By Waqqad

Chapter 14
Communications
technology
Introduction to
Computer Networks
• Early Stand-Alone Computers:
• Before the 1990s, most computers in homes
and workplaces were not connected to others,
operating independently.
• Network Creation:
• Connecting two or more computers together
forms a network, enabling interaction between
them.
• Purpose of Networks:
• Networks are primarily established to share
data, resources, and facilitate communication
between users.
Introduction to
Computer Networks
• Network Components:
• A network is built using various
components like servers, routers,
switches, and end devices.
• Network Structure:
• The design of a network, including how
devices are connected, defines its
structure (e.g., star, mesh, or bus).
• Protocols for Data Transfer:
• Protocols, such as TCP/IP, ensure the
effective and secure transfer of data
within a network.
ARPANET - One of the
First Networks
• Origins:
• ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network) was established in 1969 by the U.S.
Department of Defense to connect various
research institutions and promote
collaboration.
• Purpose:
• It aimed to create a decentralized
communication system, ensuring that
information could still flow even if part of the
network was compromised.
• First Connection:
• The first message sent over ARPANET was
between UCLA and Stanford Research Institute
(SRI) on October 29, 1969.
ARPANET - One of the First Networks

• Packet Switching:
• ARPANET was one of the first networks to use packet
switching technology, breaking data into smaller packets
for more efficient transfer.
• Growth:
• Initially connecting four sites, ARPANET quickly
expanded to include various universities and research
institutions, laying the groundwork for the modern
Internet.
• Legacy:
• ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990, but its protocols
and concepts directly influenced the development of
TCP/IP and the Internet we use today.
4.1 Fundamental
network models
Fundamental Network
Models

• Two Main Models:

• The two fundamental network models
are the Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
suite and the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model.
• Purpose of Models:
• Both models provide rules and
standards that govern how data
communication occurs over a network.
Fundamental Network Models

• Layered Structure:
• Each model is divided into several
layers, allowing independent
operations at each layer to facilitate
adaptability and troubleshooting.
• Adaptability:
• The separation of layers makes it easier
to update or modify the functions of
individual layers without impacting the
others.
Application Layer of
OSI Model
• Top Layer:
• The application layer is the seventh and top layer
of the OSI model, directly interacting with the
data from the user.
• Software Applications:
• It supports software applications like web
browsers and email clients to enable
communication over a network.
• Protocol Management:
• Responsible for managing protocols that enable
data presentation to the user, such as HTTP
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and SMTP (Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol).
Application Layer of
OSI Model

• User Applications Excluded:

• User applications like word processing
software do not interact with this layer
directly.
• Data Interpretation:
• It ensures that data is in a usable format
for applications, making it possible for
users to access information and services
over the network.
Presentation Layer of
OSI Model
• Data Preparation:
• The presentation layer’s main function is to
prepare data for use by the application layer,
ensuring compatibility between systems.
• Translation:
• Converts data into a format that can be
understood by the receiving device, facilitating
accurate communication between different
systems.
• Encryption/Decryption:
• Encrypts data when sent over secure connections
and decrypts data upon receipt, ensuring secure
communication.
Presentation Layer of OSI Model

• Compression:
• Compresses data when necessary to improve transmission speed, reducing the
amount of data that needs to be transferred.
• Data Formatting:
• Handles the formatting of data types like text, images, and multimedia,
ensuring that they are properly displayed to users.
 • Session Management:
Session Layer
• Responsible for establishing,
of OSI Model maintaining, and terminating
communication sessions between
devices.
• Session Duration: Ensures that the
session remains open for as long as
needed to complete data
transmission and then closes it
promptly once the transfer is done.
Session Layer of OSI Model

• Synchronization:
• Manages the flow of data and can
insert checkpoints during data transfer
to allow for recovery in case of
interruptions.
• Session Control:
• Coordinates communication between
applications, ensuring that data
exchange is organized and efficient.
Transport Layer of OSI Model

• Segmentation and Reassembly:

• Breaks down data into smaller
segments for transmission and
reassembles them at the receiving end.
• Flow Control:
• Manages the rate of data transmission
to ensure efficient communication
without overwhelming the receiving
device.
Transport Layer of OSI Model

