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LAB Manual PHY260

Applied Science AS120 (Universiti Teknologi MARA)

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PHY260/FSG/FIZIK/UiTM TAPAH

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

CAWANGAN PERAK KAMPUS TAPAH

PHY 260

OPTICS AND WAVES

LABORATORY MANUAL

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Laboratory Report Format

(Marks will be deducted on reports which do not follow this format!)

Title: Example: Young’s double slits

Objective: Example: To determine the wavelength of the light source using a diffraction gratings.

Apparatus: List the equipment, materials and quantities used in your experiment.

Procedure: Give an accurate detailed description of what was done in the experiment in the past
tense. It should be clear enough to be replicated by another person. Include diagrams if necessary.

Results & Data: Record and arrange all data collected in a table or other appropriate form. Include
any calculations as well.

Calculations: Show all calculations and draw a graph if the experiment requires you to do so.

Discussion: Compare your results with theoretical or standard value. Discuss major sources of
errors and how to fix them.

Conclusion: Draw conclusions according to your objective

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PHY260/FSG/FIZIK/UiTM TAPAH

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA, PERAK

TAPAH CAMPUS

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (PHY260)

LABORATORY REPORT

EXPERIMENT NO: 1

TITLE: REFLECTION, REFRACTION AND DISPERSION OF LIGHT

GROUP:

LAB GROUP NO:

GROUP MEMBERS:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

DATE OF EXPERIMENT:

DATE OF SUBMISSION:

LECTURER:

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Experiment 1

Title: Reflection, Refraction and Dispersion of Light

Pre lab discussions:

Objective:

To observe the interactions of light with transparent matter: reflection, refraction, the index of
refraction, and dispersion of light during refraction.

Apparatus:

1. Ray box
2. Rectangular Lucite slab
3. Prism
4. Plane mirror
5. Drafting equipment: two triangles; a protractor; a sharpened pencil; (8½ x 11 in.) white paper;
tape; a desk lamp.

Theory

(A)The Law of Reflection: The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. Both angles are
measured between the light ray and the normal. (See Fig. 1.)

Law of reflection: ࣂൌ᫔

The normal to the surface

Incident light ray Ref lected light ray

Incident Ref lected

angle angle

 

Ref lecting surface

Fig. 1 The law of reflection  = 

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(B) The Law of Refraction (Snell’s law): The product of the sine of the angle of incidence times
the indices of refraction of the first media equals the product of the sine of the angle of refraction
times the indices of refraction of the second media. Again, both angles are measured between
the normal to the refracting surface and the corresponding rays.

Snell's Law: n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 (2)

(C) Total Internal Reflection:

From Equation 2 we find
n1 · sin θ1 = sin θ2
n2

If it happens that: n1 · sin θ1 > 1

n2

Snell’s law breaks down since the sine of an angle is always less than 1. In this case, rather than refraction,
a reflection occurs inside the media n2. This reflection obeys the law of reflection, according to formula
(1) and is called total internal reflection.

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Procedure Part I: Reflection

Note: The quality of your results in this experiment will depend much upon the accuracy of your
drawings.

(a) Tape a regular 8½” by 11” sheet of white paper to the table and place the mirror vertically
approximately 10 cm from the top of the paper. (See Fig.3.) Using a sharp pencil, lightly outline the
mirror's position on the paper.

(b) Remove the mirror; mark a point K on the outline of the mirror and draw the normal through K,
marking it by a centerline using a protractor.

(c) Replace the mirror back over its outline. Now you have the normal drawn to the mirror's surface and
can start doing the experiment. Take the ray box and direct the light at an angle of ~20o at the point K.
This is your first angle of incidence θ1. Mark a point M1 on this ray (close to the ray box), as well as a point
N1 on the reflected ray a similar distance. When you have completed these steps, your drawing should
look similar to that of Fig. 4 below.

Points M1, K and N1 will allow you to trace the incident and reflected rays, and to measure angles θ1 and
1.

