Characteristics of Instruments

Characteristics of
measurement systems

• To choose the one most suited to a particular

measurement application, we have to know
the system characteristics.

• The performance characteristics may be

broadly divided into two groups, namely
‘static’ and ‘dynamic’ characteristics
Static characteristics

The set of criteria/parameters defined for the

instruments, which are used to measure the quantities
which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant,
i.e., do not vary with time, is called ‘static
characteristics’..
Accuracy
• This is the closeness with which the measuring
instrument can measure the ‘true value’ of the
measurand under stated conditions of use, i.e. its
ability to ‘tell the truth’.

• The accuracy of an instrument is quantified by the

difference of its readings and the one given by the
ultimate or primary standard.

• Accuracy depends on inherent limitations of instrument

and shortcomings in measurement process.
The accuracy can be expressed in following ways:
a) Point accuracy: Such accuracy is specified at only one
particular point of scale. It does not give any information about
the accuracy at any other Point on the scale.
b) Accuracy as percentage of scale span: When an instrument as
uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale
range.
(Measured value – True value) × 100
Maximumscale value
c) Accuracy as percentage of true value: The best way to
conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in terms of the true
value of the quantity being measured.
(Measured value – True value) × 100
True value
Example 1: A pressure gauge ranges from 0 to 50 psi, the worst-case
spread in readings is 4.35 psi. What is the %FSD accuracy?

Solution:
%FSD =  (4.35 psi/50 psi)  100 = 8.7

Example 2 In the data sheet of a scale capable of weighing

up to 200 lb, the accuracy is given as 2.5 percent of a
reading. What is the deviation at the 50 and 100 lb readings,
and what is the %FSD accuracy?

Solution:
Deviation at 50 lb =  (50  2.5/100) lb = 1.25 lb
Deviation at 100 lb =  (100  2.5/100) lb = 2.5 lb
Maximum deviation occurs at FSD, that is, 5 lb or 2.5%
FSD
Precision
• Precision is defined as the ability of instrument to
reproduce a certain set of readings within given
accuracy.
• Precision describes an instrument’s degree of
random variations in its output when measuring a
constant quantity.
• Precision depends upon repeatability.
The precision is obtained from the number of significant figures, in
which the reading is expressed and can be mathematically expressed
as
𝑋𝑛 − 𝑋𝑛
𝑃=1 −
𝑋𝑛
Where, P = precision Xn = Value of nth measurement 𝑋𝑛 = Average
value the set of measurement values
Precision is often confused with accuracy. High
precision does not imply anything about measurement
accuracy.
Low accuracy measurements from a high precision
instrument are normally caused by a bias in the
measurements, which is removable by recalibration

Accuracy Precision
• Accuracy represents degree • Precision represents degree
of correctness of the of repeatability of several
measured value with independent measurements
respect to true value. of desired input at the same
reference conditions
• Accuracy of instrument • Precision of instruments
depends on systematic depends on factors that
errors. cause random or accidental
errors.
Measuring a fixed target position

Low
precision,
low
accuracy

High High
precision, precision,
low High
accuracy accuracy
Repeatability
Repeatability is defined as ability of instrument to reproduce a group
of measurements of same measured quantity, made by same observer,
using same instrument, under same conditions.

Reproducibility
Describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when
there are changes in the method of measurement, observer,
measuring instrument, location, conditions of use and time of
measurement.

Both terms thus describe the spread of output readings for the same input. This
spread is referred to as repeatability if the measurement conditions are constant
and as reproducibility if the measurement conditions vary.
The degree of repeatability or reproducibility in measurements from an instrument
is an alternative way of expressing its precision.
 Sensitivity of measurement
The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in instrument
output that occurs when the quantity being measured changes by a given
amount. Thus, sensitivity is the ratio:
Static Sensitivity Change of Output Signal ∆𝑄𝑜
𝐾= =
Change in Input signal ∆𝑄𝑖

Thus, if the calibration curve is liner, as shown, the sensitivity of the instrument
is the slope of the calibration curve. If the calibration curve is not linear as
shown, then the sensitivity varies with the input. Inverse sensitivity or
deflection factor is defined as the reciprocal of sensitivity.
 Example
The following resistance values of a platinum resistance thermometer
were measured at a range of temperatures. Determine the measurement
sensitivity of the instrument in ohms/C

solution
330

Sensitivity = slope
325
321 − 314
Resistance (Ω)

