CHAPTER 1 – MENSURATION OF PLANE FIGURES

Introduction
Point, line, and plane are undefined terms in geometry. Using these
undefined terms, other geometric figures are defined. Plane geometry is
the study of geometric figures that can be drawn on a two-dimensional
surface called plane. Figures that lie on a plane are called two-dimensional
figures or simply plane figures. This chapter deals with different plane
figures, and their properties, relations, and measurement. The most
common plane figures are the polygons.

POLYGONS
A polygon is a closed plane figure formed by line segments

Parts of a Polygon

A polygon may also be defined as a union of line segments such that:

i) Each vertex is a common end point of two adjacent line
segments;
ii) no two adjacent line segments intersect except at an endpoint; For numbers from 100 to 999, form the name of the polygon by starting
and with the prefix for the hundreds digit taken from the ones digit, affix the
iii) no two segments with the same endpoint are collinear. word hecta, then follow the rule on naming polygons with 3 to 99 sides.
However, one may use the form n-gon, as in 24-gon for a polygon with 24
1. The side or edge of a polygon is one of the line segments that make up sides, instead of using the above method.
the polygon. Adjacent sides are pairs of sides that share a common
endpoint. Similar Polygons
2. The vertices of a polygon are the end points of each side of the polygon. The ratio of two quantities is the quotient of one quantity divided by
Adjacent vertices are endpoints of a side. another quantity. Note, however, that the two quantities must be of the
3. A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment joining two non-adjacent same kind. For example, the ratio of the measure of a side and an interior
vertices of the polygon. angle is meaningless because they are not quantities of the same kind. A
4. An interior angle is the angle formed by two adjacent sides inside the proportion is an expression of equality between two ratios. That is, if two
polygon. ratios a:b and c:d are equal, then the equation a/b=c/d is a proportion.
5. An exterior angle is an angle that is adjacent to and supplementary to Thus, you can say that a and b are proportional to c and d.
an interior angle of the polygon. Two polygons are similar if their corresponding interior angles are
congruent and their corresponding sides are proportional. Similar
Types of Polygons polygons have the same shape but differ in size.
1. Equiangular Polygon – A polygon is equiangular if all of its angles are
congruent. Consider the similar polygons below.
2. Equilateral Polygon – A polygon is equilateral if all of its sides are equal.
3. Regular polygon – both equiangular and equilateral.
4. Irregular Polygon – A polygon that is neither equiangular nor equilateral
is said to be an irregular polygon.
5. Convex Polygon – Every interior angle is less than 180°. If a line is drawn
through the convex polygon, the line will intersect at most two sides.
6. Concave Polygon – A concave polygon has at least one interior angle
that measures more than 180°. If a line is drawn through a concave
polygon the line may intersect more than two sides.
The following relations between the two polygons are obtained using
the concept of ratio and proportion:
Naming Polygons
1. The ratio of any two corresponding sides of similar polygons
Polygons are named according to their number of sides. Generally, a
are equal.
polygon with n sides is called an n-gon. To form the name of polygons with
13 to 99 sides, begin with the prefix of the tens digit, followed by kai (the
Greek word for and) and the prefix for the units digit.
2. The ratio of any two corresponding sides of similar polygons
are equal.

3. The ratio of the perimeters of similar polygons is equal to the

ratio of any of any two corresponding sides.

Properties of a Regular Polygon

A regular polygon of n sides can be subdivided into n congruent isosceles
triangles, whose base is a side of the polygon. The common vertex of
these triangles is the center of the polygon.
Perimeter
To find a perimeter of a polygon, add the lengths of the sides of the
polygon. Since regular polygons are equilateral, the formula in finding the
perimeter of a regular polygon is TRIANGLES
P = ns, The most fundamental subset of polygons is the set of triangles. Although
Where n is the number of sides and s is the length of each side. triangles are polygons with the least number of sides, these polygons are
widely used in the field of mathematics and engineering. In this section,
Central Angle some important formulas which are used extensively in solving geometric
The angle that is opposite a side of a regular polygon is a central angle θ problems will be introduced.
of the polygon. It is the angle formed by two lines drawn from the center
of the polygon to two adjacent vertices. Regular polygons are equiangular. Classification of Triangles according to sides:
Thus, the measure of each angle is given by 1. Equilateral – a triangle with three congruent sides and three
congruent angles. Each angle measures 60.̊
2. Isosceles – a triangle with two congruent sides and two
congruent angles.
3. Scalene – a triangle with no congruent sides and no congruent
Apothem
angles.
The altitude of the isosceles triangles that can be formed from a regular
polygon is the apothem of the regular polygon. The apothem bisects the
Classification of Triangles according to Angles:
central angle and its opposite side. Thus, we can compute for the apothem
1. Right – a triangle with a right angle (90˚angle).
as follows:
2. Oblique – a triangle with no right angle.
a. Acute – a triangle with three acute angles (less than 90˚)
b. Equiangular – a triangle with three congruent angles. Each
angle measures 60.̊
c. Obtuse – a triangle with one obtuse angle (more than 90˚
but less than 180˚)

