

 Calculate the squared deviations from the mean: (2−6)2=16,(4−6)2=4,(6−6)2=0,

(8−6)2=4,(10−6)2=16(2-6)^2 = 16, (4-6)^2 = 4, (6-6)^2 = 0, (8-6)^2 = 4, (10-6)^2 = 16.
 Sum of squared deviations: 16+4+0+4+16=4016 + 4 + 0 + 4 + 16 = 40.
 For a population: σ=405=8≈2.83\sigma = \sqrt{\frac{40}{5}} = \sqrt{8} \approx 2.83.

Significance: Standard deviation quantifies the variation or spread of the data. A larger standard
deviation indicates more spread, and a smaller standard deviation indicates the data is closer to
the mean.

5. Coefficient of Variation (CV)

The coefficient of variation is a normalized measure of the dispersion of a dataset. It is the ratio
of the standard deviation to the mean, usually expressed as a percentage. The CV allows for
comparison of variability across datasets with different units or scales.

Formula:

CV=σμ×100\text{CV} = \frac{\sigma}{\mu} \times 100

Where:

 σ\sigma is the standard deviation.

 μ\mu is the mean.
Example: For a dataset with mean μ=50\mu = 50 and standard deviation σ=5\sigma = 5:

CV=550×100=10%\text{CV} = \frac{5}{50} \times 100 = 10\%

Significance: The CV is useful for comparing the relative variability between datasets with
different units or scales. A higher CV indicates greater relative variability.

Summary:

Measure Definition Formula Significance

Represents the central
The average of all Mean=∑xin\text{Mean} = \
Mean value but is affected by
values in the dataset. frac{\sum{x_i}}{n}
outliers.
The middle value in an Depends on ordering of the Resistant to outliers and
Median
ordered dataset. data. skewed data.
Indicates the most
The most frequent value
Mode N/A common value, may
in a dataset.
have no mode.
A measure of the spread
Standard σ=∑(xi−μ)2N\sigma = \sqrt{\ Quantifies variability or
of values around the
Deviation frac{\sum{(x_i - \mu)^2}}{N}} dispersion in the dataset.
mean.
A ratio of the standard Useful for comparing
Coefficient of deviation to the mean, CV=σμ×100\text{CV} = \frac{\ variability across
Variation expressed as a sigma}{\mu} \times 100 datasets with different
percentage. units.

These measures help in analyzing and interpreting data, providing insights into its central
tendency, spread, and variability.
Here’s a definition of each term along with explanations of their significance and how they are
calculated:

1. Mean (Arithmetic Mean)

The mean is the average of a set of numbers, obtained by adding all the values together and then
dividing by the number of values.

Formula for the mean (μ\mu or xˉ\bar{x}) of a dataset:

Mean=∑xin\text{Mean} = \frac{\sum{x_i}}{n}

Where:

 ∑xi\sum{x_i} is the sum of all the values in the dataset.

 nn is the number of data points.

Example: For the dataset: 2,4,6,8,102, 4, 6, 8, 10,

Mean=2+4+6+8+105=305=6\text{Mean} = \frac{2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10}{5} = \frac{30}{5} = 6

Significance: The mean provides a measure of the central tendency of the data, but it can be
sensitive to outliers (extremely high or low values).
2. Median

The median is the middle value of a dataset when it is ordered from least to greatest. If the
dataset has an odd number of values, the median is the middle value. If there is an even number
of values, the median is the average of the two middle values.

Steps to calculate the median:

1. Arrange the data in ascending order.

2. If the number of data points is odd, the median is the middle value.
3. If the number of data points is even, the median is the average of the two middle values.

Example: For the dataset: 2,4,6,8,102, 4, 6, 8, 10,

 The middle value is 6, so the median is 6.

For the dataset: 2,4,6,82, 4, 6, 8,

 The middle values are 4 and 6. The median is 4+62=5\frac{4 + 6}{2} = 5.

Significance: The median is not affected by extreme outliers, so it is a better measure of central
tendency when the dataset has skewed data or outliers.

3. Mode

The mode is the value that occurs most frequently in a dataset. A dataset can have:

 No mode if all values occur with the same frequency.

 One mode (unimodal) if one value occurs most frequently.
 More than one mode (multimodal) if two or more values occur with the same highest
frequency.

