COAL Lecture 13

1. Subroutines
Definition: Subroutines are blocks of reusable code that perform a specific task. They
improve modularity and reduce redundancy in programs.
Key Concepts:
CALL: Transfers control(data) to the subroutine and saves the return address
on the stack.
RET: Returns control to the instruction after the CALL.

Code Example:
; Subroutine: Adding two numbers
[org 0x0100]
start:
mov ax, 5 ; First number
mov bx, 3 ; Second number
call add_numbers ; Call subroutine
mov ah, 0x4C ; Terminate program
int 0x21

add_numbers:
add ax, bx ; Add BX to AX
ret ; Return to caller

2. Stacks
Definition: A stack is a FILO (First-In-Last-Out) data structure used to temporarily
store data such as return addresses, parameters, and registers.
Key Operations:
PUSH: Adds data to the stack.
POP: Removes data from the stack.

Code Example:
; Using the stack to save and restore a value
[org 0x0100]
start:
mov ax, 1234h ; Load value into AX
push ax ; Save AX to stack
mov ax, 5678h ; Load new value into AX
pop bx (1234h) ; Restore original AX value into BX
mov ah, 0x4C ; Terminate program
int 0x21
3. Algorithms
Bubble Sort
Definition: A sorting algorithm that repeatedly steps through the list, compares
adjacent elements, and swaps them if they are in the wrong order.
Code Example:
; [org 0x0100] ; Origin address for a COM program

data: dw 5, 3, 8, 4, 2, 0 ; Array to be sorted, terminated with a 0

start:
mov bx, data ; Load the starting address of the array into BX
mov cx, 5 ; Load the array size (number of elements) into CX

outer_loop:
mov si, 0 ; Initialize index (SI) to 0
mov byte [swap], 0 ; Reset swap flag to 0

inner_loop:
mov ax, [bx + si] ; Load the current element into AX
cmp ax, [bx + si + 2] ; Compare AX with the next element
jbe no_swap ; If AX <= next element, no swapping is needed

xchg ax, [bx + si + 2] ; Swap AX with the next element

no_swap:
add si, 2 ; Move to the next element (2 bytes per element)
cmp si, cx ; Check if we reached the end of the array
jne inner_loop ; If not, continue the inner loop

cmp byte [swap], 1 ; Check if any swaps were made

mov ah, 0x4C ; DOS interrupt to terminate the program

swap:
db 0 ; Swap flag (1 if a swap occurred, 0 otherwise)

Booth's Multiplication
Definition: A multiplication algorithm for signed binary numbers that uses arithmetic
shifts and additions to improve efficiency.
Code Example:
(Refer to Lecture 13 for algorithm logic and flowchart implementation in assembly.)
COAL Lecture 14
Display Memory
Definition: VGA text mode maps characters and their attributes to screen memory.
The base address is 0xB8000.
Code Example:
; Displaying 'A' at top-left corner
[org 0x0100]
start:
mov ax, 0xB800 ; VGA base address
mov es, ax
mov di, 0 ; Top-left corner
mov al, 'A' ; Character to display
mov ah, 0x07 ; White text on black background
mov [es:di], ax ; Write to VGA memory

mov ah, 0x4C

2. Number Printing
Definition: Converts binary numbers to ASCII for display.
Code Example:
; Printing a number
[org 0x0100]
number: dw 1234
start:
mov ax, [number]
mov bx, 10
convert:
xor dx, dx ; Clear DX
div bx ; Divide AX by 10
add dl, '0' ; Convert remainder to ASCII
push dx ; Push ASCII digit onto stack
test ax, ax ; Check if quotient is zero
jnz convert
print:
pop dx
; Add your logic to display DX
mov ah, 0x4C
int 0x21

COAL Lecture 15
1. Software Interrupts
Definition: Software interrupts (e.g., INT n) allow programs to call predefined
routines for system services.
Code Example:
; Using BIOS interrupt to print a character
[org 0x0100]
start:
mov ah, 0x0E ; BIOS teletype function
mov al, 'A' ; Character to display
int 0x10 ; Call BIOS interrupt
mov ah, 0x4C
int 0x21

COAL Lecture 16
1. Hardware Interrupts
Definition: Real-time interrupts triggered by external devices, like keyboards or
timers.
Code Example:
; Handling keyboard interrupts
[org 0x0100]
start:
in al, 0x60 ; Read key press from keyboard
mov [keybuffer], al
mov ah, 0x4C
int 0x21
keybuffer db ?

COAL Lecture 17
1. MIPS Architecture
Definition: A RISC-based architecture with load/store design principles and simple
instruction sets.
Code Example:
# MIPS Assembly: Adding two numbers
.data
num1: .word 5
num2: .word 3
result: .space 4
.text
main:
lw $t0, num1 # Load num1 into $t0
lw $t1, num2 # Load num2 into $t1
add $t2, $t0, $t1 # Add $t0 and $t1
sw $t2, result # Store result
li $v0, 10 # Exit
syscall
COAL Lecture 18
1. iAPX 88/188 Architecture
Definition: Intel 8088 and 80188 are 16-bit microprocessors with 8-bit external data
buses for cost efficiency.
Code Example:
; 8088 Data Movement Example
[org 0x0100]
start:
mov ax, 1234h ; Load value into AX
mov bx, ax ; Move AX to BX
mov ah, 0x4C
int 0x21