BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY

PROJECT

BLOOD - THE BODY FLUID

S.Mahmoud Nabil
XI – F
41455
INTERNATIONAL INDIAN SCHOOL,
RIYADH
 International Indian School, Riyadh

CERTIFICATE OF COMPLETION
This is to certify that Master S.MAHMOUD NABIL of Class
11-F of International Indian School, Riyadh has
successfully completed his Biology project file as per the
guidelines issued by CBSE In the academic year 2023-24.

He has taken proper care and shown utmost sincerity in

the completion of this project.

Signature of Internal Examiner Signature of External Examiner

 Acknowledgment

In the successful accomplishment of this project, many people have

bestowed upon me their blessings and guidance for which I would
like to thank and appreciate all those who have been concerned with
this project

Primarily , All praise is to Allah who granted me the ability for

completing this project and I pray to him that this project would be
successful.

Secondly , I feel grateful toward my parents for providing me

with the sufficient resources in completing this project without
facing any problem of lack of resources .

I also would like to thank my Biology teacher Mrs Anjana Ma’am

for being supportive , a guide and for furnishing me with the
knowledge throughout the journey of completing the project .

Finally , I am extremely thankful to my team who has put their

maximum effort and hardwork in the success of this project and was
very helpful to me in the making of this project .

Thank You
S.Mahmoud Nabil
 INDEX

Serial Page
No.
Topic no.
1 What is Blood? 1
1.1 Components Of blood 3
2 Blood Groups 15
2.1 Erythroblastosis Feotalis 18
3 Lymph 19
4 Coagulation Of Blood 20
5 Heart 21
5.1 Two chambered Heart 21
5.2 Three Chambered Heart 24
5.3 Four Chambered Heart 27
5.4 Sounds Produced In our Heart 33
5.5 Electrocardiograph ( ECG ) 34
6 Double Circulation 35
7 Regulation Of Cardiac Activity 38
8 Disorders Of Circulatory System 42
What is Blood?

-Blood, fluid that transports oxygen and nutrients to the cells and
carries away carbon dioxide and other waste products. Technically,
blood is a transport liquid pumped by the heart (or an equivalent
structure) to all parts of the body, after which it is returned to the
heart to repeat the process.

-Blood is both a tissue and a fluid. It is a tissue because it is a

collection of similar specialized cells that serve particular functions.
These cells are suspended in a liquid matrix (plasma), which makes
the blood a fluid. If blood flow ceases, death will occur within minutes
because of the effects of an unfavourable environment on highly
susceptible cells.

-The constancy of the composition of the blood is made possible by

the circulation, which conveys blood through the organs that
regulate the concentrations of its components. In the lungs, blood
acquires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide transported from the
tissues.

Page 1 of 46
-Blood is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma. Plasma,
which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (92% by
volume), and contains proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones,
carbon dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product
transportation), and blood cells themselves. Albumin is the main
protein in plasma, and it functions to regulate the colloidal osmotic
pressure of blood.[citation needed] The blood cells are mainly red
blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes), white blood cells (also
called WBCs or leukocytes), and in mammals platelets (also called
thrombocytes). The most abundant cells in vertebrate blood are red
blood cells. These contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein,
which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this
respiratory gas thereby increasing its solubility in blood. In contrast,
carbon dioxide is mostly transported extracellularly as bicarbonate
ion transported in plasma.

-In Humans,Vertebrate blood is bright red when its hemoglobin is

oxygenated and dark red when it is deoxygenated but blood isnt red
in all organisms as in spiders, crusteaceans the colour of blood is blue
and some organisms have purple or even green blood.This different
coulouring of blood is due to the different pigment being used for the
transport of oxygen through blood.

Page 2 of 46
Components of blood:-
-In humans, blood is an opaque red fluid, freely
flowing but denser and more viscous than water.
Blood is mainly made up of 2 components
Plasma
Formed elements

*Plasma:-
The liquid portion of the blood, the plasma, is a complex solution
containing more than 90 percent water. The water of the plasma is
freely exchangeable with that of body cells and other extracellular
fluids and is available to maintain the normal state of hydration of all
tissues.
The major solute of plasma is a group of proteins constituting about 7
percent of the plasma by weight.
The main difference between the plasma and the extracellular fluid of
the tissues is the high protein content of the plasma. Plasma protein
exerts an osmotic effect by which water tends to move from other
extracellular fluid to the plasma.
Most of the protein of plasma is produced in the liver.
One of the major plasma protein is serum albumin, a relatively small
molecule, the principal function of which is to retain water in the
bloodstream by its osmotic effect. Depletion of serum albumin permits
fluid to leave the circulation and to accumulate and cause swelling of
soft tissues (edema).

Page 3 of 46
* FORMED ELEMENTS:-
-There are three major types of blood cells:
Erythrocytes
Leukocytes
Platelets

1. Erthrocytes :-
The red blood cells are highly specialized, well adapted for their
primary function of transporting oxygen from the lungs to all of the
body tissues. Red cells are approximately 7.8 μm in diameter and have
the form of biconcave disks, a shape that provides a large surface-to-
volume ratio.
In humans, the volume of packed red cells (hematocrit value) ranges
between 42 and 54 percent of total volume in men and between 37 and
47 percent in women.
The normal red cell count ranges between four million and six million
per cubic millimetre.
The red blood cell is enclosed in a thin membrane that is composed of
chemically complex lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates in a highly
organized structure. The membrane is freely permeable to water,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, glucose, urea, and certain other substances,
but it is impermeable to hemoglobin.
The membrane of the red cell has on its surface a group of molecules
that confer blood group specificity (i.e., that differentiate blood cells
into groups). Using this we classify blood into different groups

Page 4 of 46
Haemoglobin
About 95 percent of the dry weight of the red blood cell consists
of hemoglobin, the substance necessary for oxygen transport.
Hemoglobin is a protein; a molecule contains four polypeptide
chains (a tetramer), each chain consisting of more than 140 amino
acids.
This are irons atoms present in the heamoglobin, these iron atoms
can reversibly bind oxygen as the blood travels between the lungs
and the tissues.
There are four iron atoms in each molecule of hemoglobin, which,
accordingly, can bind four atoms of oxygen.
Oxygen binds easily and quickly to heamoglobin because the
affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is so great that at the oxygen
pressure in the lungs about 95 percent of the hemoglobin is
saturated with oxygen.
The affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is primarily determined by
the structure of hemoglobin, but it is also influenced by other
conditions within the red cell, in particular the pH and certain
organic phosphate compounds produced during the chemical
breakdown of glucose, especially 2,3-biphosphoglycerate.
Hemoglobin has a much higher affinity for carbon monoxide than
for oxygen, because of this carbon monoxide is extremly lethal to
human and other vertebrates.Carbon monoxide produces its
lethal effects by binding to hemoglobin and preventing oxygen
transport.

