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Road Aggregates

• Road aggregates are the building blocks of roads.

• They can be found naturally (like gravel and sand) or made by crushing rocks.
• These materials help roads withstand the weight and wear and tear of traffic.

Classification of road aggregates

a) Based on size of particles

i. Coarse aggregates (Retained in 4.75 mm sieve)
ii. Fine aggregates (Passing 4.75 mm sieve)

b) Based on sources
i. Natural Aggregates (Sand, Gravel, Crushed stone)
ii. Manufactured aggregate (Blast furnace slag, crushed concrete, crushed steel)

c) Based on unit weight

i. Light weight aggregate (<1120 kg/m3), eg: pumice
ii. Normal weight aggregate (1520-1680 kg/m3), eg: quarzite, granite
iii. Heavy weight aggregate (>2100 kg/m3), eg: crushed steel

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Desireable properties of aggregates

1. Strength
• The ability of aggregates to resist crushing under load.

• Importance: Aggregates must have high crushing strength to withstand the heavy loads from
traffic. Weak aggregates can cause the pavement to deteriorate over time.

2. Hardness
• The resistance of aggregates to abrasion, wear, and friction.

• Importance: Aggregates should be hard enough to resist wear and tear from traffic. Hard
aggregates improve pavement durability and road performance, preventing excessive surface
degradation.

3. Toughness

• The ability of aggregates to resist impact or sudden stresses without breaking or cracking.

• Importance: Aggregates with good toughness are essential for withstanding shock loads from moving

vehicles. Aggregates that lack toughness may break under stress, leading to cracks in the pavement.

4. Durability

• The ability of aggregates to resist weathering and environmental damage over time, including freeze-

thaw cycles, chemical attack, and abrasion.

• Importance: Aggregates should not deteriorate easily due to moisture, temperature changes, or

chemical exposure. Durable aggregates ensure the long-term performance of the highway, especially

in areas with harsh weather conditions.

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5. Shape of Aggregates

• The geometric configuration of the particles, with angular, rounded, or flaky shapes.

• Importance:

• Angular aggregates provide better interlocking, improving stability and strength of the
pavement.

• Rounded aggregates may improve workability but provide less strength and interlock.

• Flaky aggregates are undesirable because they tend to break under load, reducing the
pavement's overall strength.

6. Adhesion with Bitumen

• The ability of aggregates to bond with bitumen (used in asphalt mixtures).

• Importance: Good adhesion ensures that aggregates properly bond with the bitumen, creating a
strong, durable asphalt pavement. Poor adhesion can lead to stripping or disintegration of the
pavement surface, especially in wet conditions.

7. Cementation (Adhesion with Cement)

• In the case of WBM roads, the binding action of the surface layer is provided by grit and water
jointly. In the construction of WBM roads, it is desirable to use such stone aggregate, the powder
of which possess binding property in presence of moisture.

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Test on Road Aggregates

B. Non-Destructive Quality Test

1.Gradation C. Durability Test
A. Descriptive Test 2. Water Absorption 1. Los Angeles Abrasion Test
1. Particle Shape and Size 3. Specific Gravity Test 2. Aggregate Crushing Value
2. Surface Texture 4. Shape Test (Flakiness Index, 3. Aggregate Impact Value
Elongation Index and Angularity 4. Soundness Test
Number)

Water Absorption Test of Aggregate

Objective
• To determine the water absorption capacity of aggregates.

• Helps assess the porosity and quality of aggregates used in concrete and other
construction materials.

Apparatus Required
• Balance (accurate to 0.1g)
• Drying Oven (maintained at 100°C to 110°C)
• Container for immersion
• Sponge or Cloth for surface drying

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Procedure
1. Weighing Dry Aggregate
i. Take a sample of aggregates and weigh it accurately in its dry state.
ii. Label this weight as W1 (dry weight).
2. Soaking
i. Immerse the aggregates in water for a specified period (usually 24 hours).
ii. Ensure aggregates are fully submerged and that the water is clean.
3. Surface Drying
i. After soaking, remove the aggregates from the water and use a sponge or cloth to
dry the surface.
ii. Avoid removing the water absorbed inside the aggregates.
4. Weighing Wet Aggregate
i. Weigh the aggregates again after drying the surface.
ii. Label this weight as W2 (wet weight).

