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Unit 1

Basicconcept of Concept of Measurement:

be understood as a process of
Measurement is defined as the system or act of measuring. It can
measurement is a process or
defining physical items by using numbers. In other words,
reference quantity of
determining how large or small a physical quantity is compared to a basic
of an object or event, which
the same kind. Measurement is a technigque in which the attributes
associated with all the
can be used to compare with other objects. Measurement is closely
Its role is ever
activities pertaining to scientific, industrial, commercial, and human aspects.
sciences,
increasing and encompasses different fields such as communications, energy, medical
food sciences, environment, trade, transportation and military applications. Measurements
provide a basis for judgements about process information, quality assurance and process
control.

Definition:
Measurement is a comparison of an unknown quantity with aknown fixed quantity of the same
kind. The value obtained on measuring a quantity is called its magnitude. The magnitude of a
quantity is expressed in numbers and in its unit. Measurement helps us make quantitative
statements about how big, how small things are. Without measurement, the final product will
be full of errors. From weight, temperature, length even time is a measurement and it does play
a very important role in mechanical measurement.

Significance of Mechanical measurement:

Mechanical measurement involves measuring of force, displacement, temperature, and
pressure using strain gauges, thermocouples, pressure transducers and many more. These
measurements help engineers to understand the system performance and identify areas of
failure and further for improvement.
Generalized Measurement System:
The generalized measurement system is a set of elements in which the measurement process is
carried on by the system. There are many measuring instruments, but they exist for measuring
the values of input or out variables. In some measuring instruments, the measuring process is
done easily and finally, it gives the output value for given input as reading or signal based on the
magnitude of the input variable. For example, the measuring process in some of the instruments
is easy and simple (for measuring length, mass, weight).

Dr N.L Murali Krishna, Professor, Department of Industrial and Production, PESCE, Mandya-571401
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Display

Output
Input Measured
Sensor Signal Record value of
True processor the input
value of variable
variable

Transmit

First, or Sensor -Transducer Stage: The prime function of the first stage is to detect or to sense
the input value. At the same time, it should be insensitive to every other possible input. This is
the element of the system which is effectively in contact with the process for which a variable
is being measured and gives an output which depends in some way on the value of the variable
and which can be used by the rest of the measurement system to give a value to
it.
Second, or Signal -Conditioning stage:
The purpose of the second stage of the general system is to modify the transduced information
so that it is acceptable to the third, of terminating stage. In addition it may perform one or
more
basic operation such as selective filtering, integration, differentiating, or telemetering, as many
as required. Probably the most common function of the second stage is to increase either
amplitude or power of the signal, or both to the level required to drive the final terminating
device. In addition it must be designed for proper matching characteristics between first and
second and between second and third stage.

Third, or Terminating Read-Out Stage

The third stage provides the information sought in a form comprehensible the one of the
human senses or to acontroller. If the output in intended for immediate human recognition, it
is with rare exception, presented in one the following forms:
1. As relative displacement, such as movement of anindicating hence displacement of
oscilloscope trace or oscillograph light beam or
2. In digital form, as presented by a counter such as an automobile odometer or one of
the modern digitalvoltmeters and many more.
Performance Characteristics of Measuring Instruments: There are several terms often used
when referring to characteristics of measuring instruments: resolution, accuracy, and precision.
These terms describe how sensitive instruments are to measured quantities, how bias affects
the measurements and how repeatable an instrument is measuring. Static characteristics of
instruments refer to the properties or behaviours of an instrument when it is subjected to
steady or constant input conditions. These characteristics help define the instrument's
accuracy, precision, and reliability inmeasuring various parameters

Dr N.L Murali Krishna, Professor, Department of Industrial ond Production, PESCE, Mandyo-571401
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1. Accuracy
characteristic of an instrument. it
ACCuraCy is perhaps the most important fundamental static
corresponds to the true or actual value Or
rerers to howclosely the instrument's measurement
accuracy tells us how "correct" the instrument's
tne quantity being measured. In other words,
readings are.
2 Precision
instrument measurements. An instrument can be
Precision measures the repeatability of an that result is
produces the same result, even if
precise without being accurate; it consistently acCCuracy.
more critical than
notaccurate. Precision is crucial when consistency is
3. Sensitivity
small changes in the quantity being
Sensitivity is ameasure of an instrument's ability to detect
the slightest variations, while low
measured. High sensitivity instruments can detect even
difference.
sensitivity instruments may require substantial changes to register a
4. Range
maximum values it can effectively
The range of an instrument defines the minimum and
measure. Understanding an instrument's range is vital to ensure that it is suitable fora particular
application. Using an instrument outside its range can lead to inacCurate readings.

