Boundary Layer Theory

When a real fluid flows over a stationery surface,

• the fluid particles immediately next to the surface adhere to the stationery surface
• That fluid particles try to drag the next particles; subsequently there is a formation of
velocity gradient in the direction perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow
• The region up to which the velocity gradient exist is called as BOUNDARY LAYER
• The perpendicular distance from the stationery surface to the point until the velocity
gradient (i.e. 99% of free-stream velocity (U)) exist is called as BOUNDARY LAYER
THICKNESS and it is commonly denoted as  (delta).
 Boundary Layer Theory
U
U

U

 = (x)
 = (x)
Stationery Surface (Flat plate)

x, distance from the leading edge

 Boundary Layer Theory

U
U

U

 = (x)
 = (x)
Stationery Surface (Flat plate)
 U

Leading Edge
(Free-stream Velocity)

U
U



Flat plate (Stationery surface)

Transition
Laminar Zone Zone Turbulent Zone
 
y dy
U
 = density of flowing fluid
U = free-stream velocity
u = velocity of fluid inside the boundary layer region at ‘y’ distance from the stationery surface
dy = thickness of a small strip
 = Boundary layer thickness
Mass of fluid flows through the small strip = density of fluid  Area  velocity of fluid
(with the consideration of boundary layer)
dm =   (1  dy)  u (Considering the presence of boundary layer) ------ 1

Mass of fluid flows through the small strip (Without the formation of boundary layer)
= density of fluid  Area  free-stream velocity of fluid
dm =   (1  dy)  U (Absence of boundary layer) ------ 2

Reduction in the mass flow rate due to the existence of boundary layer =2–1
=   (1  dy)  (U - u)
𝛿 𝛿
Total reduction in the mass flow rate = ‫׬‬0   (1  dy)  (U − u) = ‫׬‬0   (U − u) dy ------ 3
Displacement Thickness (*) → Perpendicular distance to be displaced by the stationery
surface to compensate the reduction in the mass flow rate of fluid.

U
dy

y


 𝛿 𝛿
Total reduction in the mass flow rate = ‫׬‬0   (1  dy)  (U − u) = ‫׬‬0   (U − u) dy ------ 3

Mass flow rate of fluid flows through the displaced distance, * =   U  * ------ 4

Equating 3 & 4

𝛿
  U  * = ‫׬‬0   (U − u) dy

𝛅 𝐮
* = ‫ 𝟎׬‬1 − dy --- Displacement Thickness
𝐔∞
Momentum Thickness () → Perpendicular distance to be displaced by the
stationery surface to compensate the reduction in the momentum of fluid.
Mass of fluid flows through the small strip = density of fluid  Area  velocity of fluid
(with the consideration of boundary layer)
d(mass) =   (1  dy)  u (Considering the presence of boundary layer) ----- 1

Momentum of fluid flows through the small strip = density of fluid  Area  (velocity of fluid)2
(with the consideration of boundary layer)
d(momentum) =   (1  dy)  u2 (Considering the presence of boundary layer) ----- 2

Momentum of fluid flows through the small strip = density of fluid  Area  free-stream velocity of fluid
(without the formation of boundary layer)

d(momentum) =   (1  dy)  u  U (U = Velocity of fluid in the absence of boundary layer) -- 3

Reduction in the momentum of fluid due to the existence of boundary layer =3–2
=   (1  dy)  (u.U - u2)
𝛿 𝛿
Total reduction in the momentum of fluid = ‫׬‬0   (1  dy)  (u.U − u2) = ‫׬‬0   u (U − u) dy ----- 4

Momentum Thickness () → Perpendicular distance to be displaced by the stationery surface

to compensate the reduction in the momentum of fluid.
 U
u = u(y)
 =  ( x)

dy

Flat plate (Stationery surface)

y


x
Momentum Thickness () → Perpendicular distance to be displaced by the stationery surface to
compensate the reduction in the momentum of fluid.
 𝛿 𝛿
Total reduction in the momentum of fluid = ‫׬‬0   (1  dy)  (u.U − u2) = ‫׬‬0   u (U − u) dy ----- 4

