MARXISM

What is Marxism?

Marxism is a theory named after Karl Marx (1818–83), a German economist and social philosopher.
Interestingly, the term "Marxism" wasn’t used during Marx's lifetime. Marx himself once remarked, “All I
know is that I am not a Marxist,” possibly because he did not claim to offer a comprehensive worldview.
However, by the late 19th century, Russian Marxist G.V. Plekhanov described Marxism as a complete
worldview. Despite the name, Marxism is more than Marx’s ideas—it’s a broad and evolving tradition of
social thought.

Origins and Context

Marxism emerged in the mid-19th century as a response to the oppressive conditions caused by
capitalism. Earlier, liberalism, which arose in the 17th century, aimed to promote human freedom. By the
19th century, however, it was clear that liberalism’s focus on laissez-faire and free markets had failed to
achieve true freedom. Instead, capitalism created extreme wealth for a few (capitalists) while the
majority (workers) faced poverty, inequality, and injustice. Although legal and political equality was
achieved, economic inequality led to widespread suffering.

Early socialists responded to these problems, criticizing free-market competition and highlighting
workers' hardships. Thinkers like Saint-Simon and Louis Blanc in France proposed centralized economies,
while Robert Owen in England and Charles Fourier in France imagined ideal cooperative communities.
Proudhon in France advocated decentralized workers’ cooperatives. These thinkers diagnosed
capitalism’s flaws but lacked practical solutions, earning them the label "utopian socialists."

The Contribution of Marx and Engels

In the 1830s and 1840s, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels critiqued utopian socialism and introduced
"scientific socialism" to analyze and solve social problems. Their work provided a structured philosophy
now called Marxism. Key writings include the Communist Manifesto (1848), which emphasized the
working class’s role in shaping history and called for workers worldwide to unite for emancipation.
Marx’s other works, such as A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859) and Capital (Vol. I-
III), and Engels’ Anti-Dühring (1877-78), further developed these ideas.

Core Principles of Marxism

Marxism is a political and economic system aiming to build socialism on scientific foundations. It
analyzes societal issues through historical materialism, viewing history as driven by class struggles.
Conflict arises because one class owns and controls the means of production (e.g., land, factories,
capital), forcing another class to work under exploitative terms. Marxism argues that capitalism must be
overthrown to achieve social ownership of production, universal labor, and full development of
productive forces, leading to a classless society.
Classical and Neo-Marxism

Classical Marxism, founded by Marx and Engels, was further developed by thinkers like Lenin, Rosa
Luxemburg, and Mao Zedong. It focuses on how private property creates dominant and dependent
classes with conflicting interests, upheld by the dominant class’s ideological control. History progresses
through revolutionary struggles, ultimately leading to a classless society.

Neo-Marxism builds on these ideas, exploring deeper aspects of dominance, dependence, and the
distortions of modern civilization while seeking paths to human emancipation.

In summary, Marxism offers a scientific framework to understand societal issues and a vision of achieving
human freedom through the revolutionary transformation of society.

Young Marx

Karl Marx (1818–83) wrote early works that remained unpublished during his lifetime. These were
discovered in the archives of German Social Democrats in 1927 and later published as the Economic and
Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844. Unlike his later, more scientific work, these writings emphasize
humanist ideas on communism, particularly focusing on alienation and freedom. They critique the
dehumanizing effects of capitalism.

Main Tenets of Classical Marxism

Classical Marxism is based on key principles:

(a) Dialectical Materialism
(b) Historical Materialism
(c) Doctrine of Class Conflict
(d) Theory of Surplus Value

Dialectical Materialism

Marx adopted the dialectical method from German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel (1770–1831) and combined
it with materialism. Hegel believed that idea or consciousness was the essence of the universe, with
social institutions reflecting the evolving forms of ideas. This evolution occurred through inherent
tensions, where:

 A thesis (a partial truth) clashed with its antithesis (its opposite, also a partial truth).

 The clash produced a synthesis (a closer approximation to truth).

 This synthesis became a new thesis, repeating the process until reaching the "absolute idea" or
"absolute consciousness."

Marx, however, argued that matter (not ideas) is the essence of the universe, with social institutions
reflecting changing material conditions. Material conditions evolved through the same dialectical
process, driven by tensions, until they reached perfect conditions—a "rational mode of production."

Friedrich Engels further explained this in Anti-Dühring (1878), outlining three laws of material dialectics:
(a) Transformation of quantity into quality (and vice versa)
(b) Interpenetration of opposites
(c) Negation of negation
These principles describe how contradictions in material conditions drive progress, ultimately resolving
tensions. Class conflict is a key expression of this process.

Historical Materialism Simplified:

Historical materialism is a key idea in Marxism that explains how society develops over time. It says that
the economic system of a society—the way people produce, distribute, and exchange goods—shapes
everything else in society, including politics, culture, and social relationships. Marx believed that a
perfect society would ensure everyone's basic needs are met, but reaching this point takes a long time
and involves many imperfect stages.

Society's structure is divided into two parts:

1. Base: This is the foundation of society, made up of the mode of production. The mode of
production consists of:

o Forces of production: Tools, equipment, and human knowledge and skills used for
production.

o Relations of production: How production is organized and who owns what. It divides
society into two main groups: the "haves" (those who own the means of production)
and the "have-nots" (those who don’t).

2. Superstructure: This is the social, political, and cultural aspects of society that are built upon the
base. It includes things like laws, politics, religion, morals, art, and culture.

Forces of Production: These include the tools (like machines) and human knowledge (skills) required to
use them. As technology improves, people develop new skills to use this technology, pushing society
towards greater progress.

Relations of Production: This refers to how production is organized and who controls it. In any society,
this creates two main classes: those who own the tools for production and those who don’t. The conflict
between these two classes leads to social changes.

