Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and

Technology

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/best20

Contributions of Fourier transform infrared

spectroscopy in microplastic pollution research: A
review

S. Veerasingam , M. Ranjani , R. Venkatachalapathy , Andrei Bagaev ,

Vladimir Mukhanov , Daria Litvinyuk , M. Mugilarasan , K. Gurumoorthi , L.
Guganathan , V. M. Aboobacker & P. Vethamony

To cite this article: S. Veerasingam , M. Ranjani , R. Venkatachalapathy , Andrei Bagaev ,

Vladimir Mukhanov , Daria Litvinyuk , M. Mugilarasan , K. Gurumoorthi , L. Guganathan , V. M.
Aboobacker & P. Vethamony (2020): Contributions of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
in microplastic pollution research: A review, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and
Technology, DOI: 10.1080/10643389.2020.1807450

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CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2020.1807450

Contributions of Fourier transform infrared

spectroscopy in microplastic pollution research:
A review
S. Veerasingama , M. Ranjanib , R. Venkatachalapathyb ,
Andrei Bagaevc , Vladimir Mukhanovd , Daria Litvinyukd ,
M. Mugilarasane , K. Gurumoorthif , L. Guganathanb ,
V. M. Aboobackera , and P. Vethamonya
a
Environmental Science Center, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar; bDepartment of Physics, Annamalai
University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India; cDepartment of Shelf Hydrophysics, Federal
Research Center Marine Hydrophysical Institute of RAS, Sevastopol, Russia; dA.O. Kovalevsky
Institute of Biology of the Southern Seas of RAS, Sevastopol, Russia; eNational Centre for
Sustainable Coastal Management, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Chennai,
Tamil Nadu, India; fCSIR—National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa, India

ABSTRACT
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)
spectroscopy has been exten-
sively used in microplastic (MP)
pollution research since 2004.
The aim of this review is to dis-
cuss and highlight the recent
advances in FTIR (spectroscopy
and chemical imaging) techni-
ques that are used to characterize
various polymer types of MPs
and to trace their fate and trans-
port in different environmental matrices. More than 400 research papers dealing with
FTIR techniques in MP pollution research, which are published between January 2010
and December 2019, have been identified from the Scopus and Web of Science data-
bases. The MPs present in sediment, water (marine and freshwater), biota, air/dust,
waste water treatment plants and salt are further classified according to (1) character-
ization and identification, (2) weathering and aging, (3) ecotoxicology, and (4) analytical
methods. The results revealed that the ATR-FTIR technique is mostly used to identify
and characterize the MPs found in water and sediment. The mFTIR (FTIR imaging) is
extensively used to study the ingestion of MPs in biota (both marine and freshwater).
In this article, we have summarized the current knowledge of application of FTIR spec-
troscopy to MP research and provided insights to future challenges for understanding
the risk of MPs.

KEYWORDS Characterization; FTIR; microplastics

CONTACT S. Veerasingam [email protected], [email protected] Environmental Science

Center, Qatar University, P.O. Box: 2713, Doha, Qatar.
Supplemental data for this article can be accessed at publisher’s website.
ß 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 S. VEERASINGAM ET AL.

1. Introduction
Microplastic (MP) contamination in water (both marine and fresh water)
(Gago et al., 2016; Koelmans et al., 2019), sediment (Cauwenberghe
et al., 2015; Xu, Liu, et al., 2019), air (Zhang et al., 2020), salt (Peixoto
et al., 2019), biota (Rezania et al., 2018; O’Connor et al., 2020; Markic
et al., 2020), wastewater treatment plant (Sun, Dai, et al., 2019) and honey
(Muhlschlegel et al., 2017) has aroused as a major global environmental
and economic issue. The term “microplastics” was first coined by
Thompson (Thompson et al., 2004) in 2004 to describe the small size (less
than 5 mm in size) plastic particles in the oceans. Since then, significant
amount of results has been published on this topic globally. Plastic debris
in the environment is classified based on their chemical composition, solid
state, solubility, size, shape, color and origin. Depending on size, plastics
have been categorized as nanoplastics (1 to <1000 nm), MPs (1 to
<1000 mm), mesoplastics (1 to <10 mm) and macroplastics (1 cm and
larger) (Hartmann et al., 2019). MP consists of primary MPs, which are
manufactured in microscopic size for specific purpose (including microbe-
ads) and secondary MPs, which are formed from large plastic debris
degraded and fragmented by long-term physical, chemical and biological
effects in the environment (Cole et al., 2011; Veerasingam et al., 2017;
Besseling et al., 2019).
Weathering process in MPs (both primary and secondary) is first initi-
ated at the surface of particles, where the surface layer is discolored, oxi-
dized, embrittled and crazed (Bond et al., 2018). Then, the interior
weathering is proceeded by a diffusion-controlled process. MP undergoes
degradation due to physical (wind wave action and mixing in-between the
heavy and/or abrasive beach sediments) (Efimova et al., 2018; Chubarenko
et al., 2020), chemical (UV light from solar radiation) (Andrady, 2011,
2017; Song et al., 2017) and biological (microorganisms) (Kooi et al., 2017)
factors. Degradation processes of MPs are categorized as follows: photo
degradation (action of light or photons, usually UV light from the sun),
thermal degradation (high temperature causes molecular deterioration in
laboratory condition), thermo-oxidative degradation (slow oxidative,
molecular deterioration at moderate temperatures), hydrolysis (reaction
with water) and biodegradation (decomposition of organic materials by
microorganisms). Due to weathering process, MPs change its physical
properties such as mechanical, optical or electrical characteristics in crazing,
cracking, erosion, discoloration and phase separation. Degradation of MPs
depends on many factors including polymer type, age, and environmental
conditions such as sunlight, temperature, rain, humidity, irradiation, pH,
pollutants, thermal cycles, and oxygen content (Halle et al., 2016; Smith
et al., 2018). Weathering of MPs in water is much slower than that in air
 CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 3

