Key Ideas 🔑

For a motion to be called projectile motion, it should meet 2

conditions:
The object should be under the influence of gravity
Undergoes two-dimensional motion only
2D Motion under influence of gravity

Components of Velocity
For a body projected at an angle θ with initial velocity 𝑣 , the components of velocity are -
Vertical Component: 𝑣 = 𝑣 sin θ
Horizontal Component: 𝑣 = 𝑣 cos θ

Important Facts:
Horizontal velocity remains constant.
…and why? because there is no force acting on the
body in horizontal direction and therefore no reason for change in velocity
Vertical component of velocity changes the same way as that of an object projected
vertically up
…and why? because the force of gravity continuously acts on the body
changing the velocity.
acceleration due to gravity only affects the vertical motion, not the horizontal.
Vertical and horizontal motions are independent
Both components can be studied separately

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Velocity Components at Various Positions

At t=0,
Initial velocity is 𝑣 , at angle θ
Vertical component is 𝑣 and

Horizontal component is 𝑣
Upwards Motion,
𝑣 reduces,
𝑣 remains the same.
At Maximum Height,
𝑣 = 0,
𝑣 is unchanged.
The vertical component 𝑣 changes direction at the maximum height

Downwards Motion,
𝑣 increases,
𝑣 remains the same.
At Ground Level (when it hits the ground):
Magnitude of velocity same as initial, but direction may differ.
Symmetry in Projectile Motion: The upward and downward parts of the motion are
symmetrical in time and velocity, which can aid in solving problems.

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Equations of Projectile Motion
Horizontal Motion (constant velocity):
𝑥−𝑥 =𝑣 𝑡
𝑥 − 𝑥 = (𝑣 cos θ )𝑡 if 𝑥 is at the origin, position 𝑥 = (𝑣 cos θ )𝑡

Vertical Motion (freefall):

𝑦 − 𝑦 = (𝑣 sin θ )𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡

𝑣 = 𝑣 sin(θ ) − 𝑔𝑡
𝑣 = (𝑣 sin θ ) − 2𝑔(𝑦 − 𝑦 )

Caution
If 𝑦 is at the origin, you can modify the above equations by putting 𝑦 = 0
Choosing an appropriate coordinate system (e.g., origin at the launch point) can
simplify the mathematical analysis
However, do not ignore the initial conditions when they are not at the origin

Useful Equations (For Speed Solving of Problems)

Equation Connecting x and y Coordinates:

𝑦 = (tan θ )𝑥 − ( )

The Horizontal Range

( ) ( )
𝑅=
( )
𝑅=

Complementary angles give the same range. That is, a projectile leaving at an angle
θ or (180 − θ ) would have the same range if the initial velocity is the same

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 Maximum Range:
Attained at θ = 45

Maximum range =

Summary of Equations

S.No Equation Description of Variables Concept

1 Δ𝑥 = 𝑣 ⋅𝑡 Δ𝑥 : Horizontal Horizontal motion with constant

displacement, velocity; (Mistake often made: Ignoring
𝑣 : Horizontal horizontal velocity is constant)

component of initial
velocity,

2 Δ𝑦 = 𝑣
1
⋅𝑡− ⋅𝑔⋅𝑡 Δ𝑦 : Vertical displacement, Vertical motion under gravity; (Mistake
2
𝑣 : Vertical component often made: Mixing up vertical and

of initial velocity horizontal components)

3 𝑣 = 𝑣 ⋅ cos(θ) 𝑣 : Horizontal Calculation of horizontal velocity

component of initial component; (Mistake often made:
velocity, Assuming it changes over time)

θ : Launch angle

4 𝑣 = 𝑣 ⋅ sin(θ) 𝑣 : Vertical component Calculation of vertical velocity

of initial velocity, component;

5 2 ⋅ 𝑣 ⋅ sin(θ) T : Total time in air, Time of flight; (Mistake often made:

𝑇=
𝑔
Ignoring the factor of 2 for the total

time)

6 𝑣 ⋅ sin (θ) H : Maximum height Maximum height reached;

𝐻=
2⋅𝑔

7 𝑣 ⋅ sin(2θ) R : Horizontal range, Horizontal range; (Mistake often made:

𝑅=
𝑔
Forgetting that the angle is doubled in
the sine function for range)

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 9 𝑣 = 𝑣 ⋅ sin(θ) − 𝑔 ⋅ 𝑡 𝑣 : Vertical velocity at Vertical velocity changes with time;

any time, (Mistake often made: Ignoring gravity's

effect on vertical motion.

10 v : Resultant velocity, 𝑣 Resultant velocity at any time;

𝑣= 𝑣 +𝑣
: Horizontal velocity, 𝑣 :

Vertical velocity

11 θ = 45° θ : Angle of projection Maximizing range

for maximum range

12 𝑣 ⋅ sin(θ) 𝑡peak : Time to reach peak, Time to reach maximum height;

𝑡peak =
𝑔
(Mistake often made: Confusing this

with total time of flight)

13 𝑣impact : Final velocity, Impact velocity; (Mistake often made:

𝑣impact = 𝑣 + 𝑣 −𝑔⋅𝑡
𝑣 ,𝑣 : Ignoring that the vertical component

changes while horizontal remains

constant

14 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) 𝑡half : Half of the total time Time to reach peak and return;
𝑡half =
2𝑔
of flight,

Key Idea 🔑
When an object travels in a circle at a constant speed, it is said to be undergoing uniform
circular motion

Conditions for Circular Motion

Velocity Vector: Always tangent to the circle at that
point. The magnitude remains constant, but the
direction changes continuously.
This tangential velocity helps maintain the object
in a circular path without affecting its speed.
Acceleration Vector: Always perpendicular to the
velocity vector and pointing towards the centre.
it ensures that the object stays on its circular path.

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Magnitude: The magnitude of both the velocity and acceleration vectors remains constant.
The constancy in magnitude allows uniform circular motion. Any change would cause
non-uniform circular motion.

Formulas in Circular Motion

Formula Description Common Mistakes How to Use Correctly

𝑣 Confusing 𝑣 with Ensure 𝑣 is the magnitude

𝑎= Centripetal acceleration
𝑅 speed of velocity

2𝜋𝑅 Time period for one Mixing up radius and Use radius, not diameter, in
𝑇=
𝑣 revolution diameter the formula

𝑣 Frequency of revolution Ensure the radius is in

𝑓= Ignoring units of 𝑅
2𝜋𝑅 (revolutions/second) consistent units

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