STRUCTURE
OF
HEAMOGLOBIN

Page 5 of 46
Formation of R.B.C
(erythropoiesis):-
Red cells are produced continuously in the marrow of certain
bones. As stated above, in adults the principal sites of red cell
production, called erythropoiesis, are the marrow spaces of the
vertebrae, ribs, breastbone, and pelvis.
Within the bone marrow the red cell is derived from a primitive
precursor, or erythroblast, a nucleated cell in which there is no
hemoglobin. Proliferation occurs as a result of several successive
cell divisions. During maturation, hemoglobin appears in the cell,
and the nucleus becomes progressively smaller. After a few days
the cell loses its nucleus and is then introduced into the
bloodstream in the vascular channels of the marrow.
Almost 1 percent of the red cells are generated each day, and the
balance between red cell production and the removal of aging
red cells from the circulation is precisely maintained.
When blood is lost from the circulation, the erythropoietic
activity of marrow increases until the normal number of
circulating cells has been restored
In a normal adult the red cells of about half a litre (almost one
pint) of blood are produced by the bone marrow every week.
A number of nutrient substances are required for this process.
Some nutrients are the building blocks of which the red cells are
composed.
For example, amino acids are needed in abundance for the
construction of the proteins of the red cell, in particular of
hemoglobin. Iron also is a necessary component of hemoglobin.
Approximately one-quarter of a gram of iron is needed for the
production of a pint of blood.
The secretions of several endocrine glands influence red cell
production. If there is an inadequate supply of thyroid hormone,
erythropoiesis is retarded and anemia appears. The male sex
hormone, testosterone, stimulates red cell production; for this
reason, red cell counts of men are higher than those of women.

Page 6 of 46
The capacity of the bone marrow to produce red cells is
enormous. When stimulated to peak activity and when provided
adequately with nutrient substances, the marrow can
compensate for the loss of several pints of blood per week.
Hemorrhage or accelerated destruction of red cells leads to
enhanced marrow activity. The marrow can increase its
production of red cells up to eight times the usual rate. After
that, if blood loss continues, anemia develops.
The rate of erythropoiesis is sensitive to the oxygen tension of
the arterial blood. When oxygen tension falls, more red cells are
produced and the red cell count rises. For this reason, persons
who live at high altitude have higher red cell counts than those
who live at sea level.
The rate of production of erythrocytes is controlled by the
hormone erythropoietin, which is produced largely in the
kidneys.
This substance is then transported through the plasma to the
bone marrow, where it accelerates the production of red cells.

Erythropoiesis

Page 7 of 46
2. Leukocyte:-
Leukocytes or white blood cells, unlike red cells, are nucleated and
independently motile. Highly differentiated for their specialized
functions, they do not undergo cell division (mitosis) in the
bloodstream.
As a group they are involved in the body’s defense mechanisms and
reparative activity. The number of white cells in normal blood
ranges between 4,500 and 11,000 per cubic millimetre, fluctuation
in the numbers occur, lower values are obtained during rest and
higher values during exercise.
Most of the white cells are outside the circulation, and the few in
the bloodstream are in transit from one site to another. As living
cells, their survival depends on their continuous production of
energy.
The chemical pathways utilized are more complex than those of the
red cells and are similar to those of other tissue cells. White cells,
containing a nucleus and able to produce ribonucleic acid (RNA),
can synthesize protein.
They comprise five classes, they are:-

1. Nuetrophils
2. Eosinophils
3. Basophils
4. Monocytes
5. Lymphocytes

Page 8 of 46
Nuetrophils:-
The neutrophils are fairly uniform in size, ranging between 12 and 15 μm
in diameter.
Neutrophils move with amoeboid motion. Meaning they extend long
projections called pseudopodium into which their granules flow; this
action is followed by contraction of filaments based in the cytoplasm,
which draws the nucleus and rear of the cell forward.
The bone marrow of a normal adult produces about 100 billion
neutrophils daily.
It takes about one week to form a mature neutrophil from a precursor
cell in the marrow; yet, once in the blood, the mature cells live only a
few hours or perhaps a little longer after migrating to the tissues.
To guard against rapid depletion of the short-lived neutrophils (for
example, during infection), the bone marrow holds a large number of
them in reserve to be mobilized in response to inflammation or
infection.
Of the 100 billion neutrophils circulating outside the bone marrow, half
are in the tissues and half are in the blood vessels. Of those in the blood
vessels, half are within the mainstream of rapidly circulating blood, and
the other half move slowly along the inner walls of the blood vessels
(marginal pool), ready to enter tissues on receiving a chemotactic signal
from them.
Neutrophils are actively phagocytic; they engulf bacteria and other
microorganisms and microscopic particles.
The granules of the neutrophil are microscopic packets of potent
enzymes capable of digesting many types of cellular materials.
When a bacterium is engulfed by a neutrophil, it is encased in a vacuole
lined by the invaginated membrane. The granules discharge their
contents into the vacuole containing the organism. As this occurs, the
granules of the neutrophil are depleted . A metabolic process within the
granules produces hydrogen peroxide and a highly active form of
oxygen , which destroy the ingested bacteria. Final digestion of the
invading organism is accomplished by enzymes.

Page 9 of 46
Eosinophils:-
Eosinophils, like other granulocytes, are produced in the bone
marrow until they are released into the circulation
Although about they are about the same size as neutrophils, the
eosinophils contains larger granules, and the chromatin is generally
concentrated in only two nonsegmented lobes.
Eosinophils leave the circulation within hours of release from the
marrow and migrate into the tissues but through the lymph channels.
They are actively motile and phagocytic.
Eosinophils are involved in defense against parasites, and they
participate in hypersensitivity and inflammatory reactions, primarily
by dampening their destructive effects.

Basophils:-
Basophils are the least numerous of the granulocytes, and their large
granules almost completely hide the underlying double-lobed
nucleus.
Within hours of their release from the bone marrow, basophils
migrate from the circulation to the barrier tissues (e.g., the skin and
mucosa), where they synthesize and store histamine, a natural
modulator of the inflammatory response.
Basophils incite immediate hypersensitivity reactions in association
with platelets, macrophages, and neutrophils.