or on beaches, as water suppresses light-induced oxidative degradation.

This can be attributed to low temperatures, low oxygen concentrations and
reduced transmittance of UV irradiation in water as well as increased bio-
film formation (Andrady, 2011, 2017; Bond et al., 2018). Due to higher rate
of photo-oxidation process, plastics in the hot sand beaches degraded faster
than those floating in the ocean water (Veerasingam, Mugilarasan, et al.,
2016; Sathish et al., 2019).
Since the size of MPs is very small, it can be ingested by a wide range
of organisms by mistake as food for prey (Botterell et al., 2019). MPs are
not only contaminants by themselves, they are also associated with differ-
ent chemical additives, which were added during their manufacturing
process to optimize their physical attributes. These chemicals, including
those incorporated during plastic production (additives), can leach into
biological tissues, posing health risk to organisms and bio-accumulating
in the food chain (Koelmans, 2015; Gall & Thompson, 2015; Galloway
et al., 2017). Therefore, MPs have the potential to act as vectors for the
transport of hydrophobic organic pollutants (Rochman, 2015). The vector
effect of particle mediated transport of pollutants can be divided into
three groups (Syberg et al., 2015): (1) an environmental-vector effect
(MPs with adhered pollutants are transported through the environment),
(2) an organismal-vector effect (the pollutant is transported into the
organisms) and (3) a cellular-vector effect (the pollutant is transported
with the particle into cells).
Many analytical methods have been used to identify polymeric compos-
ition of plastic debris in different aquatic environments (summarized in
Table 1). These methods are time consuming, involving laborious sample
preparation, and destructive in nature. Moreover, most of these methods
are limited to volatile or ionizable compounds such as small oligomeric
fragments or additives within the bulk material. FTIR and Raman techni-
ques are versatile vibrational spectroscopic methods used to characterize
different types of polymers (Kappler et al., 2016; Jung et al., 2018). In
fact, FTIR spectroscopy can identify all the molecular and functional
groups present in plastic polymers (Bhargava et al., 2003; Mecozzi
et al., 2016).
FTIR spectroscopy deals with measurement of infrared (IR) radiation
absorbed by the MP sample, allowing the study of molecular composition.
An infrared spectrum represents a fingerprint of a sample (MP) with
absorption peaks correspond to the frequencies of vibration between the
bonds of the atoms making up the material. Because each different polymer
material is a unique combination of atoms, no two compounds produce
exactly the same infrared spectrum. Therefore, the chemical structure of a
polymer molecule can be determined by FTIR (Chalmers, 2006). The IR
4 S. VEERASINGAM ET AL.

Table 1. Analytical methods for the characterization of MPs.

Technique Purpose Nature of technique Reference
Thermogravimetric Determines thermal degradation Destructive Yu et al. (2019)
analysis (TGA) pathway of microplastics for sample
Differential scanning Determines endothermic phase Destructive Majewsky
calorimetry (DSC) transition, melting characteristics, for sample et al. (2016)
reaction kinetics of microplastics
Thermogravimetric analysis— Enables unambiguous and Destructive Dumichen
solid-phase extraction convenient detection of for sample et al. (2015)
process/thermal desorption characteristic decomposition
gas chromatography mass products of microplastics
spectrometry (TGA-SPE/
TDS-GC-MS)
X ray diffraction Structural and functional group Destructivity depends Ariza-Tarazona
analysis, degree of crystallinity on sample et al. (2019)
preparation
method used
Nuclear magnetic Structural and functional group Laborious sample Peez
resonance (NMR) analysis, identification of exact preparation, et al. (2019)
structure, chemical moieties and nondestructive
conformational state for sample
Scanning electron Characterization of surface structure Destructive Wang, Wagner,
microscopy/energy and elemental composition in for sample et al. (2017)
dispersive spectroscopy microplastics
(SEM/EDS)
Gel permeation Semi-quantitative selective Laborious sample Biver
chromatography (GPC) determination of microplastics preparation, et al. (2018)
with fluorescence destructive
detection (FLD) for sample