5. Calculation

Significance
• Water Absorption (%): Indicates the amount of water the aggregate can absorb in relation to its
dry weight.
• Low Absorption: Indicates dense, strong aggregates.
• High Absorption: Indicates porous aggregates, which may reduce the quality of concrete and
affect the mix’s workability and strength.

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Specific Gravity Test of Aggregate

Objective
• To determine the specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates.
• Helps assess the density of aggregates relative to water and their suitability
for concrete mix design.

Apparatus Required
• Balance (accurate to 0.1g)
• Pycnometer or specific gravity bottle
• Thermometer
• Drying Oven (maintained at 100°C to 110°C)
• Water for immersion

Procedure
1. Weighing Dry Aggregate
i. Take a clean, dry sample of aggregate and weigh it accurately.
ii. Label this as W1 (weight of dry aggregate).
2. Weighing Aggregate in Water
i. Immerse the aggregate sample in water and weigh it while fully submerged.
ii. Label this weight as W2 (weight of aggregate submerged in water).
3. Weighing the Pycnometer with Water
i. Fill the Pycnometer with water and record its weight (W3).
ii. This step helps in determining the displacement of water caused by the aggregate
sample.
4. Weighing the Pycnometer with Aggregate and Water
i. Fill the Pycnometer with water and add the aggregate sample.
ii. Record the weight (W4) of the Pycnometer containing both the sample and water.

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5. Calculation

Significance
• Specific Gravity: A measure of the density of the aggregate.
• Typical Range: 2.5 to 2.9 for most aggregates.
• Higher Specific Gravity: Indicates denser, stronger aggregates suitable for concrete.
• Lower Specific Gravity: Indicates less dense, more porous aggregates.

Flakiness Index Test for Aggregates

Objective
• Determine the percentage of flaky particles in an aggregate sample.
• Flaky particles have a thickness < 0.6 times the mean sieve size.

Apparatus Required
• Flakiness gauge (standard slot sizes)
• Weighing balance (0.1 g accuracy)
• IS sieves (63 mm to 6.3 mm)

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Test Procedure
1. Sample Preparation
•Dry aggregates at 105°C-110°C to constant mass.
•Sieve into size fractions using IS sieves.

2. Flakiness Measurement
•Pass aggregates through the flakiness gauge.
•Collect and weigh flaky particles.

3. Calculation

Significance:
Aggregates with a flakiness index less
than 15% are preferred for pavement
construction and concrete applications
to ensure better load distribution,
compaction, and durability.

Elongation Index Test for Aggregates

Objective
• To determine the percentage of elongated particles in an aggregate sample.
• Elongated particles have a length > 1.8 times the mean sieve size.

Apparatus Required
•Elongation gauge (with standard slot sizes)
•Weighing balance (0.1 g accuracy)
•IS sieves (63 mm to 6.3 mm)

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• Test Procedure
1. Sample Preparation
• Dry the aggregate at 105°C-110°C to constant mass.
• Sieve into size fractions using IS sieves.
2. Elongation Measurement
• Pass aggregates through the appropriate slot of the elongation gauge.
• Collect and weigh elongated particles.
3. Calculation Significance:
Elongation index < 15%
preferred.
Reduces:
• Poor interlocking
• Weak load distribution
• Premature pavement
failure

Angularity Number Test for Aggregates

Objective
•To determine the angularity of aggregates.
•Angularity influences packing, interlocking, and stability in construction materials.

Apparatus Required
• Cylindrical metal container (of known volume)

• Weighing balance (accurate to 0.1 g)

• Tamping rod

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Test Procedure
1. Dry aggregates to constant mass.
2. Fill the container in three layers.
3. Compact each layer with 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
4. Level the surface and weigh the filled container.
5. Calculation

Definition
•Angularity Number measures the degree of deviation from rounded particles.
•Higher values = More angular aggregates (better interlocking).
•Lower values = More rounded aggregates (better workability).