5. Linearity
when plotted
Linearity refers to how closely an instrument's response follows a straight line
input and output
against the quantity being measured. In ideal cases, the relationship between
is linear, making calibration and interpretation straightforward.
6 Hysteresis
Hysteresis is aphenomenon where an instrument's output varies depending on the previous
values of the input. It can introduce errorswhen measuring dynamic or changing quantities and
needs to be accounted for during calibration and use.
7 Drift
Drift is a gradual change in an instrument's output over time when exposed to constant
conditions. It can be caused by factors like temperature, aging components, or environmental
changes. Regular calibration helps mitigate the effects of drift.
8. Dead Time
Dead time is the duration an instrument takes to respond to a change in the input signal.
Instruments with shorter dead times are more suitable for dynamic measurements, as they can
capture rapid changes accurately.
9 Noise
Noise in instrumentation refers to unwanted random variations in the output signal that can
mask the true measurement. Reducing noise is essential to improve the accuracy and reliability
of measurements.
10. Resolution
Resolution defines the smallest increment of input quantity that an instrument can distinguish
or display.Higher resolution instruments can provide more detailed and precise measurements.

Dr N.L Murali Krishna, Professor, Department of industrial and Production, PESCE, Mandyo-571401
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Inaccuracy of Measurements
as an error. This error may arise
Every measurement carries a level of uncertainty which is known
or any other. So 100% accurate
in the process during measurement due human mistake
defined as the difference
measurement is not pOssible with any method. An error may be
obtain weight of
between the measuredvalue and actual value. For example, in alaboratory the
measurement is 9.8 kg for a given substance, but the actual or known weight is 10 kg, then the
measurement is not acCurate. In this case, the measurement is not close to the known value.
This is called inaccuracy of the instrument.

Basic concept of Metrology:

Luke Howard has been called "the father of meteorology" for his comprehensive work in London
during 1801 to 1841 and his writings, which transformed the science of meteorology.
Metrology is a Greek words: "metron" and "logos" which means that "the study of
measurements".The importance of metrology as a scientific discipline gained momentum during
the industrial revolution. Continuing technological advancement further necessitated
refinement in thissegment. Metrology is practised almost every day, often unknowingly, inour
day-to-day tasks. Metrology is branch of engineering deals with "pure" measurement.
Metrology concerns itself with the study of measurements. It is of utmost importance to
measure different types of parameters or physical variables and quantify each of them with a
specific unit. Thus, measurement is an act of assigning an accurate and precise value to a physical
variable. The physical variable then gets transformed into a measured variable. Meaningful
measurements require common measurement standards and must be performed using them.
The common methods of measurement are based on the development of international
specification standards. These provide appropriate definitions of parameters and protocols that
enable standard measurements to be made and also establish a common basis for comparing
measured values. In addition, metrology is also concerned with the reproduction, conservation,
andtransfer of units of measurements and their standards.

Significance of measurement in Metrology:

Measurement is quantitative comparison between a known quantity and an unknown quantity.
Measurement helps you to quantify the physical value. In engineering (especially
mechanical), it can help you with manufacture of various parts thereby ensuring proper fit
between components. Engineering components require precise measurement to determine
the dimensions, angles, diameter, length and many more. These measurements ensure that
every component fitstogether correctly and minimizing the errors and also rework.
Definition of Metrology:
Metrology is a branch of engineering which deals with pure measurement. Metrology is the
scientific study of measurements.
Scientific metrology is concerned with the establishment of units of measurement, the
development of new measurement methods, the realisation of measurement standards, and
the transfer of traceability from these standards to users in a society.