region of the electromagnetic spectrum is divided into three regions: (1)

the higher energy near infrared (NIR) region with wavenumbers of
14,000–4000 cm
1 (0.78–2.5 mm wavelength) range, which is sensitive to
overtone and combinations of vibrations, (2) the mid infrared (MIR) region
with wavenumbers of 4000–400 cm
1 (2.5–30 mm wavelength) range to
study the fundamental vibrations and (3) the far infrared (FIR) region with
wavenumbers of 400–10 cm
1 (30–1000 mm wavelength) range to study
rotations (Mukherjee & Gowen, 2015). Among these three IR spectral
regions, MIR is the most common region in the field of MP characteriza-
tion. FTIR spectroscopy can be used to study the solid, liquid and gaseous
samples. Since MPs are generally solid samples, we will focus our discus-
sion on these materials. FTIR spectra of different polymers are covered in
this review to illustrate the key features involved in spectral interpretation
and its application for the analysis of MPs.
The objectives of this article are (1) to critically review the work of iden-
tification of MPs using FTIR technique in various environmental matrices,
(2) to highlight the suitable evaluation and data processing methods for
MPs identification based on FTIR measurements, and (3) to look at the
current limitations in the methods and analyses, and how do we improve
and harmonize the practices for future studies of MPs using FTIR
measurements.
 CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 5

Figure 1. Literature search results on microplastics using FTIR displayed as the number of pub-
lications from January 2010 to December 2019. The published papers were further classified
into various environmental matrices (sediment, water, waste water treatment plants, biota,
dust/air, and salt).

2. Data collection
A comprehensive literature search was conducted using a combination of
keywords including “microplastic,” “microplastics,” “plastic,” “FTIR,”
“sediment,” “water,” “waste water treatment plant,” “atmosphere,” “dust,”
“biota,” “ingestion,” “salt” in Scopus and Web of Science database. The
retrieved articles were screened, and only those studies carried out with
FTIR technique were selected. This has resulted into 412 research articles,
published between January 2010 and December 2019, and these were
taken-up for detailed review. These research articles are categorized accord-
ing to the topics of investigation: (1) characterization and identification, (2)
weathering and aging, (3) ecotoxicology, and (4) analytical methods and
future challenges. The statistics show that the number of publications per-
taining to MP studies using FTIR technique has increased rapidly in the
last 5 years (Figure 1).

3. Characterization and identification

Characterization and identification of different polymer types of MPs found
in a sample are important as each polymer has its own impacts on the bio-
sphere. MP pollution has been studied in various environmental matrices
(sediment, water, biota, salt and air/dust) using FTIR technique around the
world (Table 2). However, only few studies have been carried out using
FTIR technique so far to assess the MPs in air (dust) samples. Most fre-
quently obtained shapes of MPs are fibers, fragments, films, foams,
microbeads and pellets. Abundance of secondary MPs is higher (fragments,
fibers, and foams) than the primary MPs (microbeads and pellets). MPs
 6

Table 2. Comprehensive list of research papers dealing with microplastic analysis using FTIR, as of December 2019.
Reference guide for works on FTIR identification of microplastics
Sediment Abidli et al., 2018; Acosta-Coley, Cuadro, et al., 2019; Acosta-Coley, Duran-Izquierdo, et al., 2019; Acosta-Coley and Olivero-Verbel, 2015; Alvarez-Hernandez
et al., 2019; Alves and Figueiredo, 2019; Antunes et al., 2013; Ashwini and Varghese, 2019; Atwood et al., 2019; Bancin et al., 2019; Battulga et al., 2019;
Bayo et al., 2019; Blaskovic et al., 2018; Blettler and Ulla, 2019; Blumenroder et al., 2017; Brandon et al., 2019; Camacho et al., 2019; Carson et al., 2011;
Ceccarini et al., 2018; Chen et al., 2018; Chen et al., 2019; Cheung et al., 2016; Chouchene et al., 2019; Claessens et al., 2011; Constant et al., 2019;
Coppock et al., 2017; Corcoran et al., 2015; Crichton et al., 2017; Dai et al., 2018; Dikareva and Simon, 2019; Dowarah and Devipriya, 2019; Edo et al.,
2019; Eo et al., 2018, 2019; Fan et al., 2019; Filgueira et al., 2019; Fok et al., 2017; Frias et al., 2010; Garaba and Dierssen, 2018; Garces-Ordonez et al.,
2019; Graca et al., 2017; Gray et al., 2018; Haave et al., 2019; Hanachi et al., 2019; Harrison et al., 2012; Herrera et al., 2018; Horn et al., 2019; Hu et al.,
2018; Imhof et al., 2017; Jiang et al., 2018; Karkanorachaki et al., 2018; Karthik et al., 2018; Kim et al., 2015; Klein et al., 2015; Koongolla et al., 2018; Korez
S. VEERASINGAM ET AL.