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ray-box normal

M
1
  N
1 1 1
incident ray
reflected ray

K
mirror

Fig. 4 Reflection of Light

(d) Now carefully move the ray box (do not move the mirror) and repeat step (c) for four other angles of
incidence evenly spaced between 200 and 700. Label the new points M2, N2, M3, N3, etc. until all five
pairs are selected. Upon completing this, remove the mirror, turn on the desk lamp and draw the lines:
incident M1-K; reflected K-N1, etc. tracing all five incident rays and the corresponding five reflected rays.

Procedure Part II: Refraction

(e) Turn the sheet over and tape it, as before, to the table but now in the vertical position. Place the Lucite
slab flat in a horizontal position as shown. Outline the slab. Remove it and mark a point K about one-third
from the left edge at the top of the slab. This is the mark for the normal. Now construct the normal through
K, marking it by a centerline. (See Fig. 5.)

(f) Replace the slab. Direct a ray at point K at an angle of incidence ~200; mark a point M (near the ray
box). Note: the refracted ray inside the slab will not be visible, but an emerging ray will be visible. Now
you need to mark two points, P and Q, as far apart as practical, on the emerging ray. From this you will be
able to locate the point of emergence B and reconstruct the path KB of the ray inside the slab. (See Fig.
5.)

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ray-box
the normal

M
1 ~ 18 cm

incident ray

2

B
Lucite slab P

emerging ray
Q

Fig. 5 Refraction of light

(g) By moving the ray box (do not move the slab) repeat (f) for four other angles of incidence, evenly
spaced between 200 and 700. Label all relevant points with subscripts from “2” to “5”, namely: M1, P1,
Q1, etc.

Procedure Part III: Total Internal Reflection

(h) Direct a ray to one of your equilateral Lucite prisms as in Fig. 6. The angle  should be between 75º
and 850. Arrange for the total internal reflection at point B, near the middle of the second side of the
prism. Outline the prism and mark the incident and emerging rays by dots. Also mark the point B, which
can be detected by a glow.

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Result/Data

Part I: Reflection

Experiment θ Ѱ θ-Ѱ
1
2
3
4
5

Part II: Refraction

Run # θ1 θ2 n
1
2
3
4
5

Part III: Internal Reflection

(a) Measure the angles α and β, as per Fig. 6, and display them in your report.

(b) Should the angles α and β be the same or not?

Explain your reasoning (Hint: use geometrical reasoning and Snell’s Law.
No calculations are needed).

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PHY260/FSG/FIZIK/UiTM TAPAH

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA, PERAK

TAPAH CAMPUS

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (PHY260)

LABORATORY REPORT

EXPERIMENT NO: 2

TITLE: REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A PRISM

GROUP:

LAB GROUP NO:

GROUP MEMBERS:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

DATE OF EXPERIMENT:

DATE OF SUBMISSION:

LECTURER:

10

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EXPERIMENT 2
Title: Refractive Index of a Prism
Pre Lab Discussion.
1. Explain the meaning of the phrase ‘the refractive index of water is 1.33’.
2. What happens to the velocity of light as it moves from air into a medium of higher optical density?

Objective
1. To determine the refractive index of a glass prism using the Minimum Deviation Method.

Apparatus
1. Spectrometer
2. Lamp holder
3. Sodium lamp
4. Glass prism (n= 1.60)

Theory
Refraction through a prism
Consider a ray HM incident on a prism of refracting angle A figure 1 below. If i1, r1, i2 and r2 are the angles
of incidence and refraction at M and N as shown and n is the refractive index of the prism then, by using
the law of refraction,

From the geometry of figure, we can write :

as the angle NST is the exerior angle of the triangle MSN. The deviation angle, D, of the light (angle BOK)
is given by:

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Minimum deviation
Experiment shows that as the angle of incidence i is increased from zero, the deviation D begins to
decrease continuously to some value Dm and then increases to maximum as i is increased furher to 90o.
Experiment and theory shows that the minimum deviation, Dm, of the light occurs when

and
Then we can write equation as:

Substituting equation gets the refractive index of the prism:

Procedure

Part I: Adjustment of the Spectrometer

Adjust the telescope as follows:
1. Place the telescope so that it is in line with the collimator. Focus the eyepiece on the cross
hairs, illuminated by the light from the slit by sliding the eyepiece lens in and out until the
cross hairs appear sharpest.
2. Finally, narrow down the slit as much as possible and set the telescope so that the point of
intersection of the cross hairs is symmetrically placed within this very narrow slit image.

