EVAPORATORS

1. INTRODUCTION
Evaporation is the removal of solvent as vapor from a solution, slurry or suspension
of solid in a liquid. The aim is to concentrate a non-volatile solute, such as organic
compounds, inorganic salts, acids or bases from a solvent. Common solutes are caustic
soda, caustic potash, sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, phosphoric acid, and urea.
The most common solvent in most of the evaporation systems is water.
Evaporation differs from the other mass transfer operations such as distillation and
drying. In distillation, the components of a solution are separated depending upon
their distribution between vapor and liquid phases based on the difference of relative
volatility of the substances. Removal of moisture from a substance in presence of a
hot gas stream to carry away the moisture leaving a solid residue as the product is
generally called drying. Evaporation is normally stopped before the solute starts to
precipitate in the operation of an evaporator.
Invention of evaporators: Norbert Rillieux is famous for his invention of the
multiple effect pan evaporator for sugar refining process in 1881. Rillieux was born in
New Orleans, Louisiana in 1806. He used the steam generated from one pan to heat
the sugar juice in the next pan for energy efficient means of water evaporation.

2. TYPE OF EVAPORATORS
Evaporator consists of a heat exchanger for boiling the solution with special
provisions for separation of liquid and vapor phases. Most of the industrial
evaporators have tubular heating surfaces. The tubes may be horizontal or vertical,
long or short; the liquid may be inside or outside the tubes.
2.1. Short-Tube Vertical Evaporators
Short-tube vertical evaporators are the oldest but still widely used in sugar industry
in evaporation of cane-sugar juice. These are also known as calandria or Robert
evaporators. This evaporator was first built by Robert. It became so common in
process industry that this evaporator is sometimes known as standard evaporator.
Short-tube vertical evaporators consist of a short tube bundle (about 4 to 10 ft in
length) enclosed in a cylindrical shell. This is called calandria. A evaporator of this
type is shown in Figure 3.1. The feed is introduced above the upper tube sheet and
steam is introduced to the shell or steam chest of the calandria. The solution is heated
and partly vaporized in the tubes.
The central tube in a calandria is of longer diameter. Typically it’s downcomer area is
taken as 40 to 70% of the total cross sectional area of tubes. The circulation rate
through the downcomer/downtake is many times the feed rate. The flow area of the
downtake is normally approximately equal to the total tubular flow area.

Figure 3.1. Calandria type evaporator.

2.2. Basket-type Vertical Evaporators

The construction and operational features of basket-type evaporators are very similar
to those of the standard evaporator except that the downtake is annular. The tube
bundle with fixed tube sheets forms a basket hung in the centre of the evaporator from
internal brackets. The diameter of the tube bundle is smaller than the diameter of
evaporator vessel, thus forming an annular space for circulation of liquid. The tube
bundle can be removed for the purpose of cleaning and maintenance and thus basket
evaporators are more suitable than standard evaporators for scale forming solutions.
The vapor generated strikes a deflector plate fixed close to the steam pipe that reduces
entrained liquid droplets from the vapor.
2.3. Long-Tube Vertical Evaporators
This is another most widely employed natural circulation evaporator because it is
often the cheapest per unit of capacity. The long vertical tube bundle is fixed with a
shell that extends into a larger diameter vapor chamber at the top (Figure 3.2). The
long-tube vertical (LTV) evaporator consists of one pass shell and tube heat
exchanger. In this type of evaporator, the liquid flows as a thin film on the walls of
long (from 12 to 30 feet in length) and vertical heated tube. Both rising film and
falling types are used. Tube length usually varies from 20 to 65 ft. The main advantage
of this type of evaporators is higher heat transfer rate. The feed enters at the bottom and
the liquid starts boiling at lower part of the tube. The LTV evaporators are commonly
used in concentrating black liquors in the paper and pulp industries.

Figure 3.2. Long-Tube Vertical Evaporators.

2.4. Falling Film Evaporators
In a falling film evaporator, the liquid is fed at the top of the tubes in a vertical tube
bundle. The liquid is allowed to flow down through the inner wall of the tubes as a
film. As the liquid travels down the tubes the solvent vaporizes and the concentration
gradually increases. Vapor and liquid are usually separated at the bottom of the tubes
and the thick liquor is taken out. Evaporator liquid is recirculated through the tubes by
a pump below the vapor-liquid separator. This type of evaporator is illustrated in
Figure 3.3. The distribution of liquid in the inner wall of the tubes greatly affects the
performance of this type of evaporator.
The falling film evaporator is largely used for concentration of fruit juices and heat
sensitive materials because of the low holdup time. The device is suitable for scale-
forming solutions as boiling occur on the surface of the film.

