Unit-II LASERS

LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

# Characteristics of LASER Radiation:

1. High Monochromaticity:
• If light coming from a source has only one frequency of oscillation or single wavelength,
the light is said to be monochromatic.
• Light from laser is highly monochromatic and contains a very narrow range of few
angstroms (< 10 Ao).
2. High Directionality:
• In case of laser, the active material is in a cylindrical resonant cavity. The light travelling
parallel to the cavity is only selected and reinforced. So, laser emits light only in one
direction.
3. Coherence:
• Two beams of light are said to be coherent when the phase difference between their
waves is constant.
• Laser emits large number of photons through stimulated emission and they will be in
phase with each other. The resultant light exhibits a high degree of coherence.
4. Small Divergence:
• Light from a laser propagates in the form of plane waves. The light beam remains
essentially as a bundle of parallel rays and hence the divergence is small.

d 2 − d1
The angle of divergence is given by φ= −
l2 − l1
d1 is spot diameter at distance l1 and d2 is spot diameter at distance l2.

5. High Intensity:
• Laser emits in narrow beam, so that its energy is concentrated in a small region.
Therefore, laser intensity is tremendously large.
P
The intensity of a laser beam is approximately given by I=
A
P = Power radiated by the laser, A = Area.
# Basic Concepts of LASER:

1. Absorption: E2

hν = E2 - E1

E1

• An atom in the lower energy state (E1) may absorb the incident photon and jump to the
excited state (E2). The transition is known as ‘Stimulated absorption (or) induced
absorption (or) absorption’.

A + hυ = A*

A = atom in the lower energy (ground) state

A* = atom in the excited state, υ = frequency

• The probability that an absorption transition occurs is proportional to the photon density

P12 = B12ρ(υ)

ρ(υ) = photon density, B12 = Einstein coefficient for induced absorption

• Number of atoms excited during a time ∆t is Nab = B12N1ρ(υ)∆t

Where, N1 = Population of atoms at E1

When more photons incident on the atoms, then more atoms get excited to the higher energy
level.
2. Spontaneous Emission:
E2

hν = E2-E1

E1
The excited atom in the (E2) return to the lower energy state after it’s lifetime by releasing a
photon of energy (hν = (E2-E1)).This type of process in which emission of photon occurs on its
own is called “Spontaneous Emission”.
A* = A + hυ

A = atom in the lower energy (ground) state

 A* = atom in the excited state, υ = frequency
• The probability that spontaneous emission occurs depends on the properties of energy
states and independent of photon density.
P21 = A21 , A21 = Einstein coefficient for spontaneous emission
• Number of spontaneous transitions during time ∆t is
Nsp = A21N2∆t
N2 = Population of atoms at E2.
• Spontaneous emission dominates in conventional light sources.
3. Stimulated Emission:

E2
hν = E2-E1

E1

When the atom is in excited state, a photon of energy (hν = E2 - E1) is incident, the incident
photon triggers the excited atom to the lower energy state giving up a photon. This phenomenon
of emitting two photons is called “Stimulated Emission”.
A* + hυ = A + 2hυ

A = atom in the lower energy (ground) state

A* = atom in the excited state, υ = frequency

• The probability of stimulated emission occurs is
(P21)Stimulated= B21ρ(υ), B21 = Einstein coefficient for stimulated emission
• Number of stimulated transitions during time ∆t is
Nsti = B21N2ρ(υ)∆t
Where, N2 = Population of atoms at E2.
# Differences between Spontaneous and Stimulated Emissions:

Spontaneous Emission Stimulated Emission

1. Emission of photon takes 1. Emission of photon takes
place after lifetime on its place with in lifetime by an
own. incident photon.
2. Polychromatic radiation 2. Monochromatic radiation
3. Incoherent radiation 3. Coherent radiation
4. Less intensity 4. High intensity
5. Less directionality 5. High directionality
6. No amplification light takes 6. Amplification of light takes
place place
7. Can’t controlled from outside. 7. Controlled from outside
8. Random process. 8. Not a random process.
9. Light from the source is 9. Light is polarized
unpolarized 10. Eg: Light from LASER
10. Eg: Light from sodium or source.
mercury lamp.