Significance
• Higher Angularity Number
• Greater stability and strength
• Ideal for pavements and high-load areas
• Lower Angularity Number
• Easier workability
• Suitable for non-load-bearing concrete

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Los Angeles Abrasion Test for Aggregates

Objective
• To measure the abrasion resistance of aggregates.
• Determines the wear and tear of aggregates under rolling action.
• Important for assessing aggregate durability in road and pavement construction.
Apparatus Required
• Los Angeles Abrasion Machine (drum with steel balls)

• IS Sieves (for sieving aggregates)

• Weighing balance (accurate to 0.1 g)

• Sample container

Test Procedure
1. Sample Preparation
i. Take a representative sample (usually 5 kg) of aggregates.
ii. Dry the sample to constant mass at 105°C-110°C.
2. Abrasion Testing
i. Place the sample and steel balls in the Los Angeles machine (drum).
ii. Rotate the drum at 30-33 rpm for 500-1000 revolutions (depends on aggregate
size).
3. Sieving and Weighing
i. After rotation, sieve the sample through a 1.7 mm sieve.
ii. Weigh the fine material (Wf) that passes through the sieve.
4. Calculation

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Significance
• Higher Abrasion Value
• Indicates weaker aggregates that wear out more quickly.
• Not suitable for high-traffic pavements.
• Lower Abrasion Value
• Indicates stronger, durable aggregates for road construction.

Aggregate Crushing Value Test

Objective
• To determine the crushing strength of aggregates.
• Measures the resistance to crushing under a gradually applied compressive load.
• Important for assessing aggregate suitability for concrete and road construction.

Apparatus Required
• Compression testing machine (with a capacity of 40 tons)
• IS Sieves (10 mm and 2.36 mm)
• Cylindrical mould (150 mm diameter, 130 mm height)
• Weighing balance (accurate to 0.1 g)

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Test Procedure
1. Sample Preparation
i. Take a sample of aggregates (approximately 2.6 kg).
ii. Sieve to collect aggregates passing through a 12.5 mm sieve and retained on a 10
mm sieve.
2. Filling the Mould
i. Fill the cylindrical mould in 3 layers, each compacted by 25 strokes.
3. Loading and Crushing
i. Place the mould in the compression testing machine.
ii. Apply a uniform load until the aggregates fail (usually within 10 minutes).
4. Sieving and Weighing
i. After crushing, sieve the material through a 2.36 mm sieve.
ii. Weigh the fine particles (Wf) passing through the sieve.

5. Calculation

Significance
• Higher Crushing Value
• Indicates weaker aggregates.
• Not suitable for high-strength concrete and
heavily trafficked roads.
• Lower Crushing Value
• Indicates stronger, more durable aggregates
for pavement and concrete construction.

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Aggregate Impact Value Test

Objective
• To measure the impact resistance of aggregates.
• Determines the ability to withstand sudden shocks or impacts.
• Important for assessing aggregate suitability in pavement construction and
concrete.

Apparatus Required
• Impact testing machine (with a standard hammer of 13.5 kg)
• IS Sieves (10 mm and 2.36 mm)
• Weighing balance (accurate to 0.1 g)
• Steel mould (100 mm diameter, 50 mm height)

Test Procedure
1. Sample Preparation
i. Take a sample of aggregates (approximately 2.5 kg).
ii. Sieve the sample to collect aggregates passing through a 12.5 mm sieve and
retained on a 10 mm sieve.
2. Filling the Mould
i. Fill the mould with aggregates in 3 layers, each compacted by 25 strokes.
3. Impact Testing
i. Place the mould in the impact testing machine.
ii. Drop the hammer from a height of 380 mm and allow it to fall 15 times onto
the sample.
4. Sieving and Weighing
i. After testing, sieve the crushed material through a 2.36 mm sieve.
ii. Weigh the fine material (Wf) passing through the sieve.

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5. Calculation

Significance
• Higher Impact Value
• Indicates weaker aggregates that are more prone to
breakage under impact.
• Not suitable for high-strength concrete or heavy-duty
pavements.
• Lower Impact Value
• Indicates stronger aggregates that can withstand sudden
impacts and shocks.
• Suitable for pavement construction and high-strength
concrete.