Congruent Triangles
The word congruent is derived from the Latin word congruere which
means agree. Two triangles are congruent when they have the same
Interior Angle shape and size. Congruent triangles can be made to coincide part by part.
In each isosceles triangle, the measure of the base angles can be denoted Corresponding parts of congruent triangles are congruent. The symbol for
by Φ, and each interior angle of the regular polygon by 2Φ. Thus, the congruence is ≅.
measure of each interior angle is solved as follows:
Similar Triangles
Two triangles are similar if their corresponding sides are proportional.
Similar triangles have the same shape but differ in size. Look at the
similar triangles below.

Thus,

Since the two triangles are similar, then the relations that exist between
Sum of Interior Angles two similar polygons also hold. Thus, it follows that:
Since the number of sides equals the number of interior angles, then the
sum of interior angles is n times the measure of the interior angle. Hence,

Diagonal
From any given vertex of a regular polygon, a diagonal is drawn from the
vertex to a non-adjacent vertex. This means that you can construct a Parts of a Triangle
diagonal from each vertex of a polygon with n sides in n – 3 ways. Since A triangle has three possible bases and three possible vertices. Any of the
there are n vertices and each diagonal has two end points, you can do this three sides of a triangle may be considered as the base of the triangle.
in only 𝑛/2 ways. Thus, the total number of distinct diagonals of a regular The angle opposite the base is called vertex angle. The two angles
polygon is adjacent to the base are called base angles.

Area
Area is the amount of two dimensional space that a plane figure occupies.
To get the area of a regular polygon, multiply the area of the isosceles
triangle by the number of triangles formed, or 𝐴=(s/2)(𝑎)(𝑛).
Note that this is the same as one half of the product of its perimeter and A perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle divides the side into two
its apothem. In general, the formula of a regular polygon is given by congruent segments and is perpendicular to the side. The circumcenter is
the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a
triangle. The Euler line is the line which contains the orthocenter,
centroid, and circumcenter of a triangle. The centroid is located between
the orthocenter and the circumcenter. However, in an equilateral triangle,
The formula for area of a regular polygon can be expressed in terms of the centroid, circumcenter, incircle, and orthocenter are coincident.
its number of sides and the measure of one side as follows:
 10. The altitude h to the hypotenuse c of a right triangle divides the
triangle into two similar triangles. Each of the triangles formed by
this altitude is similar to the original triangle.

11. Each leg of a right triangle is the geometric mean between the
hypotenuse and the projection of the leg on the hypotenuse.
Properties of Triangle Centers
1. Orthocenter – The orthocenter is not always in the interior of the
triangle. In an obtuse triangle, the two sides of the obtuse angle and
the corresponding altitudes are extended to meet at a point outside
the triangle. In a right triangle, the orthocenter is on a vertex of the
triangle.
2. Centroid – The centroid is known as the center of mass of the triangle.
Unlike the orthocenter, the centroid is always inside the triangle and
for right, isosceles and equilateral triangles, the centroid is located
Formulas for the Area of the Triangle
one-third of the altitude from the base.
In general, the area of any triangle is one-half the product of its base and
3. Incenter – The incenter is the center of the largest circle that can be
its altitude.
inscribed in the triangle.
4. Circumcenter – The circumcenter is the center of the circle
circumscribing a triangle. It is not always inside the triangle. The
vertices of the triangle lie on the circle and are equidistant from the To solve for the area of a triangle given the measures of two sides and an
circumcenter. included angle, use the SAS (Side-Angle-Side) formula.

Altitude, Median, and Angle Bisector Formulas

Consider an arbitrary triangle with sides a, b, and c, and angles A, B, and
C. Let hc, mc and Ic be the lengths of the altitude, median, and angle
bisector from vertex C, respectively. Then,
The area of a triangle is one-half the product of
Altitude: any two sides and the sine of their included angle.