Part 2: To find refracting angle, A

1. Place the prism on the table of the spectrometer with the angle to be measured directed
toward the lens of the collimator. The incident light illuminates the two surfaces containing
the refracting angle A with parallel light as Figure 2.
2. Turn the telescope till you gets an image formed by reflection on the surface the prism.
3. Determine the position of the telescope (A1) by reading the scale.
4. Turn the telescope in the opposite direction to get another image of the slit reflected on the
second face of the prism, determine the position (A2) in this case.
5. The angle of rotation of the telescope from T1 to T2 is equal to A1 + A2 = 2A, and hence the
angle of the prism, A can be obtained.

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Figure 2
To find the angle of minimum deviation, δm
1. Place the glass prism with its refracting angle A pointing away from collimator, as shown in
Figure 3.
2. Then, turn the telescope until an image of the slit is obtained on the cross-wires at the position
T1.
3. Rotate the table slowly so that angle of incidence decreases and the image of the slit is kept
on the cross-wires by moving the telescope at the same time.
4. Turn the telescope till you get spectral and measure the minimum deviation angle (δm) for
each spectral line, and record the results.
Note: The position of minimum deviation can be detected by looking to the spectrum through the
telescope and rotating the prism until the spectrum reverses its direction.

Figure 3

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Result/Data
Refracting angle, A:
VERNIER TELESCOPE READING FROM DIFFERENCE MEAN VALUE OF A
VALUE OF
θ = a – b = 2A
2A =
FIRST FACE SECOND FACE 2A/2
(V1 + V2)
MSR VSR TR (a) MSR VSR TR (b)
2

V1

V2

MSR-MAIN SCALE READING VSR-VERNIER SCALE READING TR = MSR+VSR = Total Reading.

Minimum Deviation Dm

SPECTRAL TELESCOPE READING FOR TELESCOPE READIMNG Difference Mean value

VERNIER
LINE COLOUR MINIMUM DEVIATION FROM DIRECT IMAGE δm = a – b of δm
MSR VSR TR (a) MSR VSR TR (b)

V1

V2

MSR-MAIN SCALE READING VSR-VERNIER SCALE READING TR = MSR+VSR = Total Reading.

Conclusion
Calculate the index of refraction of the glass prism using equation.

Discussions
Compare your result with the stated refraction index value of the glass. What are the major sources of
error? What are precautionary steps that you have taken in the experiment?

14

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PHY260/FSG/FIZIK/UiTM TAPAH

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA, PERAK

TAPAH CAMPUS

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (PHY260)

LABORATORY REPORT

EXPERIMENT NO: 3

TITLE: DETERMINING THE FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX LENS

GROUP:

LAB GROUP NO:

GROUP MEMBERS:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

DATE OF EXPERIMENT:

DATE OF SUBMISSION:

LECTURER:

15

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EXPERIMENT 3
Title: Determining the focal length of a convex lens

Pre Lab Discussion.

1. Why does a convex lens converge light rays?
2. When an object is positioned at more than twice the focal length of a convex lens, what are the
properties of its image?
Objective
1. To determine the focal length of a convex lens by using :
a) Len’s equation
b) Lens maker’s equation
Apparatus
1. Convex lens (n = 1.5)
2. Lens holder
3. Optical bench
4. Screen
5. Meter rule
6. Spherometer
7. Vernier Caliper

Theory
The focal length of a lens, f, is related to the object distance, p, and image distance, q, by lens equation.

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Procedure
1. Place the convex lens somewhere in the middle of the optical bench.
2. Fix a source light at a distance of 20 cm from the lens. This is known as an object, p.
3. Adjust the screen on behind of the lens to get a sharp image. This is known as an image distant, q
4. Change the object distance, 17 cm, 15 cm, 13 and 10 cm.
5. Repeat the step (3) for each different object distance.
6. Record all your data in suitable table.