Page 10 of 46
Monocytes:-
Monocytes are the largest cells of the blood (averaging 15–18 μm in
diameter), and they make up about 7 percent of the leukocytes. The
nucleus is relatively big and tends to be indented or folded rather than
multilobed
The cytoplasm contains large numbers of fine granules, which often
appear to be more numerous near the cell membrane.
Monocytes are actively motile and phagocytic. They are capable of
ingesting infectious agents as well as red cells and other large
particles, but they cannot replace the function of the neutrophils in
the removal and destruction of bacteria.
Monocytes usually enter areas of inflamed tissue later than the
granulocytes, so they are often they are found at sites of chronic
infections.
In the bone marrow, granulocytes and monocytes arise from a
common precursor under the influence of the granulocyte-
macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Monocytes leave the bone
marrow and circulate in the blood.
After a period of hours, the monocytes enter the tissues, where they
develop into macrophages, the tissue phagocytes that constitute the
reticuloendothelial system (or macrophage system).
Apart from their role as scavengers, macrophages play a key role in
immunity by ingesting antigens and processing them so that they can
be recognized as foreign substances by lymphocytes.

Page 11 of 46
Lymphocytes:-
Lymphocytes constitute about 28–42 percent of the white cells of
the blood, and they are part of the immune response to foreign
substances in the body.
Most lymphocytes are small, only slightly larger than erythrocytes,
with a nucleus that occupies most of the cell.
Lymphocytes are sluggishly motile, and their paths of migration
outside of the bloodstream are different from those of granulocytes
and monocytes.
Lymphocytes are found in large numbers in the lymph nodes, spleen,
thymus, tonsils, and lymphoid tissue of the gastrointestinal tract.
Dueto the low motility of the lymphocytes, they enter the circulation
through lymphatic channels that drain principally into the thoracic
lymph duct, which has a connection with the venous system.
Their average lifespans is usually between a week to few months but
some even live upto a few years.
The lymphocytes regulate or participate in the acquired immunity to
foreign cells and antigens.
They are responsible for immunologic reactions to invading
organisms, foreign cells such as those of a transplanted organ, and
foreign proteins and other antigens not necessarily derived from
living cells.
A primary function of lymphocytes is to protect the body from
foreign microbes.
All lymphocytes begin their development in the bone marrow.
They are two divisions of this :-

1. B-lymphocytes:-
The B lymphocytes (or B cells) are involved in what is called humoral
immunity.
Upon encountering a foreign substance (or antigen), the B
lymphocyte differentiates into a plasma cell, which secretes
immunoglobulin (antibodies).
The B lymphocytes mature partly in the bone marrow until they are
released into the circulation. Further differentiation of B
lymphocytes occurs in lymphoid tissues (spleen or lymph nodes),
most notably on stimulation by a foreign antigen.

Page 12 of 46
2. T-Lymphocytes:
The second class of lymphocytes, the T lymphocytes (or T cells), are
involved in regulating the antibody-forming function of B
lymphocytes as well as in directly attacking foreign antigens.
T lymphocytes participate in what is called the cell-mediated
immune response. T lymphocytes also participate in the rejection of
transplanted tissues and in certain types of allergic reactions.
The precursors of the T lymphocytes migrate from the marrow to the
thymus, where they differentiate under the influence of a hormone
like substance.
The T lymphocytes can recognize and respond only to antigens that
appear on cell membranes in association with other molecules
called major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens.
The latter are glycoproteins that present the antigen in a form that
can be recognized by T lymphocytes.
T-lymphocytes are responsible for continuous surveillance of cell
surfaces for the presence of foreign antigens.
Two classes of T lymphocytes can be involved in the response to
those cell-associated viral antigens:
Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, which destroy the cells by a lytic
mechanism, and helper T-lymphocytes, which assist B cells to
produce antibodies against the microbial antigens.
Helper T lymphocytes exert their influence on B lymphocytes
through several hormonelike peptides termed interleukins.
Interleukin-1, produced by macrophages, is a peptide that
stimulates T lymphocytes and that also acts on the hypothalamus in
the brain to produce fever.

Page 13 of 46
3. Platelets:-
The blood platelets are the smallest cells of the blood, averaging
about 2 to 4 μm in diameter.
Although much more numerous (150,000 to 400,000 per cubic
millimetre) than the white cells, they occupy a much smaller fraction
of the volume of the blood because of their relatively minute size.
Like the red cells, they lack a nucleus and are incapable of cell division
(mitosis), but they have a more complex metabolism and internal
structure than have the red cells.
When seen in fresh blood they appear spheroid, but they have a
tendency to extrude hairlike filaments from their membranes.
Tiny granules within platelets contain substances important for the
clot-promoting activity of platelets.
The function of the platelets is prevention and control of bleeding.
When the endothelial surface (lining) of a blood vessel is injured,
platelets in large numbers immediately attach to the injured surface
and to each other, forming a tenaciously adherent mass of platelets.
The effect of the platelet response is to stop the bleeding and to form
the site of the developing blood clot, or thrombus.
The normal resistance of capillary membranes to leakage of red cells
is dependent upon platelets.
Platelets also contribute substances essential for the normal
coagulation of the blood, and they cause the shrinking, or retraction,
of a clot after it has been formed.
After about 10 days in the circulation, platelets are removed and
destroyed. There are no reserve stores of platelets except in the
spleen, in which platelets occur in higher concentration than in the
peripheral blood.
A hormone like substance called thrombopoietin is believed to be the
chemical mediator that regulates the number of platelets in the blood
by stimulating an increase in the number and growth of
megakaryocytes, thus controlling the rate of platelet production.

Page 14 of 46
- Blood type
A blood type (also known as a blood group) is a classification of
blood, based on the presence and absence of antibodies and
inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells
(RBCs). These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates,
glycoproteins, or glycolipids, depending on the blood group system.
Some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types
of cells of various tissues.

