Chapter 6

GLASS

Glass is a versatile and widely used

construction material that is characterized
by its transparency, strength, durability, and
aesthetic appeal. It is commonly used in
windows, doors, skylights, facades, and
structural components of buildings, as well
as in decorative and artistic applications.

Glass is made by heating a mixture of silica

(sand), soda ash, and limestone to a high
temperature until it melts and then cooling
it rapidly to form a solid. The resulting
material is a non-crystalline solid that has a
range of properties depending on its
composition and processing.

One of the key features of glass as a

construction material is its transparency.
Glass allows natural light to enter buildings, creating a bright and open environment. It can also
be tinted or coated to reduce glare, controlsolar heat gain, or provide privacy.

Glass is also a strong and durable material that can withstand exposure to the elements and other
environmental factors without deteriorating or losingits properties over time. It can be designed
to have high strength and resistance to impact and breakage, as well as good thermal and
acoustic insulation properties.

In addition, glass is a highly versatile material that can be shaped, molded, cut, and decorated in
a variety of ways to achieve different visual effects. It can be colored, patterned, etched, or
laminated with other materials to createa wide range of decorative and functional applications.

Overall, glass is a valuable and indispensable construction material that continues to inspire
architects, designers, and engineers to push the boundaries of what is possible in building design
and construction.

Laminated Glass

Laminated glass is created by layering multiple pieces of glass with a layer of plastic called PVB
(Polyvinyl butyral) in between them. This type of glass is frequently used for safety purposes
and is referred to as safety glazing. Safety glazing is glass that has been processed to be less
prone to breaking and, most importantly, to minimize the potential for severe injury in the
event of human contact. If laminated glass is subjected to a high-impact force, one side may
break without causing the otherside to shatter. Even if the glass does break, the pieces will
remain attached together in a spider-web pattern. Laminated glass is commonly used for
exterior glass, while tempered glass is typically used for interior applications in homes, such as
shower doors, but is suitable for tall commercial buildings to protect against weather damage.
 Figure 6.1 Laminated Glass

Tempered glass
Tempered glass, which is also called toughened glass, is
tougher than regular glass, but it can still break. However,
tempered glass is considered to be a safer option than regular
glass because it is much more resilient and it breaks into
smaller, less dangerous pieces that are similar to pebbles
rather than sharp, jagged shards. Like laminated glass,
tempered glass may break into a pattern of interlocking pieces
and remain in its frame when it's impacted, but sometimes the
broken pieces can come outof their frame since they are only
attached to neighboring pieces.

Figure 6.2 Cracking of Tempered Glass vs. Laminated Glass

 Parts of the Window

Balancing act of glass in construction

Figure 6.3 Low-e coatings on approved glass surfaces.

The window-to-wall ratio (WWR) of a building is calculated by dividing the total glazed area
of the building by its exterior envelope wall area. This ratio has a significant impacton the
energy performance of the building. While increasing the number of windows or glass can
improve the amount of natural light, it can also increase the strain on the heating, ventilation,
and air conditioning (HVAC) system. To ensure optimal performance, architects or design
teams may specify glass with a coating that helps regulate the building's temperature,
depending on the climate. When selecting theappropriate glass and coatings, architects take
into account the U-factor (or U-value), which measures the heat gain or loss due to
temperature differences, the solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC), which represents the amount
of the sun's energy transferred asheat through the window, and the visible transmittance of
glass, which measures the amount of light passing through it. However, even with the
selection of a top-performing low-emissivity (low-e) coating, architects do not need to
compromise on their design vision to achieve the necessary performance. Sustainable design
and the pursuit of theZero Carbon Energy Standard in Canada has encouraged architects to
look for productsthat combine aesthetics with required performance.
Material Testing
Glass testing in construction refers to the process of testing the physical and mechanical
properties of glass used in building construction. This is done to ensure that the glass meets
the necessary safety standards and can withstand the loads and stresses it will be subjected
to during its lifespan.

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has developed a number of standard
test methods for evaluating various properties of glass. Some of thecommon ASTM tests for
glass include:
1. ASTM C1036 - Standard Test Method for Flat Glass. This test method covers the
determination of the thickness, flatness, and surface quality of flat glass.
2. ASTM C1048 - Standard Specification for Heat-Strengthened and Fully Tempered
Flat Glass. This test method covers the evaluation of heat-strengthened and fully tempered
flat glass products for use in buildings, including safety glazing applications.
3. ASTM C1376 - Standard Test Method for Determination of Structural Performance
of Glass. This test method evaluates the structural performance of glass when subjected to a
static load, such as the amount of deflection, bending stress, and tensile stress.
4. ASTM C158 - Standard Test Method for Strength of Glass by Flexure (Determination
of Modulus of Rupture). This test method determines the modulus of rupture of glass
specimens subjected to a bending load.
5. ASTM C1049 - Standard Specification for Laminated Glass. This test method covers
the evaluation of laminated glass products for use in buildings, including safety glazing
applications.