# Light amplification conditions:

Laser operation is achieved when stimulated emission exceeds in large way the other two
(absorption, spontaneous)
Conditions to make stimulated emission large:
i) Stimulated transition / Spontaneous transition = B21ρ(υ)/A21
Large radiation density ρ(υ): presence of large number of photons in the medium
ii) Stimulated transition / Absorption transition = N2/N1
Stimulated transition dominates over absorption when N2 ˃ N1
iii) Larger life time of states: The life time of atoms at the excited state should be larger.
A medium amplifies light only when the above three conditions are fulfilled. To achieve this
high percentafe of stimulated emissions, a situation of ‘’ population inversion’’ is to be created in
the medium.
# Population Inversion:
1. Population inversion means that the number of atoms in the higher energy level is greater than
the number of atoms in the ground state energy.
2. Population inversion is achieved at the metastable states only.
3. At equilibrium, the populations are related to the Boltzmann law i.e.
N2
= e −( E2 − E1 ) KT
N1
Where, N1 = population at energy level E1, N2 = population at energy level E2, K =Boltz’sman
constant, T = Temperature.

Population inversion is a non-equilibrium state and exists for a short time.

# Metastable State:

1. Particular excited state of an atom, nucleus, or other system that has a longer life time than the
ordinary excited states.

2. The state in which atom remains excited for an appreciable time of 10-6 to 10-3 seconds.

# Basic Components of LASER:

1. Active medium:
A medium in which light gets amplified and laser is emitted is called an “Active Medium”.
1. The medium should be able to obtain population inversion in it.
2. In the medium consisting of different species of atoms, only a small fraction of atoms with
particular energy levels are suitable for achieving population inversion.
3. The atoms of the active medium which cause more stimulated emission than spontaneous
emission and causes laser action are called active centers.
4. The medium hosting the active centers is called the active medium.
2. Pump Source:
1. For achieving and maintaining the condition of population inversion, we have to raise
continuously the atoms in the lower energy level to the higher energy level. It requires energy to
be supplied to the system.
2. Pumping is the process of supplying energy.
3. Pump is an external source that supplies energy needed to transfer the laser medium into the
state of population inversion.
4. Optical pumping, electrical discharge and direct conversion are some of the methods of
pumping.
3. Optical resonator (Resonant cavity):
1. Optical resonator contains ‘’ a pair of optically plane parallel mirrors, enclosing laser medium
in between them is known as optical resonant cavity’’. One of these mirrors is partially
reflecting and the other is made fully reflecting.
2. Light is reflected by the mirrors back into the medium and is amplified. In the absence of
resonator cavity, there would be no amplification of light.
3. Optical resonator provides positive feedback of photons into the medium so that stimulate
emission is sustained and laser acts as generator of light.
4. Optical cavity makes the laser beam directional. It also builds up the photon density to a very
high value through repeated reflections of photons.
5. Optical cavity selects and amplifies only certain frequencies causing the laser output highly
monochromatic.

# Pumping:
The process of achieving population inversion is called pumping. The different mechanisms for
pumping are,
1. Optical pumping
Optical pumping uses photons to excite the atoms. A lighjt source such as a flash discharge tube
is used to illuminate the the laser medium and the photons of appropriate frequency excite the
atoms to an upper energy level. Optical pumping is used in solid state lasers.
2. Electrical pumping
Electrical pumping can be used only in those materials that can conduct electricity with out
destroying lasing activity. This method is limited to gases. In electrical pumping, high voltage
pulse is applied to the medium as pumping source.
3. Chemical reaction
This type of pumping is used in CO2 laser. Here, Hydrogen combines with fluorine according to

H2 + F2 → 2HF a reaction that generates sufficient heat energy to achieve population inversion.

4. Inelastic atom-atom collision: In lasers like He-Ne lasers, electric discharge provides initial
excitation, which raises one type of atoms to their excited states. These atoms collide with
another type of atoms providing population inversion.
The most commonly used methods are optical pumping and electrical pumping.