Soundness Test of Aggregate

Objective
• To assess the resistance of aggregates to weathering actions such as freezing and
thawing or wetting and drying.
• Determines the durability of aggregates used in pavements and concrete.

Apparatus Required
• Standard metal container
• Sodium or magnesium sulpate solution
• Weighing balance (accurate to 0.1 g)
• Drying oven (105°C - 110°C)
• Sieves (10 mm and 2.36 mm)

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Test Procedure
1. Sample Preparation:
i. Take a representative sample of aggregates (about 500 g).
ii. Clean and dry the sample in an oven at 105°C - 110°C to a constant weight.
2. Immerse the Sample:
i. Place the sample in a saturated sodium sulfate or magnesium sulfate solution.
ii. Immerse for 16-18 hours.
3. Drying and Sieving:
i. After immersion, dry the sample in the oven at 105°C - 110°C for 24 hours.
ii. Weigh the sample after drying.
4. Repeat the Process:
i. Repeat the immersion, drying, and weighing process for 10 cycles.

5. Calculation

Note: The average loss in weight after 10 cycles should not exceed 12% (test with sodium
sulphate) or 18% (test with magnesium sulphate) for sound aggregates.

Significance
• Higher Soundness
• Indicates durable aggregates resistant to weathering.
• Suitable for high-performance concrete and pavement construction.
• Lower Soundness
• Indicates less durable aggregates.
• May lead to premature degradation under environmental exposure.

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Bituminous Road Binders

• Bituminous binders are essential materials used in road construction to hold

aggregates together and provide durability and flexibility to the pavement.
• It usually refers to two types of binders : bitumen binder and tar binder.

Classification of bituminous road binders

Road Bitumen Road Tar

Natural Bitumen Petroleum Bitumen

(a) Lake Asphalt

(France/Switzerland 4-8% Penetration Grade Bitumen Liquid Bitumen
Bitumen)

(b) Rock Asphalt

Cutback Bitumen Bitumen Emulsion
(Trinidad Lake Asphalt 54%
Bitumen)

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Road Bitumen

• Bitumen is a black, sticky, and highly viscous material derived from crude oil during the
refining process.
• It is primarily used as a binder in road construction and roofing applications.
• Bitumen is known for its waterproofing properties, durability, and ability to withstand
varying weather conditions.

Uses of Bitumen

• Road Construction – As a binding agent in asphalt concrete and surface dressing.

• Waterproofing – Used in roofing, foundations, and pipelines.
• Sealants and Adhesives – Applied in joints and cracks to prevent leakage.
• Soundproofing and Insulation – Used in industrial applications for noise reduction and
thermal insulation.

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Natural Bitumen

Natural bitumen, also known as asphaltite or tar sands, occurs naturally in deposits or seeps
around the world. It forms over millions of years through the degradation of organic
materials and hydrocarbons.
Sources:
•Found in tar sands, lakes (e.g., Pitch Lake in Trinidad and Tobago), and rock formations.
•Major deposits exist in Canada, Venezuela, and the Middle East.

Petroleum Bitumen

Petroleum bitumen is produced as a byproduct of refining crude oil. It is the most

widely used form of bitumen globally.

Production:
•Extracted during the distillation of crude oil in refineries.
•Residual bitumen is separated after lighter hydrocarbons are removed.

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Penetration Grade Bitumen

Penetration grade bitumen is a type of bitumen classified based on its hardness and
consistency, which is measured by the depth (in tenths of a millimeter) that a standard
needle penetrates the bitumen under specific conditions of temperature, load, and time. It is
commonly used in road construction and asphalt paving.

Penetration Grade Classifications:

• 30/40 – Hard bitumen, suitable for high-temperature regions.
• 40/50 – Moderately hard, used for heavy traffic areas.
• 60/70 – Most commonly used for standard road construction.
• 80/100 – Softer bitumen, ideal for cold climates to prevent cracking.
• 100/120 – Very soft, used for surface dressing and low-stress applications.