Example: For the dataset: 2,4,4,6,82, 4, 4, 6, 8,

 The mode is 4 (since it occurs twice, more than any other number).

For the dataset: 2,4,6,82, 4, 6, 8,

 There is no mode because each value occurs only once.

Significance: The mode is useful for identifying the most common or frequent value in a dataset.
4. Standard Deviation (SD)

The standard deviation measures the spread or dispersion of a dataset. It indicates how much
individual data points deviate, on average, from the mean.

Formula for the standard deviation (σ\sigma for population, ss for sample):

 For a population:

σ=∑(xi−μ)2N\sigma = \sqrt{\frac{\sum{(x_i - \mu)^2}}{N}}

 For a sample:

s=∑(xi−xˉ)2n−1s = \sqrt{\frac{\sum{(x_i - \bar{x})^2}}{n - 1}}

Where:

 xix_i is each individual data point.

 μ\mu (or xˉ\bar{x}) is the mean of the dataset.
 NN (or nn) is the total number of data points.

Example: For the dataset: 2,4,6,8,102, 4, 6, 8, 10, the mean is 6.

 Calculate the squared deviations from the mean: (2−6)2=16,(4−6)2=4,(6−6)2=0,

(8−6)2=4,(10−6)2=16(2-6)^2 = 16, (4-6)^2 = 4, (6-6)^2 = 0, (8-6)^2 = 4, (10-6)^2 = 16.
 Sum of squared deviations: 16+4+0+4+16=4016 + 4 + 0 + 4 + 16 = 40.
 For a population: σ=405=8≈2.83\sigma = \sqrt{\frac{40}{5}} = \sqrt{8} \approx 2.83.

Significance: Standard deviation quantifies the variation or spread of the data. A larger standard
deviation indicates more spread, and a smaller standard deviation indicates the data is closer to
the mean.

5. Coefficient of Variation (CV)

The coefficient of variation is a normalized measure of the dispersion of a dataset. It is the ratio
of the standard deviation to the mean, usually expressed as a percentage. The CV allows for
comparison of variability across datasets with different units or scales.

Formula:

CV=σμ×100\text{CV} = \frac{\sigma}{\mu} \times 100

Where:
  σ\sigma is the standard deviation.
 μ\mu is the mean.

Example: For a dataset with mean μ=50\mu = 50 and standard deviation σ=5\sigma = 5:

CV=550×100=10%\text{CV} = \frac{5}{50} \times 100 = 10\%

Significance: The CV is useful for comparing the relative variability between datasets with
different units or scales. A higher CV indicates greater relative variability.

Summary:

Measure Definition Formula Significance

Represents the central
The average of all Mean=∑xin\text{Mean} = \
Mean value but is affected by
values in the dataset. frac{\sum{x_i}}{n}
outliers.
The middle value in an Depends on ordering of the Resistant to outliers and
Median
ordered dataset. data. skewed data.
Indicates the most
The most frequent value
Mode N/A common value, may
in a dataset.
have no mode.
A measure of the spread
Standard σ=∑(xi−μ)2N\sigma = \sqrt{\ Quantifies variability or
of values around the
Deviation frac{\sum{(x_i - \mu)^2}}{N}} dispersion in the dataset.
mean.
A ratio of the standard Useful for comparing
Coefficient of deviation to the mean, CV=σμ×100\text{CV} = \frac{\ variability across
Variation expressed as a sigma}{\mu} \times 100 datasets with different
percentage. units.

These measures help in analyzing and interpreting data, providing insights into its central
tendency, spread, and variability.

Sure! Here are simpler definitions of efficiency and consistency:

1. Efficiency

Efficiency refers to how well a method or process works with minimal resources (like time,
effort, or cost).
  In statistics, an efficient estimator is one that gives more accurate results with less
variability.

Simple Example: If two machines can make the same product, but one uses less energy and
makes fewer mistakes, it is more efficient.

2. Consistency

Consistency means that as more data is collected, an estimator (or method) will get closer and
closer to the true value it is trying to measure.

 In statistics, a consistent estimator means that as the sample size increases, the estimate
becomes more accurate.

Simple Example: If you are measuring the average height of people, a consistent method would
give you results closer to the true average as you survey more people.

In Short:

 Efficiency = How well you get the result with minimal errors.
 Consistency = How the result gets more accurate as you collect more data.