These are just a few examples of the many ASTM test methods available for testing glass. The
appropriate test method(s) will depend on the specific properties and characteristics of the
glass being tested and the intended application of the glass
The testing can include various properties such as:
1. Strength: The ability of the glass to resist breakage under applied loads, such as wind,
snow, or impact.

2. Durability: The ability of the glass to withstand exposure to the environment, such as
sunlight, temperature changes, and moisture.

3. Thermal performance: The ability of the glass to provide insulation against heat
transfer.

4. Sound insulation: The ability of the glass to reduce the transmission of sound fromone
side to the other.
5. Safety: The ability of the glass to break in a manner that does not create hazardous
shards or fragments.

6. Optical properties: The ability of the glass to transmit light and to control glare and
solar gain.

Various testing methods and standards are used to assess the performance of glass, such as
ASTM International and European standards. Testing can be done in specialized laboratories
or on-site, and the results are used to determine the suitability of the glass for its intended
use in construction.
a. Label Functions

Glass has several label functions as a construction material, including:

1. Aesthetic appeal - Glass is a popular choice for construction due to itsmodern and
sleek appearance. It can add visual interest to a building and create a sense of
openness.
2. Transparency - Glass allows natural light to enter a building, which can improve the
indoor environment and reduce the need for artificial lighting. It can also provide
views of the surrounding environment.
3. Energy efficiency - Glass can be designed to have low emissivity coatings, which help
to reduce heat loss in cold climates and heat gain in warm climates. This can result
in significant energy savings for a building.
4. Durability - Glass is a strong and durable material that can withstand extreme
weather conditions and resist impacts.
5. Safety - Tempered glass is a type of glass that is designed to break into small,
rounded pieces when shattered, which reduces the risk of injury.
6. Sound insulation - Glass can be used to reduce noise pollution by blocking out
unwanted sounds from the environment.
7. Fire resistance - Fire-resistant glass is designed to withstand high temperatures and
prevent the spread of fire between different parts of a building.
8. Maintenance - Glass is relatively easy to clean and maintain, making it a popular
choice for large-scale glazing applications.
Properties

1. Composition Glass is typically made of silica, soda ash, andlimestone,

which are melted together at high temperatures to form a
molten liquid that is then cooledto form a solid.
2. Density The density of glass can range from around 2.4 to 2.8 grams
per cubic centimeter (g/cm3), depending on its
composition and processing.
3. Thermal expansion Glass has a relatively low coefficient of thermal expansion,
which means it expands and contracts less than most other
materials when exposed to changes in temperature.
4. Refractive index Glass has a refractive index of around 1.5, which meansit
bends and reflects light differently than air or other
materials. This property is what gives glass its
characteristic transparency and ability to refract light into
rainbows.
5. Modulus of Glass has a high modulus of elasticity, which means it is
elasticity relatively stiff and inflexible compared to other materials.
This property can make it more brittle and prone to
cracking or shattering under certain conditions.
6. Chemical resistance Glass is generally resistant to chemical attack fromacids,
bases, and most other chemicals. However, it can be
susceptible to corrosion over time if exposed to certain
substances, such as water or alkali.
7. Impact resistance Glass can be designed to have high impact resistance,
which makes it suitable for use in applications where it
may be subjected to high loads or impacts, such as in
hurricane-resistant windows or structural glass systems.
Material Requirements

The basic material requirements for making glass include:

1. Silica (SiO2): This is the main component of glass, accounting for
approximately 70% of its composition. It is derived from sand, quartz, or other
types of silica minerals.
2. Soda Ash (Na2CO3): This is added to lower the melting point of silica and make
it easier to shape. It is derived from natural sources such as trona or sodium
carbonate.
3. Limestone (CaCO3): This is added to the mixture to act as a flux, which helps to
lower the melting point of the silica. It is usually sourced from natural deposits
or quarries.
4. Other additives: Other materials may be added to the mixture to impart
specific properties to the glass, such as color, durability, or resistance to heat.
For example, alumina is added to increase the strength of glass, while boron
oxide is added to increase its thermal resistance.
The process of making glass involves melting the raw materials in a furnace at high
temperatures, then shaping and cooling the glass into the desired form. The specific
composition of the glass may vary depending on its intended use, with different additives
and proportions used to achieve specific properties.
Other material requirements:
1. Quality: Glass used in construction should meet certain quality standards to ensure its
performance and safety. The glass should be free from defects such as bubbles, inclusions, or
surface scratches that can weaken its structural integrity.
2. Strength: Glass used in construction should be strong enough to withstand the loads and
stresses that it will be subjected to. This can include wind loads, thermal stresses, and impact
loads.
3. Thickness: The thickness of the glass used in construction will depend on the application
and the required level of strength and safety. Thicker glass will generally be stronger and
more resistant to breakage, but it will also be heavier and more expensive.
4. Transparency: Glass used in construction should be transparent enough to allow natural
light to enter the building and provide a view of the surroundings. However, it may also be
desirable to reduce glare or provide privacy by using tinted or coated glass.
5. Thermal performance: Glass used in construction should have good thermal
performance to help reduce energy consumption and improve occupant comfort. This can be
achieved by using insulated glass units or low-emissivity coatings that reduce heat transfer.

6. Acoustic performance: Glass used in construction should also have good acoustic
performance to help reduce unwanted noise from outside or inside the building. This can be
achieved by using thicker glass or laminated glass with an acoustic interlayer.
7. Sustainability: Glass used in construction should be produced using sustainable
practices and materials to minimize its environmental impact. This can include using
recycled glass or incorporating renewable energy sources into the production process.
Construction Requirements
1. Installation: Glass must be installed correctly to ensure its safety and performance. The
installation process will depend on the type of glass and its intended application. For
example, glass used in windows or facades may need to be installed in a frame or cladding
system to provide support and protection.
2. Support and anchorage: Glass used in construction must be supported and anchored
properly to prevent it from falling or breaking under wind loads or other environmental
stresses. This can involve using specialized hardware or anchor systems that are designed
to provide sufficient strength and flexibility.
3. Sealing: Glass used in construction must be sealed properly to prevent water infiltration,
air leakage, or other forms of moisture intrusion. This can involve using weatherstripping,
sealants, or gaskets that are compatible with the type of glass and surrounding materials.
4. Cleaning and maintenance: Glass used in construction must be cleaned and maintained
regularly to ensure its clarity, durability, and performance. This can involve using specialized
cleaning solutions, tools, and techniques that are safe and effective for the specific type of
glass and its surroundings.
5. Safety and security: Glass used in construction must also meet certain safety and
security requirements to protect occupants and surrounding areas from potential hazards
or threats. This can involve using laminated glass, tempered glass, or other specialized types
of glass that are designed to provide increased strength, impact resistance, or shatter
proofing.
Applications

1. Windows and doors - Glass is commonly used

in windows and doors to provide natural light,
ventilation, and views of the outside world. It
can be made in a variety of sizes, shapes, and
colors to meet specific design requirements.
2. Facades and curtain walls - Glass is
often used in building facades and
curtain walls to create a modern and
visually striking appearance. It can be
installed in a frameless or semi-
frameless system to provide a seamless
and transparent effect.

3. Skylights and atriums - Glass is also used in

skylights and atriums to bring natural light
into the interior of a building and create an
open and airy feeling. It can be installed in a
variety of shapes and configurations to meet
specific design requirements.

4. Structural glazing - Glass can be used as a structural component in a building bybeing attached
to the building's frame with high-strength adhesives or bolts. This creates a seamless and
transparent appearance that can be used for both interior and exterior applications.
 5. Balustrades and railings - Glass is commonly used in balustrades and railings toprovide a safe
and transparent barrier between different levels or areas. It can be installed in a variety of
configurations and thicknesses to meet specific safety requirements.

6. Decorative and artistic applications - Glass can also be used for decorative and artistic
applications in construction, such as in stained glass windows, art installations,or custom-
designed pieces. It can be molded, etched, or laminated with other materialsto create a wide
range of visual effects.

Glass as Construction Material

1. Windows
Glass is commonly used for windows in homes, offices, and other buildings. It provides a
clear view of the outside world while also letting in natural light.
2. Facades
Glass can be used as a building facade to create a striking and modern look. Glass facades
are often used in commercial buildings and high-rise apartments.
3. Skylights
Glass can be used to create skylights, which allow natural light to enter a building from
above. Skylights can be used in homes, offices, and other buildings.
4. Glass blocks
Glass blocks can be used to create walls and partitions in buildings. They allow light to
pass through while also providing privacy.
5. Balustrades
Glass balustrades can be used to create a barrier or railing around a balcony or staircase.
They provide safety while also allowing an unobstructed view.