Cutback Bitumen

Cutback bitumen is produced by mixing bitumen with petroleum solvents (such as kerosene
or diesel) to temporarily lower its viscosity. Once applied, the solvent evaporates, leaving
behind solid bitumen that binds with aggregates.

Types of Cutback Bitumen:

• Rapid Curing (RC): Uses highly volatile solvents like gasoline, evaporating quickly. Ideal for
surface dressing and patching.
• Medium Curing (MC): Contains medium-volatility solvents like diesel, used for prime
coats and tack coats.
• Slow Curing (SC): Mixed with low-volatility solvents like kerosene, suitable for cold-
weather applications and mixing with aggregates.

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Bitumen Emulsion

Bitumen emulsion is a mixture of bitumen and water stabilized by an emulsifying agent. The
bitumen is dispersed in water as tiny droplets, allowing it to be applied at ambient
temperatures. Once the water evaporates, the bitumen binds with aggregates.

Applications:
• Cold Mix Asphalt: Used in rural roads and maintenance projects.
• Surface Dressing: Enhances road surface quality and skid resistance.
• Sealing Cracks: Applied to waterproof and protect road surfaces.

Road Tar
• Road tar is a dark, thick, and viscous liquid used in road construction and maintenance.
• It is produced by the destructive distillation of organic materials such as coal, wood, or
peat.

Applications of Road Tar

• Road Surfacing: Applied to road bases to create a smooth, durable surface.
• Dust Suppression: Sprayed on unpaved roads to reduce dust formation.
• Crack Sealing: Used to seal cracks and joints in road surfaces, preventing water ingress
and extending pavement life.
• Surface Dressing: Combined with aggregates to create chip seals that improve skid
resistance and waterproofing.

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Grade Viscosity (Flowability) Application

Used for surface dressing and light
RT-1 Lowest viscosity (most fluid) sprays. Ideal for priming and dust
suppression.
Suitable for penetration macadam
RT-2 Low viscosity
(PM) and sealing low-traffic roads.
Commonly used for general road
RT-3 Medium viscosity construction and repairs. Good for
moderate penetration.
Applied in road bases, surface
dressing, and dense road surfaces.
RT-4 High viscosity
Suitable for areas with heavier
traffic.
Best for heavily trafficked roads,
RT-5 Highest viscosity (thickest) crack filling, and sealing. Ensures
long-lasting surfaces.

Desireable properties of bitumen

1. Durability

• Bitumen should be durable and capable of withstanding environmental factors such as

temperature fluctuations, rain, sunlight, and traffic loads without significant deterioration.

• Resistance to aging: Bitumen should resist oxidation and hardening over time to maintain
its flexibility and workability.

2. Adhesion

• Good adhesion properties: Bitumen should effectively bond with aggregate materials in
asphalt mixtures, providing strong cohesion and ensuring a durable pavement.

• Water resistance: Bitumen should have the ability to resist moisture ingress, which can
lead to stripping of the bitumen from the aggregate.

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3. Chemical resistance
• Bitumen should be resistant to acids, alkalis, and oils, as these can damage road surfaces over
time.

4. Low Temperature Performance

• Bitumen should not become brittle in cold weather, as this could lead to cracks and other
pavement damage.

5. Stability

• Heat stability: Bitumen should be stable at high temperatures and not undergo excessive
flow or deformation, especially in regions with high temperatures or traffic intensity.

• Storage stability: The bitumen should remain homogeneous during storage without
separation of components

6. Water Resistance

• Resistant to water: Bitumen must resist water penetration to prevent stripping of the bitumen
from aggregates in wet conditions. This helps in maintaining the structural integrity of the
pavement.

7. Flexibility

• Bitumen should exhibit sufficient flexibility to expand and contract with temperature changes
without cracking, especially under stress.

• Bitumen should stretch without breaking, which is particularly important for roads exposed to
temperature changes and mechanical stresses.

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Penetration Test of Bitumen

Objective
• To assess the softness or hardness of bitumen.

• To classify bitumen based on its penetration value.

• To determine its suitability for various road construction applications.