Result/Data

p (cm) q (cm) f (cm)

30

27

24

21

Calculations
1. Calculate the focal length using equation (1) and find the average value.

Discussions
Estimate the error for f. What are the major sources of error? What are the precautionary steps that you
have taken in the experiment?

17

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PHY260/FSG/FIZIK/UiTM TAPAH

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA, PERAK

TAPAH CAMPUS

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (PHY260)

LABORATORY REPORT

EXPERIMENT NO: 4

TITLE: DETERMINING THE FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONCAVE LENS

GROUP:

LAB GROUP NO:

GROUP MEMBERS:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

DATE OF EXPERIMENT:

DATE OF SUBMISSION:

LECTURER:

18

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EXPERIMENT 4

Title: Determining the focal length of a concave lens

Pre Lab Discussion.

1. What is the difference between converging and diverging lens?
2. Can a diverging lens form a real image of a real object?

Objective
1. To determine the focal length of a diverging lens by using :
a) Concave mirror

Apparatus
1. Diverging lens (n = 1.5)
2. Concave mirror
3. Lens holder
4. Optical bench
5. Screen
6. Meter rule
7. Spherometer
8. Vernier Caliper

Theory

The focal length of a lens, f, is related to the object distance, p, and image distance, q, by lens equation.

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Procedure

1. Set up the source, O in front of the mirror, M at the same height as the middle of the mirror
(Figure 3a)
2. Move the M until image of source is sharply in focus on a screen beside O. Measure the distance
MO; this is the radius of curvature R of mirror, M.
3. Place the diverging lens, L between O and M (Figure 3b). Move the object back from a position
O1 to O2 farther from the mirror, where sharp image of the source is now focused beside the
object. This image is produced by reflection from M.
4. Measure the distance LO2 or p, and distance x from L to M.
5. By moving the lens, repeat the experiment four times.
6. Record all your data in suitable table.

Result/data

MO1(cm) LM = x(cm) LO2 = p(cm) Q = - (R-x) (cm) f (cm)

Average

Calculations

Calculate the focal length using the equation (1) and find the average value.

Discussions
Estimate the error for f. What are the major sources of error? What are the precautionary steps that you
have taken in the experiment?

20

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PHY260/FSG/FIZIK/UiTM TAPAH

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA, PERAK

TAPAH CAMPUS

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (PHY260)

LABORATORY REPORT

EXPERIMENT NO: 5

TITLE: DETERMINING THE FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX MIRROR

GROUP:

LAB GROUP NO:

GROUP MEMBERS:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

DATE OF EXPERIMENT:

DATE OF SUBMISSION:

LECTURER:

21

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EXPERIMENT 5

Title: Determining the focal length of a convex mirror

Pre Lab Discussion.

1. Why should the diameter of a convex mirror be very much less compared to its radius of curvature?
2. When an object is positioned between the focal length, F, and 2F of a convex mirror, what are the
properties of its image?

Objective
1. To determine the focal length of a convex mirror:
a) Using a converging lens

Apparatus
1. Convex lens (n = 1.5)
2. Convex mirror
3. Lens holder
4. Optical bench
5. Screen
6. Meter rule

Theory

A converging lens converges light rays from a point object to a single point. When a screen is placed at
the point of converge, a sharp image of the object is formed on it.

When a convex mirror is placed between the converging lens and the screen, the mirror will reflect the
rays and stop them from reaching the screen. If the convex mirror is ‘R’ (the radius of curvature of the
mirror) distance away from the screen, the rays will be incident along the normal line of the mirror and
will be reflected back along the same path. The image will then be formed at the same position as the
object. (Refer to Fig. 4.1)

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Procedure

1. Place an object, O, at one end of the optical bench and place a screen S1 besides it.
2. Place the converging lens, L, near the object, and screen S2 of the optical bench to get image
which is inverted and large.
3. Fixed the position of the lens and the screen, S2.
4. Place the convex mirror, M, between the lens, L and screen, S2.
5. Adjust the position of the convex mirror, M, until the rays reflected and form a sharp image on
screen, S1. (object and image must be same size)
6. Measure the distance, R, from the convex mirror to the screen, S2.
7. Move the lens, L, 1 cm from the object. Find another position for S2 when a sharp image is again
formed. Repeat step to get another three values for R.