Types of LASERS:

Lasers are classified as below basing on the gain medium.

Types of Laser Examples

1. Solid State Laser Ruby Laser, Nd: YAG Laser
2. Gas Laser He-Ne Laser, CO2Laser, Argon-ion Laser
3. Liquid Laser Se OCl2 Laser, Europium Chelate Laser
4. Dye Laser Rhoda mine 6G Laser, Coumarin dye Laser
5. Semiconductor laser Ga As Laser, In P Laser

# He-Ne Laser:
He-Ne laser was a successful gas laser built by Ali Javan in 1961.
Salient features:
1. Uses 4 level pumping scheme
2. The active centers are neon atoms
3. Electrical discharge is the pumping agent
4. Low efficiency and low power output
5. Operates in continuous wave mode
Construction:

1. It consists of long discharge tube of 50 cm length and 1cm in diameter.

2. The tubes is filled with He-Ne gas in the ratio 10:1 and opposite ends are sealed with glass
windows called Brewster windows.
3. Electrodes are provided to produce a discharge in the gas and they are connected to a high
voltage power supply.
4. On the axis of the tube two mirrors are fixed which form Fabry-Perot resonator.
Working:
He-Ne laser employs a four level pumping scheme and mixture of He-Ne gas acts as Active
medium. Ne ions act as active centres.
1. When the electric field is switched on ionization of gases takes place and electrons acquire
high velocity.
2. Due to collision of electrons and He ions, He ions will be excited to higher energy levels F2
(19.81eV) and F3 (20.16eV) from F1.
3. Now Ne ions collide with the He ions by inelastically and He ions transfer energy to Ne ions.
1. Ne ions will excite to energy levels E4 (18.7eV) and E6 (20.66eV). The additional energy
0.05eV is due to the collision of electrons of Ne ions with electrons.
2. As collisions go on Ne ions accumulate in these two excited states and population inversion is
achieved between E6 and E5; E6 and E3 and E4 and E3 levels respectively.
3. Consequently three laser transitions occur. They are
a) E6 E3 transition: This transition gives a laser beam of
visible red colour of wavelength 6328 Ao.
b) E4 E3 transition: This transition gives an infrared laser
beam of wavelength 1.15 µm (11500Ao).

c) E6 E5 transition: This transition gives a far infrared

laser beam of wavelength 3.39 µm (33900Ao).
4. The transition from E3 to E2 is spontaneous emission and the wavelength is 6000 Ao.

5. E2 level is a metastable state and Ne ions accumulate in this state. Therefore, Ne ions are
brought to ground state by making collisions with narrow discharge tube.
Advantages:
Good coherent property, can produce three wavelengths, cost is less from other lasers, inherent
safety due to low power.
Disadvantages:
Low output power and efficiency, low gain, requires extra skill to obtain single wavelength, high
voltage requirement and escaping of gas from laser plasma.
Applications:
Used in science programmes and experiments, to read bar codes and QR codes, for reproduction
of transmitted photographs, as an alignment tool and in guns for targeting.

# Semiconductor diode Laser:

R. N. Hall and his coworkers made the first semiconductor laser in 1962. It is made from
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) which operates at low temperatures and emitted light in near IR region.
Now a days, P-N junction diodes are made to emit light anywhere in the spectrum from UV
to IR. Diode lasers are small in size (0.1 mm long) and have high efficiency of order of 40%.
Types of semiconductor diode lasers:
There are two types of semiconductor diode lasers. They are Homojunction semiconductor
lasers and Heterojunction semiconductor lasers.
Homojunction semiconductor laser:
A simple diode laser which makes use of the same semiconductor materials on both sides of
the junction is known as homojunction semiconductor diode laser. Ex: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
laser.
Heterojunction semiconductor laser:
A simple diode laser which makes use of different semiconductor materials on two sides of
the junction is known as heterojunction semiconductor diode laser. These are further classified as
single and double heterojunction diode lasers. Ex: Junction laser having GaAs on one side and
GaAlAs on the other side.