et al., 2019; Krishnakumar et al., 2018; Kunz et al., 2016; Leads and Weinstein, 2019; Leslie et al., 2017; Li, Zhang, et al., 2018; Li, Wu, et al., 2019; Lin
et al., 2018; Liu, Lu, et al., 2018; Liu, Song, et al., 2019; Lo et al., 2018; Lorenz et al., 2019; Lourenco et al., 2017; Lv, Zhou, et al., 2019; Mani, Primpke,
et al., 2019; Martins and Sobral, 2011; Martin et al., 2017; Masia et al., 2019; Matsuguma et al., 2017; Miller et al., 2017; Mistri et al., 2017, 2018; Mohsen
et al., 2019; Mu, Qu, et al., 2019; Munari et al., 2017; Nabizadeh et al., 2019; Naidoo et al., 2015; Naji, Esmaili, and Khan, 2017; Naji, Esmaili, Mason, et al.,
2017; Naji et al., 2019; Nakao et al., 2020; Nor and Obbard, 2014; Pagter et al., 2018; Palombini et al., 2018; Pannetier et al., 2019; Peng et al., 2017, 2018;
Phuong, Poirier, et al., 2018; Piehl et al., 2019; Pinon-Colin et al., 2018; Piperagkas et al., 2019; Qin et al., 2020; Qiu et al., 2015; Reed et al., 2018;
Rodrigues, Abrantes, et al., 2018; Ruiz-Compean et al., 2017; Sagawa et al., 2018; Saliu et al., 2018; Sanchez-Vidal et al., 2018; Sarkar et al., 2019; Sathish
et al., 2019; Scheurer and Bigalke, 2018; Scopetani et al., 2019; Scott et al., 2019; Shim et al., 2016; Simon-Sanchez et al., 2019; Song, Hong, Jang, Han,
Rani, et al., 2015; Su et al., 2016, 2018; Su, Zhang, et al., 2019; Syakti et al., 2017; Tang et al., 2018; Tiwari et al., 2019; Toumi et al., 2019; Tsang et al.,
2017; Turner, 2018; Turner and Holmes, 2011; Turner et al., 2019; Tziourrou et al., 2019; Vaughan et al., 2017; Veerasingam, Mugilarasan, et al., 2016;
Veerasingam, Saha, et al., 2016; Velez et al., 2019; Vianello et al., 2013; Vidyasakar et al., 2018; Wang, Peng, et al., 2017, Wang, Wang, et al., 2019; Wang,
Zhou, et al., 2018; Wang, Su, et al., 2018, 2019; Wu, Zhang, et al., 2019; Yabanli et al., 2019; Yao et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2016, 2019; Zbyszewski et al., 2014;
Zhang, Wu, et al., 2019; Zhang, Zhou, et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2018; Zhang, Zhao, et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2018, 2019; Zheng et al., 2019; Zhou et al.,
2018; Zhu, Wang, et al., 2018
Seawater, freshwater, Abayomi et al., 2017; Aliabad et al., 2019; Amelineau et al., 2016; Atwood et al., 2019; Baini et al., 2018; Barrows, Cathey, et al., 2018; Barrows, Christiansen,
and bottled water et al., 2018; Brandon et al., 2016; Cabernard et al., 2018; Cai et al., 2018; Caldwell et al., 2019; Castillo et al., 2016; Castro et al., 2016; Chae et al., 2015;
Chen et al., 2018, 2019; Cheung and Fok, 2016; Cheung et al., 2018, 2019; Cordova et al., 2019; Courtene-Jones, Quinn, Gary, et al., 2017; Dai et al., 2018;
Dikareva and Simon, 2019; Ding et al., 2019; Dris et al., 2018; Eo et al., 2019; Fan et al., 2019; Gallagher et al., 2016; Gasperi et al., 2014; Gewert et al.,
2017; Goldstein et al., 2013; Gray et al., 2018; Green et al., 2018; G€ undo gdu et al., 2017, 2018; Halle et al., 2016; Hendrickson et al., 2018; Hu et al., 2018;
Isobe, 2016; Isobe et al., 2014, 2015, 2017, 2019; Iwasaki et al., 2017; Jahan et al., 2019; Kang et al., 2015; Kanhai et al., 2017, 2018; Kataoka et al., 2019;
Kedzierski et al., 2019; Koongolla et al., 2018; Kosore et al., 2018; Kroon, Motti, Talbot, et al., 2018; Kuklinski et al., 2019; Lacerda et al., 2019; Lahens et al.,
2018; Lebreton et al., 2018; Lefebvre et al., 2019; Leslie et al., 2017; Li, Green, et al., 2018; Li, Wolanski, et al., 2018; Lin et al., 2018; Liu, Olesen, et al.,
2019; Lorenz et al., 2019; Luo et al., 2019; Lusher et al., 2015; Lv, Zhou, et al., 2019; Mai et al., 2018, 2019; Mani et al., 2015; Mani, Blarer, et al., 2019;
Martin et al., 2017; Mason et al., 2016; Mauro et al., 2017; Mintenig et al., 2019; Mohd Khalik et al., 2018; Mu, Zhang, et al., 2019; Naidoo et al., 2015;
Obbard et al., 2014; Olivatto et al., 2019; Pedrotti et al., 2016; Peeken et al., 2018; Pivokonsky et al., 2018; Qu et al., 2018; Reisser et al., 2013; Rivers et al.,
2019; Rodrigues, Abrantes, et al., 2018; Rodrigues, Goncalves, et al., 2018; Rose and Webber, 2019; Rudduck et al., 2017; Sagawa et al., 2018; Saliu et al.,
2018, 2019; Savoca et al., 2019; Scheurer and Bigalke, 2018; Scott et al., 2019; Sighicelli et al., 2018; So et al., 2018; Song et al., 2014; Song, Hong, Jang,
Han, Rani, et al., 2015; Song, Hong, Jang, Han, and Shim, 2015; Song et al., 2018; Su et al., 2016, 2018; Suaria et al., 2016; Sun, Liang, et al., 2018; Syakti
 et al., 2017, 2018; Tan et al., 2019; Tang et al., 2018; ter Halle et al., 2017; Tsang et al., 2017; Tuncer et al., 2018; Uurasjarvi et al., 2020; Vianello et al.,