There are two types of Blood grouping system:

ABO blood group system
Rh blood group system

Page 15 of 46
- ABO blood group system
The ABO blood group system involves two antigens and two
antibodies found in human blood. The two antigens are antigen A and
antigen B. The two antibodies are antibody A and antibody B. The
antigens are present on the red blood cells and the antibodies in the
serum. Regarding the antigen property of the blood all human beings
can be classified into four groups, those with antigen A (group A),
those with antigen B (group B), those with both antigen A and B
(group AB) and those with neither antigen (group O).
The antibodies present together with the antigens are found as
follows:
Antigen A with antibody B
Antigen B with antibody A
Antigen AB with neither antibody A nor B
Antigen null (group O) with both antibody A and B

- Phenotype and genotype of blood types

I -Dominant trait
i -Recessive trait

Page 16 of 46
- Rh blood group system
The Rh system (Rh meaning Rhesus) is the second most significant
blood-group system in human-blood transfusion with currently 50
antigens. The most significant Rh antigen is the D antigen, because
it is the most likely to provoke an immune system response of the
five main Rh antigens. It is common for D-negative individuals not to
have any anti-D IgG or IgM antibodies, because anti-D antibodies
are not usually produced by sensitization against environmental
substances. However, D-negative individuals can produce IgG anti-
D antibodies following a sensitizing event: possibly a fetomaternal
transfusion of blood from a fetus in pregnancy or occasionally a
blood transfusion with D positive RBCs. Rh disease can develop in
these cases. Rh negative blood types are much less common in
Asian populations (0.3%) than they are in European populations
(15%).
The presence or absence of the Rh(D) antigen is signified by the +
or − sign, so that, for example, the A− group is ABO type A and does
not have the Rh (D) antigen.

- Blood transfusion
There is an agglutination reaction between similar antigen and
antibody (for example, antigen A agglutinates the antibody A and
antigen B agglutinates the antibody B). Thus, transfusion can be
considered safe as long as the serum of the recipient does not
contain antibodies for the blood cell antigens of the donor.
The ABO system is the most important blood-group system in
human-blood transfusion. The associated anti-A and anti-B
antibodies are usually immunoglobulin M, abbreviated IgM,
antibodies. It has been hypothesized that ABO IgM antibodies are
produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental
substances such as food, bacteria, and viruses, although blood
group compatibility rules are applied to newborn and infants as a
matter of practice. The original terminology used by Karl
Landsteiner in 1901 for the classification was A/B/C; in later
publications "C" became "O". Type O is often called 0 (zero, or null)
in other languages.
Page 17 of 46
- Erythroblastosis Fetalis
The adult human body is home to trillions of red blood cells, also
known as RBCs or erythrocytes. These blood cells carry oxygen, iron,
and many other nutrients to the appropriate places in the body.
A special case of Rh incompatibility (mismatching)has been observed
between the Rh-ve blood of a pregnant mother withRh+ve blood of
the foetus. Rh antigens of the foetus do not get exposed to the Rh-ve
blood of the mother in the first pregnancy as the two bloods are well
separated by the placenta. However, during the delivery of the first
child, there is a possibility of exposure of the maternal blood to small
amounts of the Rh+ve blood from the foetus. In such cases, the
mother starts preparing antibodies against Rh antigen in her blood. In
case of her subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from the
mother (Rh-ve) can leak into the blood of the foetus (Rh+ve) and
destroy the foetal RBCs.This could be fatal to the foetus or could
cause severe anaemia and jaundice to the baby
This condition is highly preventable and the typical, severe form is
now very rare in developed countries. Catching it early can ensure a
successful pregnancy for mother and child. If left untreated, however,
it can be life threatening for the baby.
Erythroblastosis fetalis is now known as hemolytic disease of the
newborn.

- How is erythroblastosis fetalis diagnosed?

Page 18 of 46
 To diagnose erythroblastosis fetalis, a doctor will order a routine
blood test during the first prenatal visit. They’ll test for the blood
type.
The test will also help them determine whether they have anti-Rh
antibodies in their blood from a previous pregnancy.
The fetus’s blood type is rarely tested. It’s difficult to test for a
fetus’s blood type and doing so can increase the risk for
complications.

- Lymph:-
Lymph is the fluid that flows through the lymphatic system, a system
composed of lymph vessels (channels) and intervening lymph nodes
whose function, like the venous system, is to return fluid from the
tissues to be recirculated. At the origin of the fluid-return process,
interstitial fluid—the fluid between the cells in all body tissues[2]—
enters the lymph capillaries. This lymphatic fluid is then transported
via progressively larger lymphatic vessels through lymph nodes,
where substances are removed by tissue lymphocytes and circulating
lymphocytes are added to the fluid, before emptying ultimately into
the right or the left subclavian vein, where it mixes with central
venous blood. Because it is derived from
interstitial fluid, with which blood and
surrounding cells continually exchange
substances, lymph undergoes continual
change in composition. It is generally
similar to blood plasma, which is the
fluid component of blood. Lymph returns
proteins and excess interstitial fluid to
the bloodstream. Lymph also transports
fats from the digestive system.

Page 19 of 46
- Coagulation of blood:-
Blood exhibits coagulation or clotting in response to an injury or
trauma. This is a mechanism to prevent excessive loss of blood from
the body coagulam formed mainly of a network of threads called
fibrins in which dead and damaged formed elements of blood are
trapped. Fibrins are formed by the conversion of inactive fibrinogens
in the plasma by the enzyme thrombin. Thrombins, in turn are
formed from another inactive substance present in the plasma
called prothrombin. An enzyme complex, thrombokinase, is required
for the above reaction. This complex is formed by a series of linked
enzymic reactions (cascade process) involving a number of factors
present in the plasma in an inactive state. An injury or a trauma
stimulates the platelets in the blood to release certain factors which
activate the mechanism of coagulation. Certain factors released by
the tissues at the site of injury also can initiate coagulation. Calcium
ions play a very important role in clotting.

Page 20 of 46
HEART:-

- INTRODUCTION TO HEART:-
The functions of the heart are to pump blood and oxygen around
the body and deliver waste products (carbon dioxide) back to the
lungs to be removed
The heart is made up of multiple chambers based on the
organism, for example, the heart in fish are two chambers,
containing an atrium and an ventricle. The blood flows through
the heart of a fish only once during an circulation, known as
single circulation.
Whereas in humans the blood flows through the heart twice
during an single circulation and hence is know as double
circulation

- TWO CHAMBERED HEART:-

- INTRODUCTION:-
Two-chambered hearts have a single ventricle and a single
atrium. Blood enters the heart via the atrium and is moved to the
ventricle. The ventricle pumps, and the blood is sent to a
respiratory structure to pick up oxygen. From here, the blood
does not return to the heart.
Fish have two chambered hearts , one atrium and one ventricle to
pump the blood throughout the body
Atrium in the fish heart has thick walls that send the blood to
ventricles. Ventricles then pump the blood into the outflow tract
as it has thick and muscular walls. Shape of the ventricle in fish is
tubular with an elongated body and has a triangular base in other
organisms

Page 21 of 46
- Single circulation in fishes:-
A single circulatory system serves all fish. Blood only passes
through the heart once in a single circulatory system, completing
a full circuit through the body of the fish. The exchange of gases
occurs in the gills, where the blood goes from the heart (carbon
dioxide is released and oxygen is absorbed). The body's numerous
organs receive oxygenated blood from the gills, which then
returns to the heart via these organs. In single circulation, blood
flows through the heart only once.