6. Glass floors
Glass can be used to create floors in buildings, providing a unique and modern look. Glass
floors are often used in museums, galleries, and other public buildings.
 7. Glass roofs
Glass can be used to create a roof in buildings, allowing natural light to enter the building.
Glass roofs are often used in atriums and other large open spaces.

Types of Glass

There are several types of glass used in construction, including:

1. Float Glass: Float glass is the most commonly used type of glass in construction.It is made
by floating molten glass on a bed of molten tin to create a flat, uniform surface. Float glass can be
clear or tinted, and can also be coated with a variety of materials to improve its energy efficiency.

2. Tempered Glass: Tempered glass is a type of safety glass that is designed to break into
small, dull pieces when shattered. It is made by heating float glass to a very high temperature and
then rapidly cooling it, which increases its strength and durability.Tempered glass is commonly
used in areas where safety is a concern, such as in doors,windows, and shower enclosures.
3. Laminated Glass: Laminated glass is made by sandwiching a layer of plastic between two
or more layers of glass. This creates a type of safety glass that isextremely difficult to break and
is often used in areas where security is a concern. Laminated glass can also be used to improve
energy efficiency and reduce noise.

4. Insulated Glass: Insulated glass is made by sandwiching a layer of air or gas between two
or more layers of glass. This creates a type of glass that is highly energy efficient and is commonly
used in windows and doors.

5. Low-E Glass: Low-E (low-emissivity) glass is a type of glass that has a special coating
that reflects heat back into a room, making it more energy efficient. It is commonly used in
windows and doors to improve the energy efficiency of a building.

6. Tinted Glass: Tinted glass is made by adding a color pigment to the glass during the
manufacturing process. It is commonly used to reduce the amount of heat and glare that enters a
building, as well as for aesthetic purposes.
7. Reflective Glass: Reflective glass is a type of glass that has a reflective coating on one
side. It is commonly used in commercial buildings to reduce the amount of heat that enters a
building, as well as to provide privacy.

Manufacturing Process of Glass

The manufacturing process of glass involves several stages, which include:

1. Batch preparation: The process begins with the preparation of the raw materials, which
typically include sand, soda ash, limestone, and other additives. These materials are mixed
together in a batch house and then transported to the melting furnace.

2. Melting The batch materials are fed into a furnace, where they are heated to very high
 temperatures (around 1600°C) until they become molten. This molten glass is then held at
a high temperature to ensure that it is homogenous and free from bubbles.

3. Refining Once the glass has reached the desired temperature, it is transferred to a refining
tank, where any impurities or bubbles are removed. This is done by injecting a refining
agent into the glass, which helps to remove any gas bubbles and other impurities.

4. Forming: The molten glass is then ready to be formed into the desired shape. There are
several methods for forming glass, including:

- Float glass method: This involves pouring the molten glass onto a bed of molten tin,
which allows the glass to float on top and form a flat surface.

- Blown glass method: This involves blowing air into a molten glass blob to create a
hollow shape.

- Sheet glass method: This involves pouring the molten glass onto a flat surface and then
rolling it into a flat sheet.

- Pressed glass method: This involves pressing the molten glass into a mold to create a
specific shape.

5. Annealing Once the glass has been formed, it is cooled down slowly to prevent it from
cracking or shattering due to thermal stress. This process is called annealing and involves
slowly cooling the glass in a furnace until it reaches room temperature.

6. Finishing: After annealing, the glass is inspected for any defects or imperfections and then
cut, polished, and coated, as needed, to create the final product.

The exact process for manufacturing glass can vary depending on the specific type of glass being
produced and the equipment used in the manufacturing process.
Properties of Glass
 Advantages and Disadvantages of using Glass in Construction.

Advantages Disadvantages

Sound Insulation Security

Glass can be used to create soundproof Glass is not as secure as other

partitions or windows that can help reduce materials, such as steel or concrete. It
noise pollution. This can be particularly can be easily shattered or broken,
beneficial for buildings located in noisy making it easier for intruders to gain
environments, such as airports or busy access to a building.
streets.

Sustainability Glare and Reflection

Glass is a sustainable material that can be Glass can create glare and reflection,
recycled and reused. It can also be especially in areas with high sunlight
manufactured using renewable energy exposure. This can be problematic for
sources, such as solar or wind power, making people inside the building, causing
it an eco-friendly choice for construction. discomfort or distractions.

Versatility UV Radiation

It can be combined with other materials, such Glass does not provide protection
as steel or wood, to create a unique and against harmful UV radiation, which
modern aesthetic. can cause fading or damage to
furniture, fabrics, and artwork inside
the building. This may require
additional measures, such as applying
UV-resistant coatings or usingcurtains
or blinds to block out sunlight.