Dr N.L Murali Krishna, Professor, Department of Industrialand Production, PESCE, Mandya-571401

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APplied, technicalor industrial metroloay is concerned with the
to manufacturing and other processes and their use in society,
application of measurement
ensuring the suitability or
measurement instruments, their calibration and quality control.
Legal metrology "concerns activities which result from statutory requirements and
concern
measurement, units of measurement, measuring instruments and methods of measurement
and which are performed by competent bodies"
Objective of Metrology:
Metrology isthe study of measurement and it is the key to achieving accuracy. The aim is to
provide accurate and therefore reliable measurements for trade, health, safety and the
environment. It is especially important in precision engineering where products need to meet
the close tolerances. Although the basic objective of a measurement is to provide the required
accuracy at a minimum cost, metrology has further objectives in a modern engineering plant
with different shapes which are:

1. Complete evaluation for newly developed products.

2. Determination of the process capabilities and ensure that these are better than the
relevant component tolerances.
3. Determination of the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that they are quite
sufficient for their respective measurements.
4. Minimizing the cost of inspection by effective and efficient use of available facilities.
5. Reducing the cost of rejects and rework through application of Statistical Quality Control
Techniques.
6 To standardize the measuring methods.
7. To maintain the accuracies of measurement.
8. Toprepare designs for allgauges and special inspection fixtures.
Standards:

The term standard is used to denote universally accepted specifications for devices.
Components or processes which ensure conformity and interchange ability throughout a
particular industry. A standard provide a reference for assigning a numerical value to a
measured quantity. Each basic measurable quantity has associated with it an ultimate standard.
Working standards, those used in conjunction with the various measurement making
instruments. The national institute of standards and technology(NIST) formerly called National
Bureau of Standards (NBS), it was established by an act of congress in 1901, and the need for
such body had been noted by the founders of the constitution. In order to maintain accuracy,
standards in a vast industrial complex must be traceable to asingle source,which may be
national standards.

The following is the generalized levelof standards in the national measurement system.
1. Calibration standards.
2. Metrology standards.
3. National standards.

Dr N.L Murali Krishna, Professor, Department of Industrial and Production, PESCE, Mondyg-571401
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Classification of standards: To maintain accuracy and interchangeability it is necessary that
Standards to be traceable to asingle source, usually the National Standards of the country,
which are further linked to International Standards. The accuracy of National Standards is
transferred to working standards through a chain of intermediate standards in a manner given
below.
NationalStandards.
National Reference Standards.
Working Standards.
Plant Laboratory Reference Standards.
Plant Laboratory Working Standards.
Laboratory Standards.
Line and Endstandard:
When the length is being measure is expressed as the distance between two lines. This is
referred as Line standard.

When the length is being measure is expressed as the distance between two surfaces. This is
referred as end standard.

Line standards are not as accurate as end standards and cannot be used for close tolerance
measurement.

Principal Length is being expressed Length is being expressed

by two parallel lines by two parallel surfaces
Accuracy Less accurate More accurate

Alignment Cannot be easy aligned Easily aligned

Cost Low Cost High Cost
Parallax Error Subjected to Parallax Error Not Subjected To Parallax Error

Ease Quick &Easy TimeConsuming &requires skill

Effect Of Wear Wear at only ends Wear at measuring surface

Comparison between Line and End standard

Wave Length Standard:

One metre is defined as equal to 1650763.73 wavelengths of the red orange radiation of
Krypton-86 isotope in vacuum maintained at 68 K. The substance krypton-86 is used because it
produces sharp defined interference lines.

Dr N.L Murali Krishna, Professor, Department of In dustrial and Production, PESCE, Mandya-571401
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Transfer from Line to End standard:

length is a highly inconvenient form for
It has already been clarified that the line standard of
determine the position of the detining lines in
general measurement applications. In order to
Since the line standard was defined first,
the standard, a special microscope has to be emploved.
more utility; the end standards had to be
and end standards being of real importance and
standard. In end standards, the distance
produced of the highest accuracy in relation to the line transter
are flat and mutually parallel. In order to
is defined between the working faces which
the use of an instrument called Line-standard
the line standard correctly to the ends of a bar,
abouta yard apart over a table. A1
Comparator is made. It consists of two microscopes mounted
faces flat and mutually parallel. Two 2
gauge, about 35- inches in length is produced with end 1
gauge. The two =2 inch blocks are engraved
inch blocks are taken and wrung at the ends of this
the centre of the twO end faces. Thus the
with afine line on one surface approximately in
after wringing these inch blocks
distance between the centre lines is approximately 36 inches 2

to the main 35 2 inch gauge.