2018; Virsek et al., 2017; Wang, Zhou, et al., 2018; Wang, Ndungu, et al., 2017; Whitaker et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2018; Yu et al., 2019; Zeri et al., 2018;
Zhang, Zhang, et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2015, 2017; Zheng et al., 2019; Zhu, Zhang, et al., 2019; Zhu, Bai, et al., 2018
Biota Abidli et al., 2019; Akindele et al., 2019; Alomar and Deudero, 2017; Alvarez et al., 2018; Andrade, Winemiller, et al., 2019; Avery-Gomm et al., 2016; Avio
et al., 2015, 2017; Axworthy and Padilla-Gamino, 2019; Baalkhuyur et al., 2018; Bernardini et al., 2018; Bessa et al., 2018, 2019; Besseling et al., 2015;
Biginagwa et al., 2016; Birnstiel et al., 2019; Blettler et al., 2019; Bour et al., 2018; Brate et al., 2016; Brate, Blazquez, et al., 2018; Brate, Hurley, et al.,
2018; Calderon et al., 2019; Caron et al., 2018; Carreras-Colom et al., 2018; Catarino et al., 2018; Cau et al., 2019; Chan et al., 2019; Cho et al., 2019; Cole
et al., 2014; Courtene-Jones, Quinn, Gary, et al., 2017; Courtene-Jones, Quinn, Murphy, et al., 2017; Courtene-Jones et al., 2019; Deng et al., 2018; Didier
et al., 2017; Digka et al., 2018; Ding et al., 2018, 2019; Donohue et al., 2019; Doyle et al., 2019; Fang et al., 2018; Felice et al., 2018; Feng et al., 2019;
Figueiredo and Vianna, 2018; Foekema et al., 2013; Fossi et al., 2017; Garcia-Garin et al., 2019; Gassel and Rochman, 2019; Gomiero et al., 2019; Hall et al.,
2015; Halstead et al., 2018; Hasselerharm et al., 2018; Hermsen et al., 2017; Hipfner et al., 2018; Hodson et al., 2017; Hossain et al., 2019; Hurley et al.,
2017; Iannilli et al., 2018, 2019; Jabeen et al., 2017; Jahan et al., 2019; Jang et al., 2018; Jemec et al., 2016; Karthik et al., 2018; Khan et al., 2015, 2017;
Kokalj et al., 2018; Kolandhasamy et al., 2018; Kroon, Motti, Jensen, et al., 2018; Kuhn, Oyen, et al., 2018; Kuhn, Schaafsma, et al., 2018; Kumar et al., 2018;
Lagarde et al., 2016; Lefebvre et al., 2019; Leslie et al., 2017; Li, Ma, et al., 2018; Li et al., 2015, 2016; Li, Green, et al., 2018; Li, Su, et al., 2019; Li, Wu,
et al., 2019; Lourenco et al., 2017; Lusher et al., 2013, 2015; Lv, Zhou, et al., 2019; Markic et al., 2018; McGoran et al., 2017, 2018; Mohsen et al., 2019;
Morgana et al., 2018; Murphy et al., 2017; Naidoo et al., 2017; Naji et al., 2018; Nelms et al., 2018; Nelms, Barnett, et al., 2019; Nelms, Parry, et al., 2019;
Neves et al., 2015; Ory et al., 2018; Patterson et al., 2019; Pegado et al., 2018; Pellini et al., 2018; Pham et al., 2017; Phillips and Bonner, 2015; Phuong,
Poirier, et al., 2018; Piarulli et al., 2019; Pozo et al., 2019; Qu et al., 2018; Reichert et al., 2019; Renzi, Grazioli, and Blaskovic, 2019; Renzi, Specchiulli, et al.,
2019; Ribeiro et al., 2017; Roch and Brinker, 2017; Rodriguez-Seijo et al., 2018; Rummel et al., 2016; Savoca et al., 2019; Scott et al., 2019; Slootmaekers
et al., 2019; Song et al., 2019; Steer et al., 2017; Su et al., 2016, 2018; Su, Deng, et al., 2019; Su, Nan, et al., 2019; Sun et al., 2017; Sun, Liang, et al., 2018;
Sun, Chen, et al., 2018; Sun, Liu, et al., 2018; Sun, Li, et al., 2019; Tanaka and Takada, 2016; Teng et al., 2019; Tian et al., 2017; Ugolini et al., 2013;
Valente et al., 2019; Verlaan et al., 2019; von Friesen et al., 2019; Wagner et al., 2019; Wang, Wang, et al., 2019; Wang, Mao, et al., 2019; Watermann
et al., 2017; Webb et al., 2019; Weber et al., 2018; Welden et al., 2016, 2018; Wen et al., 2018; Wesch et al., 2016; Wu, Tao, et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2018;
Zhang, Man, et al., 2019; Zhang, Wang, et al., 2019; Zhu, Li, et al., 2019; Zhu, Chen, et al., 2018; Zhu, Yu, et al., 2019; Zhu, Zhang, et al., 2019; Zhu, Wang,
et al., 2019
Waste water Blair et al., 2019; Carr et al., 2016; Conley et al., 2019; Dyachenko et al., 2017; Gies et al., 2018; Kalcikova et al., 2017; Lares et al., 2018, 2019; Lee and Kim,
treatment plants 2018; Leslie et al., 2017; Li, Chen, et al., 2018; Li, Mei, et al., 2019; Lv, Dong, et al., 2019; Magni et al., 2019; Mahon et al., 2017; Mintenig et al., 2017;
Murphy et al., 2016; Tagg et al., 2015; Talvitie, Mikola, Koistinen, et al., 2017; Talvitie, Mikola, Setala, et al., 2017; Xu, Jian, et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2019;
Ziajahromi et al., 2017
Air/dust Cai et al., 2019; Dris et al., 2016, 2017; Kaya et al., 2018; Liu, Li, et al., 2019; Liu, Wang, Fang, et al., 2019; Liu, Wang, Wei, et al., 2019; Vianello et al., 2019;
Wang, Li, et al., 2019; Wesch et al., 2017
Salt Iniguez et al., 2017; Karami et al., 2017; Kim et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2019; Renzi and Blaskovic, 2018; Renzi, Grazioli, et al., 2019; Seth and Shriwastav, 2018;
Yang et al., 2015
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
7
8 S. VEERASINGAM ET AL.