=
320
260 − 230
= 0.233 Ω/℃
315

310

305
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

T (°C)
 Linearity
Linearity is usually reported as
It is normally desirable that the output non-linearity, which is the
reading of an instrument is linearly maximum of the deviation
proportional to the quantity being
between the calibration
measured.
Linearity is a measure of the curve and a straight line
proportionality between the actual value positioned so that the
of a variable being measured and the maximum deviation is
output of the instrument over its operating minimized.
range
Instrument Drift
• Drift is an undesired change in the output of a measured
variable over a period of time due to change in sensitivity of
the instrument.
• Drift may be caused by environmental factors, mechanical
vibrations, changes in temperatures, age, wear and tear, scale
formation, stray electric fields, stray magnetic fields, thermal
EMFs.
• Prime sources occur as chemical structural changes and
changing mechanical stresses.

• Drift is a complex phenomenon for which the observed effects

are that the sensitivity and offset values vary.

• It also can alter the accuracy of the instrument differently at

the various amplitudes of the signal present.
a) zero drift or bias: describes the effect where the zero reading
of an instrument is modified by a change in ambient conditions.
This causes a constant error that exists over the full range of
measurement of the instrument. It is due to slippage, permanent
set, or due to undue warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero
drift sets in. Zero drift is normally removable by calibration
b) span drift or sensitivity drift or scale factor drift: If there is
proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale,
the drifts is called span drift or sensitivity drift.
c) Zonal drift: In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an
instrument, it is called zonal drift.
Example
A spring balance is calibrated
in an environment at a
temperature of 20C and has
the following deflection/load
characteristic.

Solution
It is then used in an environment
At 20C, deflection/load characteristic is a straight
at a temperature of 30°C and the
line. Sensitivity = 20 mm/kg.
following deflection/load
characteristic is measured.
At 30C, deflection/load characteristic is still a
straight line. Sensitivity = 22 mm/kg.

Bias (zero drift) = 5mm (the no-load deflection)

Determine the zero drift and Sensitivity drift = 2 mm/kg
sensitivity drift per C change
in ambient temperature. Zero drift coefficient = 5/10 = 0.5 mm/C

Sensitivity drift coefficient = 2/10 = 0.2 (mm per

kg)/C
Resolution (Discrimination)
• It is the minimum change or smallest increment in
the measured value that can be detected with
certainty by the instrument.
• It can be least count of instrument.
Dead Space : Threshold
Dead space/ Threshold
is defined as the range
of different input values
over which there is no
change in output value.
Tolerance
- Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and
defines the maximum error that is to be expected in some
value.
- Tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a manufactured
component from some specified value
Range or span
The range of an instrument specifies the lowest and
highest readings it can measure, e.g., a thermometer
whose scale goes from - 40C to 100C has a range
from - 40C to 100C.
The span of an instrument is its range from the
minimum to maximum scale value, i.e., a thermometer
whose scale goes from - 40C to 100C has a span of
140C.
Hysteresis
• Hysteresis is defined as the
magnitude of error caused in
the output for a given value
of input, when this value is
approached from opposite
directions ; i.e. from
ascending order & then
descending order.
• Causes are backlash, elastic
deformations, magnetic
characteristics, frictional
effects (mainly).
• Hysteresis can be eliminated
by taking readings in both
direction and then taking its
arithmetic mean.
Reliability
Reliability is the probability that a device will adequately perform
(as specified) for a period of time under specified operating
conditions. Some sensors are required for safety or product quality,
and therefore, they should be very reliable.

Stability:
It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance
throughout is specified operating life.
Dynamic characteristics
Is the relationship between the system input and output
when the measured quantity (measurand) is varying
rapidly.
The dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument
describe its behaviour between the time a measured
quantity changes value and the time when the instrument
output attains a steady value in response.

The various dynamic characteristics are:

i) Speed of response
ii) Measuring lag
iii) Fidelity
iv) Dynamic error
Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a
measurement system responds to changes in the measured quantity.
Measuring lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of a
measurement system to changes in the measured quantity. The
measuring lags are of two types:
a) Retardation type: In this case the response of the measurement
system begins immediately after the change in measured
quantity has occurred.
b) Time delay lag: In this case the response of the measurement
system begins after a dead time after the application of the input.
Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system
indicates changes in the measurand quantity without dynamic error.
Dynamic error: It is the difference between the true value of the
quantity changing with time & the value indicated by the
measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called
measurement error.