When the measure of the three sides of a triangle are given, the area of
the triangle is determined by Heron’s Formula.

Heron’s Formula or SSS (Three Sides) Formula:

Median:

Where is called the semi-perimeter.

Angle Bisector:

QUADRILATERALS
A quadrilateral, also known as tetragon or quadrangle, is a general term
for a four-sided polygon. There are six types of quadrilaterals. They are
square, parallelogram, rectangle, rhombus, trapezoid, and trapezium.
Each type of quadrilateral has unique properties that make it distinct from
other types. A square is the most unique quadrilateral because it
possesses all those unique properties.
Facts about Triangles
1. The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is always The common parts of a quadrilateral are described as follows:
greater than the third side. The difference between the lengths of 1. Side – A side is a line segment which joins any two adjacent vertices.
any two sides is always less the third side of a triangle. 2. Interior angle – An interior angle is the angle formed between two
2. The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a triangle is 180.̊ adjacent sides.
3. Two equiangular triangles are similar. 3. Height or Altitude – It is the distance between two parallel sides of a
4. Two triangles are similar if their corresponding sides are parallel. quadrilateral.
Two triangles are similar if their corresponding sides are 4. Base – This is the side that is perpendicular to the altitude.
perpendicular. 5. Diagonal – This is the line segment joining any two non-adjacent
5. In any right triangle, the longest side opposite the right angle is vertices.
called hypotenuse.
6. If any two sides of a right triangle are given, the third side can be Classification of Quadrilaterals
obtained by the Pythagorean Theorem c2=a2+b2. The classification of quadrilaterals is based on the number of pairs of its
7. Two triangles are equal if the measures of the two sides and the parallel sides as shown in the figure below.
included angle of one triangle are equal to the measures of the two
sides and the included angle of the other triangle.
8. The line segment which joins the midpoints of two sides of a
triangle is parallel to the third side and equal to one-half the length
of the third side.
9. In any triangle, the longest side is opposite the largest angle, and
the shortest side is opposite the smallest angle.
Classifications of Quadrilaterals Formula 2:
• Parallelogram has two pairs of parallel sides.
• Trapezoid has only one pair of parallel sides.
• Trapezium does not have any pair of parallel sides.
• Rectangle, rhombus, and square are special types of In problems involving area of a parallelogram, one will have to find the
parallelograms. height h or the angle θ using the right triangle containing the parts a, h,
and θ. Since a diagonal divides the parallelogram into two congruent
General Formulas for the Area of Quadrilaterals triangles, the area of the parallelogram is twice the area of one of the two
Consider the quadrilateral below. triangles. Thus, if two sides a and b, and an angle θ are given, you can
obtain the area using SAS formula. The area of the parallelogram is
determined by . Note theta the angle is any interior
angle since 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(180°−𝜃).

Kinds of Parallelogram
The next three quadrilaterals that will be discussed – rectangles,
rhombuses, and squares – are all special types of parallelograms. You can
There are several useful formulas for the area of a planar convex classify each shape depending on the congruent sides and angles. Given a
quadrilateral in terms of sides a, b, c, and d, and diagonal lengths e1 and shape, you can work backwards to find out its sides or angles. Coordinate
e2. Among them are the following: geometry is an effective way to measure the angles and the sides.

Formula 1: RECTANGLE
A rectangle is essentially a parallelogram in which the interior angles are
Formula 2: all right angles. Since a rectangle is a parallelogram, all of the properties
of a parallelogram also hold for a rectangle. In addition to these
Formula 3: properties, the diagonals of a rectangle are equal. However, the sides are
not necessarily all equal.
where s is the semi-perimeter and angles A and C
are any two opposite angles of the quadrilateral.

Note that in Formulas 1 and 2, sin𝜃 = sin(180°−𝜃) and tan𝜃 = tan(180°−𝜃).

Thus, you can choose the other angle formed by the two diagonals
without affecting the area of the quadrilateral.
Diagonals of a Rectangle
Parallelogram
A diagonal of a rectangle cuts the rectangle into two congruent right
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which the opposite sides are parallel.
triangles. In the previous figure, the diagonal AC divides the rectangle
The figure below illustrates an example of a parallelogram.
ABCD into congruent right triangles ADC and ABC. Since the diagonal of
the rectangle forms right triangles that include the diagonal and two sides
of the rectangle, one can always compute for the third side with the use
of the Pythagorean Theorem, if any two of these parts are given. Thus,
the diagonal d=AC may be determined using the equation.