As the forces of production grow, they often conflict with existing relations of production. This tension
eventually causes a social revolution, where a new class rises to take over. This leads to the fall of the old
social system and the rise of a new one. This process continues throughout history, and Marx believed it
would eventually lead to the overthrow of capitalism and the creation of a classless society.

In short, historical materialism shows how economic systems and class struggles drive historical change,
leading to revolutions that reshape society.

Doctrine of Class Conflict

Class conflict, or class struggle, is central to historical materialism. The Communist Manifesto (1848)
begins with:
"The history of all hitherto society is the history of class struggles."
This refers to written history and does not include pre-history, which later came to be known as
primitive communism—societies with no private property and no class conflict. The Manifesto discusses
societies divided into opposing classes due to private property, such as:

 Freeman and slave

 Patrician and plebeian

 Lord and serf

 Guild-master and journeyman

These opposing classes have fought throughout history, with outcomes either reshaping society or
leading to mutual ruin.

Primitive Communism

This was a classless society in early human history. Tools were simple (e.g., stone axes, spears) and
owned collectively. Labor, such as hunting and fishing, was shared, and its results were distributed
equally. There was no private property, so no one exploited others.

Class Conflict Across Societies

As tools and production methods advanced, societies transitioned through different systems:

1. Slave-owning society: Conflict between masters and slaves.

2. Feudal society: Conflict between lords (landowners) and serfs (peasants).

3. Capitalist society: Conflict between the bourgeoisie (capitalists) and the proletariat (workers).

The Communist Manifesto says that modern capitalist society has not ended class struggles but created
new forms of oppression. It notes:
"Society as a whole is splitting into two great hostile camps: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat."

Lord and Serf in Feudal Society

 Lord: The landowner.

 Serf: The peasant who worked the land, received a small share of the produce, and could not
leave without the lord's permission.
Although not slaves, serfs were heavily exploited.

Bourgeoisie and Proletariat in Capitalist Society

 Bourgeoisie: Capitalists who own the means of production and employ workers.
  Proletariat: Workers who sell their labor to survive since they do not own means of production.

Class conflict in capitalism is sharper and clearer. The Manifesto states that the bourgeoisie era simplifies
class divisions into two opposing groups: bourgeoisie and proletariat.

Marx and Engels believed the proletariat had the power to overthrow capitalism and create a socialist
society with common ownership of production. They wrote:
"The proletarian movement is the self-conscious, independent movement of the immense majority, in the
interest of the immense majority."

The proletarian revolution would:

1. Eliminate exploitation.

2. Place all production under social ownership.

3. Develop production fully.

4. Create a classless society, ending class conflict forever.

Theory of Surplus Value

This theory explains the exploitation of workers under capitalism. Marx argued:

 Labor is the only creator of value.

 Other factors (land, capital, organization) only reproduce what is put into them.

The value of a commodity depends on the labor needed to produce it, considering tools, raw materials,
and skill levels.

Workers are forced to sell their labor at market prices (wages), which often drop due to competition for
jobs. Wages only cover basic living needs. The value created by workers is divided into:

1. Wages: Paid to workers for their survival.

2. Surplus value: Taken by the capitalist as profit, rent, and interest.

Surplus value represents unpaid labor and is the basis of exploitation in capitalism.

Neo-Marxism: Simplified Explanation

Neo-Marxism is a modern interpretation of Marxism, focusing on new forms of domination and conflict
in today's society. It challenges the traditional idea that the superstructure (cultural, political, and social
systems) is fully dependent on the economic base (the economy and means of production). Instead,
there is now an understanding of the interdependence between the two.
One major influence on neo-Marxism is the Frankfurt School, founded in 1923 in Germany. The scholars
from this school were critical of both capitalism and Soviet socialism. They aimed to develop a new path
for social progress, based on their interpretation of Marxism. Their ideas are known as "critical theory,"
which critiques ideologies that hide or legitimize power imbalances. They focused on how social
interests, conflicts, and contradictions appear in thought and how these ideas are used to maintain
systems of domination. Their goal was to raise awareness about these power structures and promote
change in consciousness and action.

The Frankfurt School's leading scholars, like Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse, and
Jurgen Habermas, offered new Marxist views in many fields, including philosophy, sociology, political
science, psychology, and the arts. They criticized bourgeois society, particularly the way technology was
used to dominate people, rather than just focusing on capitalist domination.

Two Strains of Neo-Marxism

Neo-Marxism has developed in two main directions: humanist and scientific.

1. Humanist Neo-Marxism: This strand focuses on human alienation and the path to human
emancipation. For example, Herbert Marcuse described how capitalism causes people to
become "one-dimensional" by manipulating their desires, making them focus on trivial, material
things. He believed that once people realize their unfreedom, they will be able to achieve true
freedom.

2. Scientific Neo-Marxism: This approach, led by thinkers like Louis Althusser, focuses on analyzing
the deep structures of society, such as its modes of production. Althusser argued that
understanding these structures is more important than focusing on human alienation.

Conclusion
The collapse of socialism in Eastern Europe in the 1980s and the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 forced a
reconsideration of classical Marxism, as these regimes were based on Marxist principles. Even countries
like China, which still identify as communist, are making changes to align with global needs. The idea that
socialism leads to a “withering away of the state” has not played out as expected. Instead, socialist states
have often collapsed and shifted toward liberalism.

Some argue that these countries weren't truly socialist, but this is an oversimplification. The struggle for
justice and equality is no longer just about the working class versus the capitalist class, as Marx initially
envisioned. The focus has shifted to the fight against colonialism and neo-colonialism, especially in
developing nations. Additionally, many neo-Marxists have shown that domination and exploitation now
take many complex forms. Therefore, Marxism needs to be updated to address the modern challenges
we face.