collected from various environmental matrices might be linked with differ-

ent organic pollutants, and that may affect the identification of their poly-
mer types. Therefore, purification of MPs is the key to instrumental
analysis. Various digestion methods including oxidant digestion (reagent:
30% H2O2/35% H2O2/5% NaCIO), acid digestion (reagent: 65% HNO3/37%
HCl), alkaline digestion (reagent: 10 M NaOH/10% KOH) and enzymatic
digestion (reagent: trypsin/proteinase K) are used for purification (Lusher
et al., 2017). The review analysis shows that various polymer types have
been covered in the studies—polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), poly-
styrene (PS), polyamide (PA), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). PE
and PP are the dominant polymer types found in all environmental matri-
ces. The MPs extracted from sediment, water, biota, waste water treatment
plants, salt, and air (dust) are grouped into two categories after visual iden-
tification: (1) large MPs (5 mm–500 mm) and (2) small MPs (size <500 mm)
(Eo et al., 2018; GESAMP, 2019; Hidalgo-Ruz et al., 2012; Lorenz et al.,
2019; Olesen et al., 2019; Song, Hong, Jang, Han, Rani, et al., 2015).
FTIR is a well recognized, rapid and quite reliable method to identify
polymer types of different MPs by comparing the resulting FTIR spectra
with known plastic polymers in the spectral library (Table 3). Usually,
larger MPs are identified by ATR-FTIR, whereas smaller MPs (particle
down to 20 mm) are characterized by lFTIR (Okoffo et al., 2019). Single
particles with size larger than 200–300 mm are commonly presorted using
visual examination before FTIR analysis (Primpke, Christiansen, et al.,
2020). Among the research articles considered for this review, nearly 60%
of studies used ATR-FTIR technique to characterize the large single particle
MPs extracted from different environmental matrices (Table 4) since it is a
cost-efficient method and no sample preparation or complicated mathemat-
ical correction is required. Though reflection is fully nondestructive
(Primpke, Christiansen, et al., 2020), ATR may destroy MPs due to pres-
sure applied (Wu, Tao, et al., 2019). In some studies, the larger single MPs
were ground with potassium bromide (KBr) for transmission measurements
either by diffuse reflection or via ATR measurements (Renner et al., 2016).
However, in these techniques, the working time per particle is high
(3 min per particle). Aforementioned techniques require sample transport
to a laboratory. In a few studies, handheld FTIR technique was used for
the direct measurement of MPs in the field (Abidli et al., 2018; Tang et al.,
2019). However, the handheld FTIR system is more expensive than the
benchtop FTIR instruments. Handheld FTIR systems are commonly limited
to characterizing the MP particles with size of 300–500 mm (Primpke,
Christiansen, et al., 2020).
The m-FTIR method allows chemical imaging of larger areas of mem-
brane filters with high resolution using focal plane array (FPA) detectors
 CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 9