Apparatus Required
• Penetrometer: A device to hold the bitumen sample and measure the penetration.
• Standard Needle: A needle with a specified weight (100 grams) and dimensions.
• Thermostatic Water Bath: To maintain the test sample at a constant temperature
of 25°C.
• Scale: To measure the depth of penetration (in tenths of a millimeter).

Procedure

1. Sample Preparation

i. Heat the bitumen sample to the specified temperature (typically 60°C-70°C) to make it
flowable.

ii. Pour the bitumen into the container and let it cool to room temperature (25°C).

2. Needle Insertion

i. Place the bitumen sample in the penetrometer chamber.

ii. Lower the needle onto the surface of the bitumen, applying a 100-gram load.

iii. Allow the needle to penetrate for 5 seconds under the specified conditions.

3. Measurement

i. Record the depth of penetration in tenths of a millimeter.

ii. Repeat the test at three different locations of the sample and calculate the average value.

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Significance

• Penetration Value: The depth (in tenths of a millimeter) the needle penetrates into the bitumen.

• Classification: The penetration grade is indicated by the penetration value, such as 60/70 (for typical
road construction bitumen).

• Higher penetration values: Softer bitumen (more suitable for cold climates).
•Lower penetration values: Harder bitumen (suitable for high-temperature climates or heavy traffic).

30/40: Very hard bitumen (for high-temperature regions).

60/70: Standard penetration grade, commonly used for road construction.
80/100: Softer bitumen, ideal for cold climates and low-stress areas.
100/120: Very soft bitumen, used for surface dressing.

Viscosity Test of Bitumen

Objective
• To measure the flow resistance or viscosity of bitumen.
• To determine the suitability of bitumen for various construction applications,
particularly in hot mix asphalt.

Apparatus Required
• Orifice Viscometer: A device that consists of a cylindrical container with a defined
orifice at the bottom.
• Bitumen Sample
• Thermometer
• Stopwatch
• Weighing Scale

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Procedure
1. Sample Preparation
i. Heat the bitumen sample to the desired testing temperature (typically 135°C for bitumen
viscosity tests) to make it fluid and uniform in consistency.
ii. Pour the bitumen into the orifice viscometer’s cylindrical container, ensuring no air bubbles
are present.
2. Flow Measurement
i. Place the viscometer in an upright position. Ensure the orifice is at the bottom and sealed to
avoid leakage.
ii. Open the orifice and allow the bitumen to flow freely.

Time the flow of bitumen as it passes through the orifice. Start the stopwatch as soon as the
bitumen begins to flow and stop it once the bitumen completely passes through.

3. Flow Time Calculation

i. Measure the time it takes for a known volume or weight of bitumen to flow through the
orifice.
ii. Typically, the test is performed using a defined amount of bitumen, and the time it takes to
flow through the orifice is recorded in seconds.

Significance
• High viscosity: Indicates that the bitumen has a high resistance to flow, which
may be suitable for high-temperature environments or areas with heavy
traffic.
• Low viscosity: Indicates that the bitumen flows more easily, which is suitable
for colder climates or applications requiring easy workability.
• Viscosity Classification: Based on the results, bitumen can be categorized for
different uses, such as:
• High-viscosity bitumen: Often used in hot climates and for heavy-duty roads.
• Low-viscosity bitumen: Used in colder regions and for surface treatments or
seals.

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Ductility Test of Bitumen

Objective
• To determine the ductility or the ability of bitumen to stretch without breaking.
• To evaluate the performance of bitumen under extreme weather conditions,
particularly in cold climates.

Apparatus Required
• Ductility Testing Machine
• Bitumen Sample
• Water Bath
• Measuring Scale
• Thermometer

Procedure

1. Sample Preparation
i. Heat the bitumen sample to achieve a workable consistency.
ii. Pour the heated bitumen into a mold to form a standard rectangular shape (typically 5 cm wide, 1
cm thick).
iii. Allow the bitumen to cool and harden to room temperature (27°C) for 85-95 minutes.

2. Ductility Measurement
i. Place the sample on the ductility testing machine and ensure it is positioned between two blocks.
ii. The machine pulls the blocks apart at a constant speed (usually 5 cm/min).
iii. Measure the distance (in centimeters) that the bitumen sample can be stretched before it breaks.