Figure 3.3. Falling-film evaporator.

2.5. Rising or Climbing Film Evaporators
The LTV evaporator is frequently called a rising or climbing film evaporator. The
liquid starts boiling at the lower part of the tube and the liquid and vapor flow upward
through the tube. If the heat transfer rate is significantly higher, the ascending flows
generated due to higher specific volume of the vapor-liquid mixture, causes liquid and
vapor to flow upwards in parallel flow. The liquid flows as a thin film along the tube
wall. This co-current upward movement against gravity has the advantageous effect
of creating a high degree of turbulence in the liquid. This is useful during evaporation
of highly viscous and fouling solutions.

2.6. Forced Circulation Evaporators

Forced circulation evaporators are usually more costly than natural circulation
evaporators. However the natural circulation evaporators are not suitable under some
situations such as:
- highly viscous solutions due to low heat transfer coefficient
- solution containing suspended particles
- for heat sensitive materials
All these problems may be overcome when the liquid is circulated at high velocity
through the heat exchanger tubes to enhance the heat transfer rate and inhibit particle
deposition. Any evaporator that uses pump to ensure higher circulation velocity is
called a forced circulation evaporator. The main components of a forced circulation
evaporator are a tubular shell and tube heat exchanger (either horizontal or vertical), a
flash chamber (separator) mounted above the heat exchanger and a circulating pump
(Figure 3.4). The solution is heated in the heat exchanger without boiling and the
superheated solution flashes off (partially evaporated) at a lower pressure are reduced
in the flash chamber. The pump pumps feed and liquor from the flash chamber and
forces it through the heat exchanger tubes back to the flash chamber.

Forced circulation evaporator is commonly used for concentration of caustic and brine
solutions and also in evaporation of corrosive solution.

Figure 3.4. Vertical tube forced-circulation evaporator.

2.7 Agitated Thin Film Evaporator
Agitated thin film evaporator consists of a vertical steam-jacketed cylinder and the
feed solution flows down as a film along the inner surface of large diameter jacket
(Figure 3.5). Liquid is distributed on the tube wall by a rotating assembly of blades
mounted on shaft placed coaxially with the inner tube. The blades maintain a close
clearance of around 1.5 mm or less from the inner tube wall.
The main advantage is that rotating blades permits handling of extremely viscous
solutions. The device is suitable to concentrate solutions having viscosity as high as
up to 100 P.

Figure 3.5. Agitated thin-film evaporator.

2.8. Gasketed Plate Evaporator
The gasketed-plate evaporator is also called the plate evaporator because the design is
similar to that of a plate heat exchanger. A number of embossed plates with four
corner openings are mounted by an upper and a bottom carrying bar. The gasket is
placed at the periphery of the plates. The interfering gaskets of two adjacent plates
prevent the mixing of the fluids and lead the fluid to the respective flow path through
the corner opening (Figure 3.6). The fluids may either flow in series or parallel
depending on the gasket arrangement.
The heat transfer coefficient is greatly enhanced due to high turbulent flow through
narrow passages. This evaporator is suitable for high viscous, fouling, foaming and
heat sensitive solutions.
This type of evaporators is mainly used for concentration of food products,
pharmaceuticals, emulsions, glue, etc.
 Figure 3.6. Plate-evaporator.

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Lecture 2: Methods of Feeding of Evaporators
3. METHODS OF FEEDING OF EVAPORATORS
Evaporators are classified by the number of effects. In case of a single-effect evaporator,
the vapor from the boiling liquor is condensed and the concentrated product is withdrawn
from the bottom of the evaporator. Although the operation is simple, the device does not
use steam efficiently. Typically 1.1 to 1.3 kg of steam is required to evaporate 1 kg of
water.
The steam consumption per unit mass of water evaporated can be increased by putting more
than one evaporator in series such that the vapor from one evaporator is used in the second
evaporator for heating. The vapor from the second evaporator is condensed and the
arrangement is called double-effect evaporators. The heat from the vapor generated in
the first evaporator is used in the second evaporator. Evaporation of water is nearly
doubled in double effect evaporation system compared to single effect per unit mass of
steam used. Additional effects can be added in series in the same way to get a triple-effect
evaporator, quadruple-effect evaporator and so on. There are several configurations based
on feeding arrangement.
3.1. Forward feed
The typical feeding method of multi-effect evaporators is forward. Both feed and steam
are introduced in the first effect and the feed passed from effect to effect parallel to
the vapor from the earlier effect. Concentration increases from the first effect to the last.
Forward feeding operation is helpful when the concentrated product may degenerate if
exposed to high temperature. The product is withdrawn from the last effect. It requires a
pump for feeding of dilute solution to the first effect. A pump removes thick liquor from
the last effect. The liquid from one effect to the next effect also can be transferred without
a pump as the flow occurs in the direction of decreasing pressure. The arrangement of
forward feeding is shown in Figure 3.7a.