Momentum of fluid flows through the displaced distance,  =   (U)2   ------ 5

Equating 4 & 5

𝛿
  (U)2   = ‫׬‬0   u (U − u) dy

𝛅 𝐮 𝐮
 = ‫𝟎׬‬ 1− dy ----- Momentum Thickness
𝐔∞ 𝐔∞
Energy Thickness (**) → Perpendicular distance to be displaced by the
stationery surface to compensate the reduction in the K.E. of fluid.
Mass of fluid flows through the small strip = density of fluid  Area  velocity of fluid
(with the consideration of boundary layer)
d(mass) =   (1  dy)  u (Considering the presence of boundary layer) ----- 1

Kinetic Energy of fluid flows through the small strip = (1/2) density of fluid  Area  (velocity of fluid)3
(with the consideration of boundary layer)
1
d(K.E.) =    (1  dy)  u3 (Considering the presence of boundary layer) ----- 2
2

K.E. of fluid flows through the small strip = density of fluid  Area  free-stream velocity of fluid
(without the boundary layer)
1
d(K.E.) =   (1  dy)  u  (U)2 (U = Velocity of fluid in the absence of boundary layer) -- 3
2

Reduction in the K.E. of fluid due to the existence of boundary layer = 3 – 2

1
=   (1  dy)  (u.(U)2 – u3)
2

𝛿 1 𝛿 1
Total reduction in the K.E. of fluid = ‫׬‬0 2
  (1  dy)  (u.(U)2 − u2) = ‫׬‬0 2
  u ((U)2 − u2) dy ---- 4

Energy Thickness (**) → Perpendicular distance to be displaced by the stationery surface to

compensate the reduction in the K.E. of fluid.
 U
u = u(y)
 =  ( x)

dy

Flat plate (Stationery surface)

y


x
Energy Thickness (**) → Perpendicular distance to be displaced by the stationery surface to
compensate the reduction in the kinetic energy of fluid.
 𝛿 1 𝛿 1
Total reduction in the K.E. of fluid = ‫׬‬0   (1  dy)  (u.(U)2 − u3) = ‫׬‬0   u ((U)2 − u3) dy -- 4
2 2

1
K.E. of fluid flows through the displaced distance, ** =   (U)3  ** ------ 5
2

Equating 4 & 5

1 𝛿 1
  (U)3  ** = ‫׬‬0   u ((U)2 − u3) dy
2 2

𝛅 𝐮 𝐮 𝟐
** = ‫𝐔 𝟎׬‬ 1− dy ----- Energy Thickness
∞ 𝐔∞
von-Karman Integral Momentum Equation

x D

A
A
D

B C
B C x
Consider a control volume, ABCDA with a thickness of x

δ
Mass of fluid enters into the control volume through AB = m = ‫׬‬0 ρ u dy ----- 1

δ
𝜕𝑚 δ 𝜕 ‫׬‬0 ρ u dy
Mass of fluid exit from the control volume through CD = m + (∆𝑥) = ‫׬‬0 ρ u dy + (∆𝑥) ----- 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

δ
𝜕𝑚 𝜕 ‫׬‬0 ρ u dy
Mass of fluid enters into the control volume through AD = (∆𝑥) = (∆𝑥) ----- 3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

(Net force = Change in momentum)

δ
Momentum influx into the control volume through AB = m  velocity = ‫׬‬0 ρ u2 dy ----- 4

δ
δ 𝜕 ‫׬‬0 ρ u2 dy
Momentum efflux from the control volume through CD = ‫׬‬0 ρ u2 dy + (∆𝑥) ----- 5
𝜕𝑥

δ
𝜕 ‫׬‬0 ρ u dy
Momentum of fluid enters into the control volume through AD = (∆𝑥)  U ---- 6
𝜕𝑥
Net change in momentum = (4 + 6) - 5 = Shear force induced on the flat plate by the fluid flow