Table 3. FTIR characteristic peak assignments for various types of MPs.

Characteristic
S. No. Polymer peaks (cm
1) Assignment Reference
1 High density 2915 C–H stretching Nishikida and Coates,
polyethylene (HDPE) 2845 C–H stretching 2003; Noda et al.,
1472 CH2 bending 2007; Asensio et al.,
1462 CH2 bending 2009; Mecozzi et al.,
730 CH2 rocking 2016; Jung et al., 2018
717 CH2 rocking
2 Low density 2915 C–H stretching Nishikida and Coates,
polyethylene (LDPE) 2845 C–H stretching 2003; Noda et al.,
1467 CH2 bending 2007; Asensio et al.,
1462 CH2 bending 2009; Mecozzi et al.,
1377 CH2 bending 2016; Jung et al., 2018
730 CH2 rocking
717 CH2 rocking
3 Polyethylene 1713 C ¼ O stretching Verleye et al., 2001; Noda
terephthalate (PET) 1241 C–O stretching et al., 2007; Asensio
1094 C–O stretching et al., 2009; Mecozzi
720 Aromatic CH out-of- et al., 2016; Jung
plane bending et al., 2018
4 Polypropylene (PP) 2950 C–H stretching Verleye et al., 2001; Noda
2915 C–H stretching et al., 2007; Asensio
2838 C–H stretching et al., 2009; Mecozzi
1455 CH2 bending et al., 2016; Jung
1377 CH3 bending et al., 2018
1166 CH bending, CH3 rocking,
997 C–C stretching
972 CH3 rocking, CH3 bending,
840 CH bending
808 CH3 rocking, C–C stretching
CH2 rocking, C–CH3 stretching
CH2 rocking, C–C stretching,
C–CH stretching
5 Polystyrene (PS) 3024 Aromatic C–H stretching Verleye et al., 2001; Noda
2847 C–H stretching et al., 2007; Asensio
1601 Aromatic ring stretching et al., 2009; Mecozzi
1492 Aromatic ring stretching et al., 2016; Jung
1451 CH2 bending et al., 2018
1027 Aromatic CH bending
694 Aromatic CH out-of-
537 plane bending
Aromatic ring out-of-
plane bending
6 Polyvinyl 1427 CH2 bending Beltran and Marcilla,
chloride (PVC) 1331 CH bending 1997; Verleye et al.,
1255 CH bending 2001; Noda et al.,
1099 C–C stretching 2007; Jung et al., 2018
966 CH2 rocking
616 C–Cl stretching
7 Polyurethane (PU) 2865 C–H stretching Verleye et al., 2001; Noda
1731 C ¼ O stretching et al., 2007; Asefnejad
1531 C–N stretching et al., 2011; Jung
1451 CH2 bending et al., 2018
1223 C(¼O)O stretching
8 Nylon (all 3298 N–H stretching Rotter and Ishida, 1992;
polyamides) 2932 CH stretching Verleye et al., 2001;
2858 CH stretching Noda et al., 2007;
1634 C ¼ O stretching Mecozzi et al., 2016;
1538 NH bending, C–N stretching Jung et al., 2018
1464 CH2 bending
1372 CH2 bending
1274 NH bending, C–N stretching
1199 CH2 bending
687 NH bending, C ¼ O bending
(continued)
 10 S. VEERASINGAM ET AL.