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Significance
• > 100 cm: Very flexible bitumen (suitable for cold climates or flexible
pavement construction).
• 50 cm to 100 cm: Standard bitumen (generally suitable for road
construction).
• < 50 cm: Low ductility, indicating a brittle material (might need
modification for use in extreme conditions).

Softening Point Test of Bitumen

Objective
• To determine the softening point of bitumen.
• To evaluate bitumen's resistance to high temperatures.

Apparatus Required
• Ring and Ball Apparatus
• Bitumen Sample
• Thermometer
• Heating Bath

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Procedure

1. Sample Preparation

i. Heat the bitumen to a pourable consistency.

ii. Pour the bitumen into the brass ring placed on a glass plate, ensuring that the
bitumen fills the ring up to the top and then smoothen the surface.
iii. Allow the bitumen to cool to room temperature.
2. Setting the Test
i. Place the ring containing the cooled bitumen sample in the softening point
apparatus.
ii. Position the steel ball on top of the bitumen in the ring.

3. Heating
i. Slowly heat the test bath (water or glycerin) while maintaining a temperature rise
of about 5°C per minute.
ii. The ball will start to sink through the bitumen as the temperature increases.
4. Observation
i. Observe the point at which the bitumen softens and the ball reaches a specified
distance from its original position (usually 25mm).
ii. Record the temperature at which this occurs. This is the softening point of the
bitumen.

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Significance

• Softening Point: The temperature at which the ball has descended a

specified distance (e.g., 25mm) from its original position in the bitumen.
• High softening point: Indicates that the bitumen remains solid and
resistant to deformation at high temperatures, making it suitable for
hot climates or areas with heavy traffic.
• Low softening point: Suggests that the bitumen will soften at lower
temperatures, which may make it prone to deformation under high-
temperature conditions (typically found in cold climates or when
bitumen is used in surface dressing).

Bituminous Mixes

• Bituminous mixes are combinations of bitumen, filler, fine aggregates and coarse
aggregates.
• These mixes are primarily used in road construction for paving surfaces like
highways, airports, and parking lots.

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Constituents of Bituminous Mixes

1. Bitumen (Binder)
• Acts as the adhesive that binds the aggregate particles together.
• Provides waterproofing and flexibility.

2. Coarse Aggregates
• Size: > 4.75 mm (stones and gravel).
• Offers structural strength.

3. Fine Aggregates
• Size: < 4.75 mm (sand and crushed stone dust).
• Fills gaps between coarse aggregates, improving density.

4. Filler (Mineral Filler)

• Size: Smaller than 0.075 mm (cement, stone dust, or lime).
• Fills micro-voids, increasing mix cohesion and durability.

5. Additives (Optional)
• Improve specific properties of the mix.
• Types
• Polymers – Increase elasticity and reduce rutting.
• Anti-stripping Agents – Prevent bitumen from separating from aggregates.
• Fibers – Enhance tensile strength and reduce cracking.

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Bituminous Mix Design

• Bituminous mix design is the process of determining the right combination of

bitumen, aggregates, and fillers to produce a paving mix that meets specific
performance criteria for strength, durability, flexibility, and resistance to
deformation.

Objectives of Bituminous Mix Design

• To produce the bituminous mix so as to have:
i. Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement.
ii. Sufficient strength to resist shear deformation under traffic at high
temperature.
iii. Sufficient air voids in the compacted bitumen to allow for additional
compaction by traffic.
iv. Sufficient flexibility at low temperature to prevent shrinkage cracks.
v. Sufficient flexibility to avoid premature cracking due to repeated traffic.

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Types of Bituminous Mix

• Dense Graded Mixes
• Well-graded aggregates that provide a strong, impermeable surface.
• Bituminous concrete has good proportion of all constituents.

• Gap Graded Mixes

• Contains missing intermediate-sized aggregates to enhance flexibility and resist cracking.

• Open Graded Mixes

• Fine aggregates and filler are missing.
• Aggregates with more air voids, allowing water to drain through, reducing hydroplaning.