 (4 + 6) - 5 = Shear stress by the effect of viscosity  (x)

𝜕u
=   (x) = μ  (x) ----- 7
𝜕 y y=0

δ δ
δ 𝜕 ‫׬‬0 ρ u dy δ 𝜕 ‫׬‬0 ρ u2 dy
  (x) = ‫׬‬0 ρ u2 dy + (∆𝑥)  U - ‫׬‬0 ρ u2 dy - (∆𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

δ δ
𝜕 ‫׬‬0 ρ u dy 𝜕 ‫׬‬0 ρ u2 dy
  (x) = (∆𝑥)  U - (∆𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

δ u δ δ u δ u2 δ u u2
𝜕 ‫׬‬0 U dy 𝜕 ‫׬‬0 ρ u2 dy 𝜕 ‫׬‬0 U dy 𝜕 ‫׬‬0 dy 𝜕 ‫׬‬0 U − 2 dy
U2 U∞
 =  =  U∞ =  U∞
∞
2
U∞ ∞
- 2 ∞
− ∞ 2
𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕x

δ u u
𝜕 ‫׬‬0 U 1 − U dy 𝜕 θ δ u u
 =  U∞
2 ∞ ∞
=  U∞
2
( = ‫׬‬0 1 − dy = Momentum Thickness)
𝜕x 𝜕x U∞ U∞

𝜏 𝜕 θ
= → von-Karman Integral Momentum Equation
 U2∞ 𝜕x
 𝜏 𝜕 θ
= → von-Karman Integral Momentum Equation
 U2∞ 𝜕x

δ u u
( = ‫׬‬0 1 − dy = Momentum Thickness)
U∞ U∞

𝜏 𝜕 θ 𝜏
= 2  = skin friction coefficient
1
2
 U2∞ 𝜕x 1
2
 U2∞
(Ratio between local shear stress and dynamic pressure)
EXAMPLE: SLATS AND FLAPS
Influence of Adverse Pressure Gradient
Adverse Pressure Gradient dp/dx>0 can cause flow separation
 WHY DOES BOUNDARY LAYER SEPARATE?
• Adverse pressure gradient interacting with velocity profile through B.L.
• High speed flow near upper edge of B.L. has enough speed to keep moving through adverse
pressure gradient
• Lower speed fluid (which has been retarded by friction) is exposed to same adverse pressure
gradient is stopped and direction of flow can be reversed
• This reversal of flow direction causes flow to separate
• Turbulent B.L. more resistance to flow separation than laminar B.L. because of fuller
velocity profile
• To help prevent flow separation, turbulent B.L. is desirable.
  = density of fluid
Y  = Absolute viscosity of fluid
Faces, ABCO & DEFG → X plane
Faces, OCFG & ABED → Y plane
Faces, ADGO & BEFC → Z plane
A D
u = Velocity in X direction
v = Velocity in y direction

E y w = Velocity in z direction
B
τxz x = Shear stress on X plane (OCFG) in Z direction
O G X
𝜕w
= μ
z 𝜕z x

C Fxy = μ
𝜕w
 y  z (Shear force)
x F x 𝜕z x

[p]x = Pressure on X plane (OCFG) in X direction

[P]x = [p]x  y  z (Pressure force)

Net body force in X direction = . g x  x  y  z
 Faces, ABCO & DEFG → X plane
u = Velocity in X direction
A v = Velocity in y direction
w = Velocity in z direction
z 𝜕w
μ
𝜕z τxy = Shear stress on X plane (ABCO) in Y direction
x
[p]x  y  z

B
𝜕v
= μ
𝜕y x

𝜕v
= μ  y  z (Shear force)
y O Fxy
x 𝜕y x

τx𝑧 x = Shear stress on X plane (ABCO) in Z direction

𝜕w
= μ
𝜕z x

C 𝜕w
Fxy = μ  y  z (Shear force)
x 𝜕z x

𝜕v [p]x = Pressure on X plane (ABCO) in X direction

μ
𝜕y x [P]x = [p]y  y  z (Pressure force)
 Faces, ABCO & DEFG → X plane
u = Velocity in X direction
v = Velocity in y direction
w = Velocity in z direction
τxy = Shear stress on X plane (DEFG) in Y direction
x+∆𝑥