- Main Features of Single Circulation

In single circulation, blood only travels
once to the heart for every circuit of the
body.
A single circulatory system is present
only in those animals who have two-
chambered or three-chambered hearts.
In single circulation, only deoxygenated
blood goes to the heart.

Page 22 of 46
- CHARACTERISTICS:-
Two chambered hearts are the heart which have one atrium and
one ventricle to pump the blood.
Fish have two chambered hearts , one atrium and one ventricle to
pump the blood throughout the body.
Atrium and ventricle are defined as true chambers whereas others
are considered as accessory chambers.

- ADVANTAGES:-
Two chambered hearts are the heart which have one atrium and
one ventricle to pump the blood.
Fish have two chambered hearts , one atrium and one ventricle to
pump the blood throughout the body.
Atrium and ventricle are defined as true chambers whereas
others are considered as accessory chambers.

Important Questions
1. Do arteries carry only oxygenated blood ?
Ans: Yes, all arteries carry oxygenated blood, but there is one exception:
the pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries deoxygenated
blood.

2. Write the names of organisms exhibiting single circulation?

Ans: Single circulation occurs in fishes, reptiles, and other organisms.

3. Is single circulation open or closed?

Ans: Single circulation is a closed type of circulation.

4. How many chambers are in the heart of an animal with single

circulation? two-chambered?
Ans: Two chambers

Page 23 of 46
- THREE CHAMBERED HEART:-

- INTRODUCTION:-
A heart with three chambers is designed for amphibians, who can
absorb oxygen through their skin. With the exception of
crocodiles, which have a four-chambered heart, all reptiles have a
three-chambered heart with two atria and one ventricle. The right
atrium receives deoxygenated blood.
Amphibians have a 3-chambered heart because they are more-
evolved than fishes, which only have a 2-chambered heart, but
not as evolved as birds and mammals, which have four-
chambered hearts.
Amphibians can compensate for the inefficiencies of a three-
chambered heart (the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood in the one ventricle) by breathing through their moist skin.

- CIRCULATION IN THREE CHAMBERED HEART:-

Deoxygenated blood returning from the body empties into the

right atrium. From there, blood is conducted to the ventricle and
is then pumped to the lungs. After picking up oxygen and getting
rid of carbon dioxide in the lungs, blood returns to the heart and
empties into the left atrium.
Cold blooded animals like amphibians and reptiles such as snakes
have double circulation in a three chambered heart which has two
atria and one ventricle
Some animals have three chambered heart because these animals
have a slower metabolism rate and hence, they require a lower
amount of oxygen per liter of blood to be delivered to the body.

Page 24 of 46
-DIAGRAM OF THREE CHAMBERED HEART

- ADVANTAGES

Requiring less oxygen puts less demands on the heart to

deliver blood of high oxygen concentration. So a heart with
three chambers is ideal for the needs of amphibians who
could also absorb oxygen through their skin when moist.
Amphibians have a 3-chambered heart, which provides
some separation of blood coming from the lungs and blood
coming from the body. While there are two atria, there is
one common ventricle, in which some (but not total) mixing
of oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood occurs.

Page 25 of 46
- DISADVANTAGES
Three-chambered heart: Some amount of mixing of oxygenated
blood and deoxygenated blood occurs in organisms with a three-
chambered heart as they have two atria and only one common
ventricle.

- CHARACTERISTICS

Disadvantage of three-chambered heart: Some amount of mixing of

oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood occurs in organisms
with a three-chambered heart as they have two atria and only one
common ventricle.

Page 26 of 46
- Four Chambered Heart

Some hearts have 4 chambers in them and theses kind of hearts are
known as four Chambered heart.

1. Two relatively small upper chambers called Atria and

2. Two larger lower chambers called ventricles .

These divisions of heart into chambers helps in keeping the

deoxygenated blood and oxygenated blood separate .
This type of 4 chambered heart is seen in Mammals and birds (warm-
blooded animals) because they have to maintain a constant body
temperature.

Page 27 of 46
- Human Circulatory system
Human circulatory system, also called the blood vascular system
consists of a muscular chambered heart, a network of closed
branching blood vessels and blood .

- Heart
Heart, the mesodermally derived organ, is situated in the thoracic
cavity, in between the two lungs, slightly tilted to the left. It has the
size of a clenched fist. It is protected by a double walled
membranous bag, pericardium, enclosing the pericardial fluid.
Our heart is made up of 3 layers of tissue: epicardium , myocardium
and endocardium.

Page 28 of 46
- Heart Anatomy
The heart has two sides, separated by an inner wall called the
septum. The right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs to pick
up oxygen. The left side of the heart receives the oxygen-rich blood
from the lungs and pumps it to the body.

Heart Chambers:-

- Our heart has four chambers.

The two upper chambers are called atria (left atrium and right atrium)
and the two lower chambers are called ventricles ( left ventricle and
right ventricle).

Heart Valves:-

- Four valves control the flow of blood from the atria to the ventricles
and from the ventricles into the two large arteries connected to the
heart. These one-way valves have either two or three tissue flaps
called leaflets that act as doors that open and close to ensure that
blood flows only in the proper direction

Right Side:-
- The tricuspid valve allows blood to move from the right atrium into
the right ventricle.
The pulmonary valve allows blood to move from the right ventricle to
the lungs to oxygen.

Left Side:-
- The mitral valve/bicuspid valve allows blood to move from the left
atrium into the left ventricle.
The aortic valve allows blood to move out of the left ventricle into
the aorta and then to the rest of the body.

Page 29 of 46
 Veins:-

- The veins are major blood vessels connected to our heart.

The pulmonary artery carries blood from the side of the heart to
the lungs to pick up a fresh supply of oxygen.
- The aorta is the main artery that carries oxygen rich blood from
our heart to the rest of our body.
- The coronary arteries are the other important arteries attached
to the heart. They carry oxygen rich blood from the aorta to the
heart muscle, which must have its own blood supply to function.

Heart Conduction System:-

-An electrical conduction system regulates the pumping of the
heart and timing of contraction of various chambers. Heart
muscle contracts in response to the electrical stimulus received ,
the system generates electrical impulses and conducts them
throughout the muscle of the heart, stimulating the heart to
contract and pump blood.