# Homojunction semiconductor laser:

Principle:
1. When an electron from the conduction band jumps into a hole in the valence band, the excess
energy is given out in the form of photons.
2. The electron-hole recombination is the basic mechanism responsible for emission of light. The
wave length of emitted light is given as, λ = hc/Eg.
Construction:
A schematic diagram of homojunction diode laser is given below

1. It consists of a heavily doped n-type GaAs material. A p-type region is formed on its top by
diffusing zinc atoms into GaAs material. A heavily zinc doped layer constitutes the heavily
doped p-region.
2. Typical diode chips have dimensions of 500 μm long, 100 μm wide and thick. The top and
bottom faces are metalized and metal contacts are provided to pass current through the diode.
3. The faces are polished and the polished faces constitute the Fabry-Perot resonator. A pair of
parallel planes cleaved at the two ends of the p-n junction provides the required reflection to
form the cavity.
4. The remaining two sides are roughed to eliminate lasing action in that direction. The entire
structure is packaged in small metal case.
Working:
1. Heavily doped p and n regions are used in making a laser diode.
2.When the junction is forward-biased electrons and holes are injected into the junction region in
high concentrations as shown in below figure. ln other words, charge carriers are pumped by the
dc voltage source.
3. When the diode current reaches a threshold value, the carrier concentrations in the junction
region will rise to a very high value.
4. As a result the region contains a large concentration of electrons within the conduction band
and simultaneously a large number of holes within the valence band (Holes represent the absence
of electrons).
5. Thus, the upper energy levels in the narrow region are having a high electron population while
the lower energy levels in the same region are vacant.
6. The narrow zone in which population inversion occurs is called an inversion region or active
region.
7. Chance recombination acts of electron and hole pairs lead to emission of spontaneous photons.
The spontaneous photons in the junction plane stimulate the conduction electrons to jump into
the vacant sates of valence band.
8. This stimulated electron-hole recombination produces coherent radiation. GaAs laser emits a
wavelength of 9000 Å in IR region.
Advantages:
Smaller size, easy to construct, low cost, high efficiency no need of mirrors and low power
consumption.
Disadvantages:
1. Sensitive to temperature and affects the output laser, beam divergence is high, the active
region is not well defined, high losses through cavity, high threshold currents are required.
Applications:
Used as transmitter of digital data, suited for interface with fiber optic cables.
# Applications of Lasers:

Following are the main characteristics of laser radiation. Due to these characteristics the laser
has wide applications in different branches of science.
Industrial Applications: -
(i) They can blast holes in diamonds and hard steels.
(ii) In garment industry, lasers are used to cut many layers of cloth without frayed edges.
(iii) An interesting application of laser is to produce holograms which record a 3D image of an object.
When the hologram is viewed again with laser, the 3D perception is achieved as it is with the actual
abject.
(iv) Computer print outs are done with laser printers. Video disk can store more than 50,000 separate
images on each side. Used in compact disk (CD) audio systems. With compact disk (CD), the play
back music is perfect without any distortions.
Medical Applications: -
For the treatment of cancers, skin-tumors and for treatment of detached retina lasers are widely used
(LASIK surgery). Further, brain surgery can be done by laser without any hammer or knife.
Military Purpose: -
(i) A powerful laser beam can destroy big size object like aircrafts, missiles etc. in a few seconds by
pointing the laser beam on to them. For this reason, a laser is called a ‘death ray’ instrument’.
(ii) Since the laser light waves also not easily absorbed by water it is possible to establish under water
communication between submarines.
(iii) It is used effectively for automatically guiding rockets and satellites.
(iv) A high power crystal laser called LIDAR (light detection and ranging) has been built which sends
out radiations in pulses at 109 /sec. This optical laser is analogous to RADAR i.e. it sends out beams of
light and detects echoes from objects therefore it is a useful tool is metrology.
Chemical Applications: -
(i)They can be used for investigating the structure of molecules.
(ii) In Raman spectroscope by the use of lasers, the Raman spectrum can be obtained for much smaller
samples and faster.
(iii) Recently laser beams have been used to bombard atoms of deuterium (frozen heavy hydrogen) to
produce thousands of neutrons.