• Unbounded mix
• Binder is absent and behaves under load as if its components are not linked together though
interlocking exists.

Desirable properties of Bituminous Mixes

1. Stability
• The mix should resist deformation under repeated and heavy traffic loads.
• High stability prevents rutting and shoving.
2. Durability
• The mix must withstand weathering, oxidation, and aging over time.
• Adequate bitumen content helps prevent cracks and surface wear.
3. Flexibility
• The mix should be able to bend and expand without cracking under temperature
fluctuations and traffic stress.
• This reduces fatigue cracking.

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4. Skid Resistance
• The surface should provide enough friction to prevent vehicle skidding,
especially in wet conditions.
• Coarse aggregates improve traction and enhance skid resistance.
5. Workability
• The mix should be easy to lay, spread, and compact during construction.
• Good workability ensures uniform and dense pavement layers.
6. Impermeability
• The mix should prevent water from penetrating the pavement layers.
• Water resistance reduces the risk of stripping, potholes, and subgrade
weakening.

7. Fatigue Resistance
• The mix should endure repeated loading without developing cracks.
• Properly designed mixes with balanced aggregate grading and binder content
enhance fatigue life.
8. Resistance to Stripping
• The mix should resist the loss of bond between bitumen and aggregates due
to water.
• Anti-stripping agents or additives improve moisture resistance.
9. Smoothness
• The pavement surface should be even and smooth, providing a comfortable
ride.
• Proper grading and compaction techniques help achieve smoothness.

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10. Economy
• The mix should provide the best performance at the lowest possible cost.
• Using locally available aggregates and optimizing binder content enhances
cost-efficiency.

Marshall Method of Bituminous Mix Design

Objectives
• Determine the optimum bitumen content for maximum stability and durability.
• Ensure the mix has adequate flexibility, strength, and resistance to deformation.

Equipments Required
• Marshall Compactor – For compacting specimens.
• Water Bath – Maintains 60°C.
• Marshall Stability Testing Machine – Measures stability and flow.

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Materials Required
1. Aggregates
• Coarse Aggregates – Strength and load-bearing.
• Fine Aggregates – Fills voids and provides workability.
• Mineral Filler – Enhances binding (cement, stone dust).
2. Bitumen
• Penetration grade (60/70, 80/100).
• Modified bitumen (for heavy traffic).

Procedure
1. Specimen Preparation

• Aggregate Heating

• Heat aggregates to 170°C to 190°C.

• Bitumen Heating

• Heat bitumen to 150°C to 170°C.

• Mixing

• Combine bitumen and aggregates thoroughly.

• Compaction

• Compact the mix into 101.6 mm diameter moulds using 75 blows on each
side.

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2. Testing Procedure
• Conditioning
• Immerse specimens in 60°C water bath for 30-40 minutes.

• Stability Testing
• Place specimen in the Marshall Stability Testing Machine.
• Apply load at 50 mm/min until failure.
• Measure the maximum load (stability).

• Flow Measurement
•Measure the deformation (flow in mm) at maximum load.

• Properties Measured
1. Stability

• Maximum load in kN (desired > 9 kN for heavy traffic).

2. Flow

• Deformation (2-4 mm for normal traffic).

3. Air Voids (VTM)

• Air voids in the compacted mix (3-5%).

4. Voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA)

• The volume of voids in the mineral aggregates (13-15%).

5. Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB)

• The percentage of voids filled by bitumen (65-75%).

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Analysis and Optimization

1. Plot Graphs
i. Stability vs. Bitumen Content
ii. Flow vs. Bitumen Content
iii. Air Voids vs. Bitumen Content
iv. VMA vs. Bitumen Content
v. VFB vs. Bitumen Content
vi. Unit Weight vs. Bitumen Content
2. Determine Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC)
1. Based on stability, flow, and air voids.
2. OBC is the bitumen content that provides maximum stability, acceptable
flow, and desired air voids.

Significance
• The Marshall method is a reliable and widely used procedure for designing bituminous mixes.
• It ensures that the mix meets stability, flow, and durability requirements for a variety of traffic
conditions.
• The method is cost-effective and easy to apply for pavement construction.

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