Sinus node:-
- The sinus node is the heart's natural pacemaker.
The sinus node is a cluster of cells situated in the upper part of the
wall of the right atrium.The electrical impulses are generated there.
The sinus node is also called the sinoatrial node.

Atrio-Ventricular Node:-
- The electrical signal generated by the sinus node moves from cell to
cell down through the heart until it reaches the atrioventricular node
(the AV node), a cluster of cells situated in the center of the heart
between the atria and ventricles.
- The AV node serves as a gate that slows the electrical current before
the signal is permitted to pass down through to the ventricles.This
delay ensures that the atria have a chance to fully contract before the
ventricles are stimulated.
- After passing the AV node, the electrical current travels to the
ventricles along special fibres embedded in the walls of the lower part
of the heart.

Page 30 of 46
 Autonomic Nerves:-

-The autonomic nervous system (the same part of the nervous system
as controls the blood pressure) controls the firing of the sinus node
to trigger the start of the cardiac cycle.
-sinus
The autonomic nervous system can transmit a message quickly to the
node so it in turn can increase the heart rate to twice normal
within only 3 to 5 seconds.
-toThisincrease
quick response is important during exercise when the heart has
its beating speed to keep up with the body's increased
demand for oxygen.

- Functioning Of Heart [ Cardiac Cycle ]

To begin with, all the four chambers of heart are in a relaxed state,
i.e., they are in joint diastole. As the tricuspid and bicuspid valves
are open, blood from the pulmonary veins and vena cava flows into
the left and the right ventricle respectively through the left and
right atria. The semilunar valves are closed at this stage. The SAN
now generates an action potential which stimulates both the atria
to undergo a simultaneous contraction – the atrial systole. This
increases the flow of blood into the ventricles by about 30 per
cent. The action potential is conducted to the ventricular side by
the AVN and AV bundle from where the bundle of His transmits it
through the entire ventricular musculature. This causes the
ventricular muscles to contract, (ventricular systole), the atria
undergoes relaxation (diastole), coinciding with the ventricular
systole. Ventricular systole increases the ventricular pressure
causing the closure of tricuspid and bicuspid valves due to
attempted backflow of blood into the atria. As the ventricular
pressure increases further, the semilunar valves guarding the
pulmonary artery (right side) and the aorta (left side) are forced
open, allowing the blood in the ventricles to flow through these
vessels into the circulatory pathways. The ventricles now relax

Page 31 of 46
(ventricular diastole) and the ventricular pressure falls causing the
closure of semilunar valves which prevents the backflow of blood
into the ventricles. As the ventricular pressure declines
further,the(ventricular diastole) and the ventricular pressure falls
causing the closure of semilunar valves which prevents the
backflow of blood into the ventricles. As the ventricular pressure
declines further, tricuspid and bicuspid valves are pushed open by
the pressure in the atria exerted by the blood which was being
emptied into them by the veins. The blood now once again moves
freely to the ventricles. The ventricles and atria are now again in a
relaxed (joint diastole) state, as earlier. Soon the SAN generates a
new action potential and the events described above are repeated
in that sequence and the process continues.

This sequential event in the heart which is cyclically repeated is

called the cardiac cycle and it consists of systole and diastole of
both the atria and ventricles. As mentioned earlier, the heart beats
72 times per minute, i.e., that many cardiac cycles are performed
per minute. From this it could be deduced that the duration of a
cardiac cycle is 0.8 seconds. During a cardiac cycle, each ventricle
pumps out approximately 70 mL of blood which is called the stroke
volume. The stroke volume multiplied by the heart rate (no. of
beats per min.) gives the cardiac output. Therefore, the cardiac
output can be defined as the volume of blood pumped out by each
ventricle per minute and averages 5000 mL or 5 litres in a healthy
individual. The body has the ability to alter the stroke volume as
well as the heart rate and thereby the cardiac output. For example,
the cardiac output of an athlete will be much higher than that of an
ordinary man.

Page 32 of 46
- Sounds Produced in our Heart
Heart sounds are generated by blood flowing in and out of the
heart’s chambers through the valves as they open and close.
Listening to the heart sounds through a stethoscope (auscultation) is
one of the first steps a physician takes in evaluating a patient’s
medical condition.
The cardiac cycle is made of two phases:

1. Systole while the ventricles contract to pump out blood

2. Diastole when the ventricles relax and fill with blood
These two phases constitute the heartbeat.
In a healthy adult, the heart makes two sounds, commonly described
as ‘lub’ and ‘dub’ by closing of tricuspid valve and bicuspid valve.
The third and fourth sounds may be heard in some healthy people,
but can indicate impairment of the heart function. S1 and S2 are
high-pitched and S3 and S4 are low-pitched sounds.

First sound:-
When the two ventricles contract and pump out blood into the aorta
and pulmonary artery the mitral and tricuspid valves close to prevent
the blood flowing back into the atria. The first sound S1 is generated
by vibrations created by the closing of these two valves. Normally the
mitral valve closes just before the tricuspid valve, and when the two
different sounds are detectable, it is called a “split S1.” A split S1 may
be indicative of certain conditions affecting the heart.

Second sound:-
After pumping the blood, the ventricles relax to receive blood from
the atria, and the diastole phase starts. The aortic and pulmonic
valves close and cause vibrations, giving rise to the second heart
sound, S2. The increase in intensity of this sound may indicate certain
conditions. When the aortic valve closes just before the pulmonic
valve, it may generate a split S2. This may indicate impairment in the
heart function.

Page 33 of 46
 Third sound:-
The third heart sound is a low-pitched sound audible with the rapid
rush of blood from the atrium into the ventricle as it starts relaxing.
This may be a normal sound in some people but in people with heart
conditions, S3 may indicate heart failure .

Fourth sound:-
The fourth is a low-intensity sound heard just before S1 in the cardiac
cycle. The sudden slowing of blood flow by the ventricle as the atrium
contracts causes this sound, which may be a sign of heart disease

- Electrocardiograph ( ECG )

Electrocardiography is the process of producing an

electrocardiogram (ECG ) , a recording of the heart's electrical
activity through repeated cardiac cycles.[4] It is an electrogram of
the heart which is a graph of voltage versus time of the electrical
activity of the heart using electrodes placed on the skin.