• Error Checking:
• Verifies the integrity of data by
checking for errors during transmission
and requesting retransmission if
needed.
• Reliable Data Transfer:
• Ensures that data is delivered
accurately and in the correct sequence,
making sure no segments are lost or
duplicated.
Network Layer of OSI
Model

• Packetization:
• Breaks down segments from the
transport layer into smaller units called
packets and reassembles them upon
arrival.
• Routing:
• Determines the best path for data to
travel across the network, ensuring
efficient delivery of packets.
Network Layer of OSI
Model

• Inter-network Communication:
• Manages data transfer between different
networks, ensuring seamless
communication across multiple
networks.
• Router Role:
• Uses routers as key devices to direct data
packets to their destination across
interconnected networks.
Data Link Layer of OSI
Model

• Node-to-Node Communication:
• Manages data transfer between adjacent
nodes within the same network, ensuring
direct communication.
• Frame Conversion:
• Converts packets received from the
network layer into frames for easier
transmission within a network.
Data Link Layer of OSI
Model

• Error Detection and Correction:

• Detects and corrects errors that may
occur during data transmission between
nodes.
• Switch Role:
• Uses switches as key components to
direct frames between devices within a
local network.
Physical Layer of OSI
Model

• Transmission Medium:
• Involves the physical hardware used for
data transmission, such as cables, fiber
optics, and wireless signals.
• Data Conversion:
• Breaks down data into bits for
transmission as binary signals across the
network.
Physical Layer of OSI
Model

• Signal Transmission:
• Manages how data signals are sent and
received over the physical medium,
ensuring proper timing and voltage
levels.
• Bit Reassembly:
• Reassembles received binary bits back
into frames for higher layers to process.
Check Your Understanding

• Quiz Title: OSI Model Layers

• Quiz Link: https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/6718d016914bb01b44cf6f8e
TCP/IP Model
Overview

• Condensed Structure:
• The TCP/IP model is a simpler version of
the OSI model, containing four layers
instead of seven.
• Development Origin:
• Developed by the US Department of
Defense, aiming to improve upon the OSI
model.
TCP/IP Model
Overview

• Purpose and Application:

• Designed to be more practical and
flexible for network communications,
making it widely adopted.
• Core Layers:
• The four layers are Application,
Transport, Internet, and Network Access,
each performing multiple functions
compared to OSI.
TCP/IP Model:
Application Layer

• Condensed Role:
• Combines the functionalities of the
application, presentation, and session
layers from the OSI model into a single
layer.
• Standardized Data Exchange:
• Uses various protocols to standardize
data exchange between devices over a
network.
TCP/IP Model:
Application Layer

• Common Protocols:
• Includes protocols such as HTTP, SMTP,
POP, and FTP for diverse communication
needs like web browsing and email.
• Key Functions:
• Manages data presentation, encryption,
and session control, ensuring meaningful
data is delivered to users.
TCP/IP Model: Transport Layer

• End-to-End Communication:
• Responsible for maintaining end-to-end
communication between devices,
ensuring data is reliably transferred.
• Comparison to OSI Model:
• Similar in function to the transport
layer in the OSI model, handling data
segmentation and reassembly.
TCP/IP Model: Transport Layer

• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):

• Provides reliable data transfer, with error checking and retransmission of lost
data.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP):
• Offers a faster but less reliable method for data transfer, suitable for
applications like streaming where speed is prioritized.
TCP/IP Model: Network Layer

• Alternate Name:
• Also known as the Internet Layer, it is
responsible for managing data transfer
across networks.
• Packet Management:
• Breaks data into packets and handles
the routing of these packets from
network to network.
TCP/IP Model: Network Layer

• Internet Protocol (IP):

• Key protocol used for addressing and routing packets to their destination.
• Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP):
• Used for error handling and diagnostics, such as reporting unreachable
destinations.
TCP/IP Model: Link Layer

• Alternate Name:
• Also known as the Physical Layer, it
combines the functions of the data link
and physical layers from the OSI model.
• Function:
• Responsible for the physical connection
between devices and transmitting raw
data between nodes on the same
network
TCP/IP Model: Link Layer

• Data Encapsulation:
• Encapsulates data into frames for transmission across the network.
• Protocol Example:
• Uses the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) to map IP addresses to MAC
addresses for device identification on the local network.