the table. The microscopes have accurate

The standard and the above blocks are mounted on
cross wires to focus on the lines
micrometre screwcontrolled eyepieces. In eyepiece, there are
across so that either block may be
of the standard. The table is capable of being traversed
positions of lines on the standard
brought under the microscope. The apparatus compares the
small longitudinal variations
with lines on the gauge, and with micrometre eyepieces any
between them can be determined. Let the actual length 35 inch gauge be I. The distance
film between
between two lines online standard is 36". Let us ignore the effect of the wringing
gauges. The other
the surfaces in contact as it is always present in the use of end bars and
faces of 2 inch blocks
possible errors are the misplacing of the line at the mid-position of the end
in four
and possible error in the length of 35: inch gauge. The two blocks at end are arranged
and difference
ways. Figure shows one position and other three positions are self-explanatory
of readings between lines on standard and the line on gauges are noted every time. Let the
difference be dh is D1, D2, D3 and D4 respectively. Then for the successive positions of the 2 inch
blocks, we have,
I+b+c=36+d1 +b+d=36+d2

Ita+c=36+d3 Ita+d=36+da

Taking the mean, (a+b+c+d)

Dr N.L Murali Krishna, Professor, Department of Industrial and Production, PESCE, Mandya-571401
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-36+4 .equation (1)

4

Inthe above equation it may be noted that the error due to the
possible misplacing of the lines
between the end faces of theinch blocks are eliminated.

Next 35, inch bar wrung with one of the-inch

2
blocks is compared with 35 inch end standardon
in figure.
a Brookes level comparatorand the deviation Dwas noted as shown
and
Then the other 2 inch block is wrung and again it is compared with 36 inch end standard
deviation Dare noted.
If Lis the actual length of 36 inch end standard, then
l+a+b=l+D1 I+c+d=l+D,

Taking the average, latbtc+d)

.equation (2)

Combining the equation (1) and (2)

L= 36420
4

errors in 35
Thus 38 inch end standard has been calibrated and by this method the unknown
inch bar and 2 inch blocks are eliminated.
Calibration of end bar:
calibrating two end bars of each 500mm basic
The following procedure may be adopted for
surface plate and two 500mm bars A and
length.A meter 1000mm calibrated bar wrung to a
B are wrung together to form abasic
length of one meter, which was wrung to the surface
noted. Then
figure (a). The difference in height X1 is
plate adjacent to a meter bar as shown in the
500mm length bars A and B to determine
comparison was made between the two
difference in length as shown in figure (b).
LA=length of 500mm bar A, Lg=length of 500mm bar B
andB.
bar when combined with bars A
X1=difference in length of one meter length
and B.
X=difference in length between bars A
.equation (1)
From figure (a): L-X1=LatLg..
..equation (2)
From figure (b): Lg= LatX
Substituting the equation (2) in (1)
L-X=Lat LatX2

L-X, =2LatX
Production, PESCE, Mandya-571401
Krishna, Professor, Department of lndustrialand
Dr N.L Murali
 Page....9

L-X1-X2
2L = L-X1-X2,then L¡=
2

Lg= LatX2
Slip Gauge:
These may be used as reference standards for transferring the dimension of the unit of lengtn
Trom the primary standard to gauge blocks of lower accuracy and for the verification and
graduation of measuring apparatus. These are high carbon steel hardened, ground and lapped
rectangular blocks, having cross sectional area of 30 mm*10mm. Their opposite faces are tlat,
parallel and are accurately the stated distance apart. The opposite faces are of such a high
degree of surface finish, that when the blocks are pressed together with a slight twist by hand,
they will wring together. They will remain firmly attached to each other. They are supplied in
sets of 112 pieces to 32 pieces. Due to properties of slip gauges, they are built up by, wringing
the
Intocombination which gives size, varying by steps of 0.01 mm and the overall accuracy is of
order of 0.00025mm. Slip gauges with three basic forms are commonly found, these are
rectangular, square with centre hole, and square without centre hole.

Wringing Phenomena: is nothing but combining the faces of slipgauges one over the other.
Due to adhesion property of slipgauges, they will stick to each other. This is because of very
high degree of surface finish of the measuring faces.

G,

G,
G
Pressure

Steps of Wringing Phenomena, Gi and G2 are two slip gauges

Numerical Problem on building of slip gauges:

Dr N.L Murali Krishna, Professor, Department of lndustrial and Production, PESCE, Mandya-57 1401