Page 34 of 46
 Each peak in the ECG is identified with a letter from P to T that
corresponds to a specific electrical activity of the heart. The P-wave
represents the electrical excitation (or depolarisation) of the atria,
which leads to the contraction of both the atria. The QRS complex
represents the depolarisation of the ventricles, which initiates the
ventricular contraction. The contraction starts shortly after Q and
marks the beginning of the systole. The T-wave represents the return
of the ventricles from excited to normal state (repolarisation). The
end of the T-wave marks the end of systole. Obviously, by counting
the number of QRS complexes that occur in a given time period, one
can determine the heart beat rate of an individual. Since the ECGs
obtained from different individuals have roughly the same shape for
a given lead configuration, any deviation from this shape indicates a
possible abnormality or disease. Hence, it is of a great clinical
significance.

- Double Circulation

Page 35 of 46
 The double circulatory system definition is a system where blood
passes through the heart twice for every complete circuit of the
body. The circulatory system made up of two pathways: the
pulmonary and systemic circuits. Unlike fish, other organisms’ hearts
use a double circulatory system.

- Pulmonary Circuit
Deoxygenated blood begins in the right atrium. Before blood can be
pumped around the body, it needs to be pumped to the lungs to get
oxygenated.
The deoxygenated blood is pumped out the right ventricle. The
deoxygenated blood in the right atrium is pumped into the right
ventricle. From here is is pumped into the pulmonary circuit through
the pulmonary artery.
The lungs oxygenate the blood. The pulmonary circuit carries the
blood to the lungs where it is oxygenated (via gas exchange).
The oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium. Then the
oxygenated blood is carried back to the heart via the pulmonary
vein.

- Systemic Circuit
The oxygenated blood is ready to be pumped around the body. The
oxygenated blood returns from the pulmonary circuit, and passes
into the left atrium, then into the left ventricle.The oxygenated blood
can now be pumped around the body in the systemic circuit.
The oxygenated blood is pumped out of the left ventricle. From the
left ventricle it is pumped out into the aorta, and is carried around
the body.
The blood gives oxygen to body cells. The blood unloads oxygen and
gives it to the body’s cells. The blood becomes deoxygenated as
oxygen is used up.
The deoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium. The vena cava
(veins) carry the blood (now deoxygenated) back to the heart, and
the cycle starts again.

Page 36 of 46
- Circulation to other organs
There are specific vessels for each organ that carry oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood to and from the organ as outlined below:

- Advantages of Double Circulatory System

Blood can be pumped faster around the body – this allows more
oxygen to be delivered to tissues for respiration and maintaining
their body temperatures.
Blood can be pumped around the body at a higher pressure – the
blood returning to the heart has already been loaded with oxygen so
the heart can pump the blood around the body immediately.

Page 37 of 46
- Regulation of Cardiac activity
The atrioventricular node (AV node) and sinoatrial node (SA node)
nodal tissues automatically control the normal action of the human
heart, which is why the heart is known as myogenic.
The autonomic nervous system regulates several physiological
processes (ANS). It enhances the heart’s pace and force of
contraction. It controls peripheral blood vessel resistance as well.
The autonomic nervous system’s sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions cooperate to maintain the body’s equilibrium. The cardiac
cycle helps the body’s blood flow throughout it. The cardiac cycle is
managed by two fundamental system.

1. Intrinsic regulation of cardiac activity.

2. Extrinsic regulation of cardiac activity.

Intrinsic Regulation:-
The SA-node , AV-node, and a group of His and Purkinje fibers are
all involved in the intrinsic regulation of heart rate. The cardiac
cycle is accelerated by the SA node, which produces an impulse
on its own

Page 38 of 46
Extrinsic Regulation:-

There are two kinds of extrinsic regulation. In a mechanism known

as neural regulation, sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves
regulate the heartbeat. Through hormonal or chemical
modulation, hormones like catecholamine and acetylcholine
control the heart rate. Other factors, like environmental stress
and medications, also control the heartbeat.

Nervous Regulation:-

The modulation of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves is

performed by the ANS (Autonomic Nervous System).
Various signals from the cerebral hemispheres are processed by
the baroreceptors and chemoreceptors in the cardiac reflex
center.
Since it is situated in the ventrolateral medulla, the
cardiovascular control center also has a significant impact on
controlling heart activity.
When the cardio-accelerators are released, the sympathetic
components cause TACHYCARDIA.
BRADYCARDIA is caused by the parasympathetic component
releasing the cardio inhibitors. Acetylcholine, as an example.
The control of the heartbeat is another critical function of the
CNS. A CNS impulse travels through the medulla’s cardiovascular
center.
The heart and blood arteries both react quickly and in unison to
modify blood pressure and perfuse tissues appropriately in
response to demands.
To control the heart rate, sympathetic and parasympathetic
nerves collaborate

Page 39 of 46
Baroreceptor Mechanism:-
Nerve endings present on the walls of arteries are called
baroreceptors, sometimes known as pressure receptors. The body
contains a significant number of baroreceptors.

1. The internal carotid arteries meet in the region just above the
carotid bifurcation, which is known as the carotid sinus.
2. The inner wall of the aortic arch.

The medullary centers of the brain organize a response using

information from baroreceptors and are in charge of the overall
output of the autonomic nervous system.

1. A rise in arterial pressure triggers the parasympathetic

pathway, which lowers the heart rate. This aids in reducing
arterial pressure, as does enhance vascular vasodilation. The
inner wall of the aortic arch.
2. The sympathetic pathway is activated when a drop in arterial
pressure is detected, increasing heart rate and contractility.
Due to increased artery vasoconstriction, the arterial pressure
increases as a result.

Baroreceptors react swiftly to changes in artery pressure and are

sensitive to them. When blood pressure increases, the
baroreceptors are stretched, which causes them to transmit
signals to the central nervous system. Following this, “feedback”
signals are sent to the circulatory system by the autonomic
nervous system, causing arterial pressure to return to a more
normal level
The small Hering’s nerve, which connects each carotid sinus to
the tractus solitarius in the medulla oblongata of the brain, is
where the impulses travel after leaving each carotid sinus.
Through the vagus nerves, signals from the aortic arch are sent to
the medulla oblongata.

Page 40 of 46
Chemoreceptor Mechanism:-
Carotid and aortic bodies are the names of these receptors. On the
bifurcation of the common carotid artery (at the start of the
occipital artery), the carotid, and aortic bodies are present at the
arch of the aorta. The sinus and aortic nerves will carry impulses
from these receptors’ afferent nerves.
Nerves react to changes in biological fluids, such as a drop in the
pO2, an increase in pCO2, and a rise in hydrogen ion concentration.
Afferent impulses from chemoreceptors are transported by sinus
and aortic nerves when they are triggered by any of the above
conditions. Because of that, a heart rate will be the eventual effect.