Result / data
R1 = ____________ cm

R2 = ____________ cm

R3 = ____________ cm

Calculations
Calculate the average value of R

Discussions
Estimate the error for f. What are the major sources of error? What are the precautionary steps that you
have taken in the experiment?

23

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PHY260/FSG/FIZIK/UiTM TAPAH

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA, PERAK

TAPAH CAMPUS

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (PHY260)

LABORATORY REPORT

EXPERIMENT NO: 6

TITLE: MEASURING WAVELENGTHS USING A DIFFRACTION GRATINGS

GROUP:

LAB GROUP NO:

GROUP MEMBERS:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

NAME: STUDENT ID:

DATE OF EXPERIMENT:

DATE OF SUBMISSION:

LECTURER:

24

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Experiment 6

Title: Measuring wavelengths using a diffraction gratings

Pre-lab discussion

1. How does the interference patterns change:

a) when the number of slits in a diffraction grating is increased.
b) when light of shorter wavelength is used.

Objective
To determine the wavelength of a light source using a diffraction gratings.

Apparatus

1. Laser source
2. diffraction gratings
3. optical bench
4. screen
5. meter ruler
6. retort stands

Theory

A diffraction gratings consists of a very large number of uniformly spaced slits. One section of such a
grating is shown in Figure 8.1. As the light impinges on the grating, the light waves that fall between the
slits propagate straight on through. The light that impinges outside the slits, however, is absorbed or
reflected backward. At certain points in the forward direction the light passing through the slits will be in
phase, and will constructively interfere. The condition for constructive interference can be understood by
studying Figure 8.1: Whenever the difference in path length between the light passing through different
slits is an integral number of wavelengths of the incident light, the light from each of these slits will be in
phase, and the it will form an image at the specified location. Constructive interference occur when,
d sin  = m (8.1)

where d is the distance between adjacent slits,

θ is the angle the re-created image makes with
the normal to the grating surface,
λ is the wavelength of the light,
and m = 0, 1, 2, . . . is the number of orders.

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As shown in Figure 8.2, the angle θ can be determined using:

y
tan  =
L

(8.2)

Figure 8.1

METHOD

Figure 8.2

1. Place a laser source at one end of the optical bench and place a screen S at a distance of 30 cm from
the laser source. Switch on the laser. You should observe a bright dot due to the laser beam on the
screen.
2. Place the diffraction grating 10 cm from the laser source so that the laser beam diffracts through the
grating. Ensure the grating is parallel to the screen. Note the number of liners per mm as stated on the
grating card.
3. Measure the normal distance (marked as L on the diagram below) from the grating to the screen.
Record this value.
4. Observe the series of bright dots on the screen. The central dot, which passes through the grating un-
deflected, is called the zero order images. Symmetrically each side of this central spot is the 1st, 2nd,
3rd etc. order images.

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5. Measure the distance 2y (from the 2nd order image on the left to 2nd order image on the right) and
record your data.
6. Adjust the screen- grating distance and measure the new 2y value.
7. Repeat step 6 for another 2 screen – grating distances, L.

RESULTS & DATA

Number of lines per mm, N = _____________

Grating separation, d=1/N = _____________ m

L Distance from 2nd order image to 2nd Y

order image, 2y (m)
(m) (m)

1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

Table 8.1

CALCULATIONS

Calculate tan ϴ using equation (8.2) and determine ϴ. Then calculate λ using equation (8.1). Finally,
calculate the average wavelength of the light source.

y
tan  = ϴ d sin 
L =
m
(m)

7. 8. 9.

Average

Table 8.2

DISCUSSIONS
Estimate the error for λ. Compare this value to the stated λ value of the laser source. What are the major
sources of error? What are the precautionary steps that you have taken in the experiment?

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