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Advantage of Forward Feed Multiple Effect Evaporator :

• In this arrangement the feed and steam introduced in the first effect and pressure in
the first effect is highest and pressure in last effect is minimum, so transfer of feed
from one effect to another can be done without pump.
• Product is obtained at lowest temperature.
• This method is suitable for scale-forming liquids because concentrated product is
subjected to lowest temperature.
Disadvantage of Forward Feed Multiple Effect Evaporator :

• The forward feed configuration can not used in the desalination industry because it
has a more complex layout than the parallel feed configuration.
• It is not suitable for cold feed because, the steam input in effect-1 raises the
temperature of the feed, and a small amount of heat is supplied as latent heat of
vaporization. Therefore, amount of vapor produced will be less than the amount of
steam supplied. Lower amount of vapor in effect-1 produces lower amount of vapor
in the subsequent effects. Therefore, the overall economy is lower.
Application of Forward Feed Multiple Effect Evaporator :

• This method of operation is used when the feed is hot or when the final concentrated
product might be damaged at high temperatures (in Pharmaeutical Industry).
• Pulp and Paper Industry
• Sugar Factory
3.2. Backward feed
In backward feed configuration, the feed enters at the last effect (coldest effect) and is
pumped through the successive effects. The product is withdrawn from the first effect

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 (hottest) where the steam is introduced (Figure 3.7b). This method of feeding requires a
pump between each pair of effects to transfer liquid from lower pressure effects to higher
pressure effects. It is advantageous when cold feed entering needs to be heated to a lower
temperature than in forward feed operation. Backward feed is commonly used when
products are viscous and exposure to higher temperature increases the rate of heat transfer
due to reduction in viscosity of the liquid.

Advantage of Backward Feed Multiple Effect Evaporator :

• This method of reverse feed is advantageous when the feed is cold since a smaller
amount of fresh cold, liquid must be heated to the higher temperatures in the second
and first effects.

• The method is suitable for viscous products, because highly concentrated product is
at highest temperature, hence lower viscosity (→ higher heat transfer → higher
capacity)

Disadvantage of Backward Feed Multiple Effect Evaporator :

• Liquid pumps must be used in each effect, since the flow is from low to high pressure.

Application of Backward Feed Multiple Effect Evaporator :

• Milk & Yogurt Factory

3.3. Mixed feed

In the mixed feed operation, the dilute feed liquid enters at an intermediate effect and flows

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in the next higher effect till it reaches the last effect of the series. In this section, liquid flows
in the forward feed mode. Partly concentrated liquor is then pumped back to the effect before
the one to which the fresh feed was introduced for further concentration as shown in Figure
3.7c. Mixed feed arrangement eliminates some of the pumps needed in backward
configuration as flow occurs due to pressure difference whenever applicable.

3.4. Parallel feed

The fresh feed is introduced to each effect and in this configuration the product is
withdrawn of from the same effect in parallel feed operation (Figure 3.7d). In parallel
feeding, there is no transfer of liquid from one effect to another effect. It is used
primarily when the feed is saturated and the product is solid containing slurry. This is most
common in crystallizing evaporators

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4. PERFORMANCE OF EVAPORATORS (CAPACITY
AND ECONOMY)
The performance of a steam-heated evaporator is measured in terms of its capacity and
economy. Capacity is defined as the number of kilogram of water vaporized per hour.
Economy (or steam economy) is the number kilogram of water vaporized from all the
effects per kilogram of steam used. For single effect evaporator, the steam economy is
about 0.8 (<1). The capacity is about n-times that of a single effect evaporator and the
economy is about 0.8n for a n-effect evaporators. However, pumps, interconnecting pipes
and valves are required for transfer of liquid from one effect to another effect that increases
both equipment and operating costs.

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