Brainbridge Reflex:-

In the walls of large veins, stretch receptors are present. They are
referred to as volume receptors or low-pressure receptors. The
dilation of the great veins stimulates these receptors. Afferent
impulses from these receptors will be carried by the vagus nerve.
Afferent impulses along the vagus also activate neurons in the
brainstem, enhancing sympathetic nerve activity. Afferent signals
decrease the cardioinhibitory center’s function, increasing heart
rate. The heart’s sympathetic activity is increased, which raises the
heart rate.

Chemical Regulation:-
Norepinephrine is the chemical secreted from the end of the
vasoconstrictor nerves (noradrenaline). The medulla of the adrenal
endocrine glands secretes norepinephrine (=nor□adrenaline). The
primary functions of epinephrine and norepinephrine are to
increase metabolism and prepare organisms to deal with certain
conditions brought on due to physical stress, such as a drop in
blood pressure or blood sugar, rage, anxiety, fear, and so on.

Page 41 of 46
 Under normal conditions, norepinephrine regulates blood
pressure. Which causes a restriction of almost all of the body’s
blood arteries. In addition to adrenal hormones, the medulla of the
adrenal glands also secretes epinephrine (adrenaline). Every part
of the body receives this hormone through the bloodstream, where
it affects cells directly. Norepinephrine does not have the same
effect on heart activity as epinephrine.
In contrast to the noticeably stronger constriction brought on by
norepinephrine, it also causes a minor narrowing of muscle blood
vessels. As a result, the heart rate is increased by adrenal
medullary hormones.

- Disorders Of circulatory system

Our heart or blood vessels. Your circulatory system , also called
your cardiovascular system, keeps blood moving in your body. Your
heart and your blood vessels work together to supply oxygen-rich
blood to all of your organs and tissues.

1. What diseases affect the circulatory system?

ANS:
Scientists organize diseases that affect our circulatory system
into two large categories:

Cardiovascular diseases, which affect our heart and/or blood

vessels.
Vascular diseases, which affect your blood vessels. Both categories
include many different diseases and conditions. Here we will be
studying about some common ones

Page 42 of 46
 Blood pressure conditions:-
Your blood pressure is a number that shows how forcefully blood
flows through your blood vessels. Your blood pressure normally
changes during the day and adjusts to your activity level. But blood
pressure that’s too high or too low can be dangerous.

Blood pressure conditions include:

Hypertension:-
High blood pressure throughout the arteries in your body. This is .
. what people usually mean when they say “high blood pressure.”
. Hypertension is known as a silent killer because it often has no
. symptoms but it can, over time, lead to many health problems.

Hypotension:-
Low blood pressure throughout your body.

Portal hypertension:-
High blood pressure in the vein that carries blood from your
. intestines to your liver.

Pulmonary hypertension:-
High blood pressure in the arteries that carry blood from your heart
. to your lungs.

Congenital heart disease

Congenital heart disease refers to heart problems babies are born
with. Congenital heart disease is sometimes heritable (passed down
within biological families). Other times, it occurs in people with no
family history. Nearly 1 in 100 people have some form of congenital
heart disease.
Types of congenital heart disease include:

Page 43 of 46
Atrial septal defect and ventricular septal defect:-
A “hole in the heart,” located between the left and right sides of your
baby’s heart.

Bicuspid aortic valve:-

An aortic valve with two flaps instead of three.

Coarctation of the aorta:-

Narrowing in one part of your baby’s aorta.

Dextro-Transposition of the great arteries (d-TGA):-

Pulmonary artery and aorta are switched.

Hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS):-

An underdeveloped left side of your baby’s heart.

Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA):-

An opening between your baby’s aorta and the pulmonary artery that
should’ve closed at birth.

Pulmonary atresia:-
Missing or blocked pulmonary valve.

Tetralogy of Fallot:-
A combination of four defects that prevent your baby from getting
enough oxygen-rich blood.

Tricuspid atresia:-
Missing tricuspid valve.

Truncus arteriosus:-
Only one artery carries blood out of your baby’s heart, instead of two
(aorta and pulmonary artery).
Page 44 of 46
Heart failure
Heart failure happens when your heart can’t pump blood as well as it
should. So, your organs can’t get enough oxygen. Heart failure has
many causes and is associated with many other medical conditions.
Over 6 million people in the U.S. have heart failure.
Heart failure is a progressive disease, meaning it gets worse over
time. The later stages are called “congestive heart failure.” This
involves fluid buildup (congestion) in different parts of your body.

Heart valve disease

Heart valve disease can affect any of your four heart valves. These are
the doors that separate different parts of your heart and manage
blood flow. A diseased valve strains your heart. Over time, this can
lead to complications like heart failure or sudden cardiac death.
The most common valve diseases among adults in the are:

Mitral valve regurgitation:-

Your mitral valve is leaky, causing some blood to flow backward.

Aortic valve stenosis:-

Your aortic valve is too narrow, limiting how much blood can flow
through.

Aortic valve stenosis:-

Your aortic valve is leaky.

Page 45 of 46
 High cholesterol
We all need to have some lipids (fats) in our blood. Fats do important
work in our bodies. But too many fats in your blood can be
dangerous.
This condition is known as high cholesterol (hyperlipidemia). High
cholesterol can raise your risk of many other medical conditions.
Familial hypercholesterolemia is high cholesterol that’s passed down
within biological families. People with this condition have very high
LDL (bad cholesterol) levels. This raises their risk of coronary artery
disease and heart attacks. They’re also more likely to face these
complications at a younger age.

Stroke
A stroke is a life-threatening emergency that needs immediate
medical attention. It happens when blood flow to your brain gets
interrupted.
There are several types of stroke:

Ischemic stroke:-
A blood clot blocks an artery leading to your brain.

Hemorrhagic stroke:-
There’s bleeding in your brain (sometimes, from a ruptured blood
vessel or head injury), which blocks brain cells from receiving blood.

Transient ischemic attack (TIA):-

A blood clot temporarily blocks blood flow to your brain, causing a
“mini stroke.” A TIA is usually a warning sign before an ischemic
stroke.

Page 46 of 46
 Bibliography

➢ Ncert Biology Textbook for class XI

➢ wikipedia.org
➢ britannica.com
➢ khanacademy.org
➢ my.clevelandclinic.org
➢ healthline.com
➢ scribd.com
➢ msdmanuals.com
➢ betterhealth.vic.gov.au