D 𝜕v
𝜕μ
𝜕v
𝜕y x
= μ + × ∆x
𝜕y x 𝜕y

𝜕v
 y  z
y
𝜕 μ
𝜕y x
E
𝜕v
Fxy = μ  y  z + x
× ∆x
x+∆𝑥 𝜕y x 𝜕y

τx𝑧 x+∆𝑥 = Shear stress on X plane (DEFG) in Z direction

G 𝜕w 𝜕μ
𝜕w
𝜕z x
= μ + × ∆x
z
𝜕z x 𝜕z

𝜕 μ
𝜕w
𝜕z x
 y  z
𝜕w
Fxy = μ  y  z + x
× ∆x
F x+∆𝑥 𝜕z x 𝜕z

𝜕 px
[p]x+x = px +  x
𝜕x

𝜕 [p]x  y  z x
[P]x+x = [p]x  y  z + × ∆x
 𝜕2 u 𝜕2 u 𝜕2 u
Net viscous force in X direction =  (x  y  z)  + +
𝜕 x2 𝜕 y2 𝜕 z2

𝜕2 v 𝜕2 v 𝜕2 v
Net viscous force in Y direction =  (x  y  z)  + 𝜕 y2 + 𝜕 z2
𝜕 x2

𝜕2 w 𝜕2 w 𝜕2 w
Net viscous force in Z direction =  (x  y  z)  + +
𝜕 x2 𝜕 y2 𝜕 z2

𝜕p
Net pressure force in X direction = - 𝜕x
 (x  y  z)

𝜕p
Net pressure force in Y direction = -  (x  y  z)
𝜕y

𝜕p
Net pressure force in Z direction = -  (x  y  z)
𝜕z

Net body force in X direction = ρg x  (x  y  z)

Net body force in Y direction = ρg y  (x  y  z)

Net body force in Z direction = ρg z  (x  y  z)

Inertia force in X direction = (Mass  Acceleration)x

du
= ρ x  (x  y  z)  dt

𝜕u 𝜕u 𝜕u 𝜕u
= x  (x  y  z)  + u𝜕x +v𝜕x +w𝜕z
𝜕t

Inertia force in Y direction = (Mass  Acceleration)y

dv
= ρ y  (x  y  z)  dt

𝜕v 𝜕v 𝜕v 𝜕v
= y  (x  y  z)  +u𝜕x +v𝜕x +w𝜕z
𝜕t

Inertia force in Z direction = (Mass  Acceleration)z

dw
= ρ z  (x  y  z)  dt

𝜕w 𝜕w 𝜕w 𝜕w
= z  (x  y  z)  𝜕t
+ u 𝜕x
+ v 𝜕x +w 𝜕z
Navier – Stokes equation in X direction:

𝜕u 𝜕u 𝜕u 𝜕u 𝜕p 𝜕2 u 𝜕2 u 𝜕2 u
x  +u + v +w = ρg x - +  + +
𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕z 𝜕x 𝜕 x2 𝜕 y2 𝜕 z2

Navier – Stokes equation in Y direction:

𝜕v 𝜕v 𝜕v 𝜕v 𝜕p 𝜕2 v 𝜕2 v 𝜕2 v
y  + u +v + w = ρg y - +  + +
𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕z 𝜕y 𝜕 x2 𝜕 y2 𝜕 z2

Navier – Stokes equation in Z direction:

𝜕w 𝜕w 𝜕w 𝜕w 𝜕p 𝜕2 w 𝜕2 w 𝜕2 w
z  +u +v +w = ρg z - +  + 2 + 2
𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕z 𝜕w 𝜕 x2 𝜕y 𝜕z