Parallelograms have the following important properties:

Perimeter of a Rectangle
1. Opposite sides are equal.
The perimeter is the sum of the four sides. Thus,
2. Opposite interior angles are congruent (e.g., 𝐴 ≅ 𝐶).
3. Adjacent angles are supplementary (e.g., 𝐴+ 𝐷 = 180°).
4. A diagonal divides the parallelogram into two congruent triangles
(e.g., Δ𝐷𝐴𝐵 ≅ Δ𝐷𝐶𝐵). Area of a Rectangle
5. The two diagonals bisect each other. If b is the length of the base and h is the height, then the formula for the
area of a rectangle is
Diagonals of a Parallelogram
If sides a and b, and the angle 𝜃 are given, then by the Cosine Law, the
diagonal may be obtained by the equation: SQUARE
A square is a special type of a rectangle in which all the sides are equal.
Since all sides and interior angles are equal, a square is classified as a
regular polygon of four sides.

If any two parts of the parallelogram are given, the relationship among a, Diagonal of a Square
h, and 𝜃 may be obtained from the right triangle. Using the other angle The steps in finding the diagonal of a square are similar to the steps used
180°−𝜃, the second diagonal may be obtained by the same formula. in a rectangle. Thus, , where a is the length of one
side of the square.
Perimeter of a Parallelogram
Opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal. Thus, its perimeter is given where a is the length of one side of the square.
by
Note that, if the length of the diagonal is given, one can always compute
for the length of the sides of the square using the same formula.
Area of a Parallelogram
The area of a parallelogram can be obtained by any of the following Perimeter of a Square
formulas: Since all the sides of a square are equal, it is also possible to provide a
simple formula for the perimeter of the square. Thus, the simplified form
Formula 1: of the perimeter is
Area of a Square A trapezoid which contains two right angles is called a right trapezoid. The
The formula for the area of a square is given by trapezoid on the right is an example of a right trapezoid.

RHOMBUS
A rhombus is a parallelogram in which all sides are equal.

Area of Trapezoid
The area of a trapezoid is equal to the product of the mean of the bases
A rhombus may also be defined as an equilateral parallelogram. The
and the height. In symbols, the area is given by the formula
terms “rhomb” and “diamond” are sometimes used instead of rhombus.
A rhombus with an interior angle of 45ᴼ is sometimes called a lozenge.

The Diagonal of a Rhombus

The median of a trapezoid is the line segment parallel to and midway
between the bases of the trapezoid. Thus, and

TRAPEZIUM
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with no parallel sides. In finding the area
of a trapezium, you may use any of the three formulas for the area of a
Just like the square, the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular quadrilateral.
bisectors. Thus, the angles formed by the diagonals measure 90ᴼ and the
length of each side of the rhombus is given by

Also, the diagonals of the rhombus are angle bisectors of the vertices. By
the Cosine Law, the diagonals may be obtained in a similar manner like
that of a parallelogram. Thus,
and
One can also verify that the angle opposite the shorter diagonal d1, may
be obtained by the formula

where d2 is the longer diagonal and θ is the angle

opposite the shorter diagonal.

The Perimeter of a Rhombus

If b is the measure of one side of a rhombus, then the perimeter is given
by

Area of a Rhombus
The area of a rhombus may be determined by any of the following ways:
1. The area is one-half the product of its two diagonals.

Note that this expression follows from Formula 1

for the area of quadrilateral, where θ=90ᴼ.
2. Since a rhombus is a parallelogram, the area is also the
product of the base times the height.

3. The area is twice the area of one of the two congruent triangles
formed by one of its diagonals. This is the same method used
in finding the area of a parallelogram.

TRAPEZOID
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with one pair of parallel sides.

In the trapezoid shown above, the parallel sides a and b are called bases
and h is the height or the perpendicular distance between the two bases.
If the non-parallel sides are congruent, the trapezoid is called an isosceles
trapezoid. The base angles of an isosceles trapezoid are also congruent.
One can observe that the relationship among the sides, height, and base
angles of an isosceles trapezoid may be obtained from the right triangle
formed by constructing a line from one vertex perpendicular to the
opposite side (lower base).