Table 3. Continued.
Characteristic
S. No. Polymer peaks (cm
1) Assignment Reference
9 Polycarbonate (PC) 2966 CH stretching Verleye et al., 2001, Noda
1768 C ¼ O stretching et al., 2007, Asensio
1503 Aromatic ring stretching et al., 2009, Jung
1409 Aromatic ring stretching et al., 2018
1364 CH3 bending
1186 C–O stretching
1158 C–O stretching
1013 Aromatic CH in
828 plane bending
Aromatic CH out-of-
plane bending
10 Cellulose acetate (CA) 1743 C ¼ O stretching Ilharco and Brito de
1368 CH3 bending Barros, 2000; Verleye
904 Aromatic ring stretching et al., 2001; Noda
600 or CH bending et al., 2007; Jung
O–H bending et al., 2018
11 Acrylonitrile butadiene 2922 C–H stretching Verleye et al., 2001; Jung
styrene (ABS) 1602 Aromatic ring stretching et al., 2018
1494 Aromatic ring stretching
1452 CH2 bending
966 ¼C–H bending
759 Aromatic CH out-of-plane
698 bending, ¼CH bending
Aromatic CH out-of-plane
bending
12 Polytetrafluorethylene 1201 CF2 stretching Coates, 2000; Verleye
(PTFE) 1147 CF2 stretching et al., 2001; Jung
638 C–C–F bending et al., 2018
554 CF2 bending
509 CF2 bending
13 Poly(methyl methacrylate) 2992 C–H stretching Verleye et al., 2001; Jung
(PMMA or acrylic) 2949 C–H stretching et al., 2018
1721 C ¼ O stretching
1433 CH2 bending
1386 CH3 bending
1238 C–O stretching
1189 CH3 rocking
1141 C–O stretching
985 CH3 rocking
964 C–H bending
750 CH2 rocking, C ¼ O bending
14 Ethylene vinyl 2917 C–H stretching Verleye et al., 2001;
acetate (EVA) 2848 C–H stretching Asensio et al., 2009;
1740 C ¼ O stretching Jung et al., 2018
1469 CH2 bending, CH3 bending
1241 C(¼O)O stretching
1020 C–O stretching
720 CH2 rocking
15 Nitrile 2917 ¼C–H stretching Coates, 2000; Verleye
2849 ¼C–H stretching et al., 2001; Jung
2237 CN stretching et al., 2018
1605 C ¼ C stretching
1440 CH2 bending
1360 CH2 bending
1197 CH2 bending
967 ¼C–H bending
16 Latex 2960 C–H stretching Guidelli et al., 2011; Jung
2920 C–H stretching et al., 2018
2855 C–H stretching
1167 C ¼ C stretching
1447 CH2 bending
1376 CH3 bending
Table 4. ATR-FTIR spectroscopic characterization and identification of MPs extracted from different environmental matrices in select locations.
Abundant Objectives and
Sampling location Sample type Shape Method of extraction MP particles polymer types governing process Reference
Northern coast Sediment Fragments, foams, pellets Sieving and 1097 PE and PP Distribution and Kunz et al., 2016
of Taiwan and fibers density separation characterization of MPs
Chennai coast, Sediment Resin pellets Sieving 304 (before flood), 896 PE and PP Distribution and Veerasingam, Mugilarasan,
India (after flood) characterization of MPs et al., 2016
Goa coast, India Sediment Resin pellets Sieving 1655 (SW monsoon), 1345 PE and PP Distribution and Veerasingam, Saha,
(NE monsoon) characterization of MPs et al., 2016
Lakshadweep Sediment Resin pellets Sieving 603 PE and PP Distribution and Mugilarasan et al., 2017
Islands, India characterization of MPs
South east Sediment Fragments, fibers and foams Sieving and 178 ± 261 mg/m2 (Low tide); PE, PP and PS Distribution and Karthik et al., 2018
coast of India density separation 1323 ± 1228 mg/m2 characterization of MPs
(High tide)
Coast of Sediment Foams, fragments, and pellets Sieving and 6675 ± 7021 particles/m2 PS, PP, and PE Distribution and Fok et al., 2017
Guangdong, density separation characterization of MPs
South China
Terra Nova Bay Sediment Fibers, films and fragments Sieving 0.67 to 168.36 particles/m2 PE, PP, PVC, PS Distribution and Munari et al., 2017
(Ross sea, Antarctica) characterization of MPs
Mumbai and Sediment Fibers, granules and films Sieving and 45 ± 12 to 220 ± 50 PE, PET, PS, PP, PVC Distribution and Tiwari et al., 2019
Tamil Nadu density separation particles/kg characterization of MPs
coasts, India
Tamil Nadu Sediment Fragments, fibers and foams Hydrogen peroxide treatment 33 ± 30 to 179 ± 68 particles/ PE, PP, nylon, Adsorption behavior of Sathish et al., 2019
coast, India and density separation kg (Low tide); 119 ± 72 to polystyrene chemical elements;
439 ± 172 particles/kg and polyester Distribution and
(High tide); characterization of MPs
Japan, Thailand, Sediment Fragments, fibers, films Hydrogen peroxide treatment 100 particles/kg (Thailand); PE, PP, PS, PET, Distribution and Matsuguma et al., 2017
Malaysia and and beads and density separation 1900 particles/kg (Tokyo) PVC, acrylics characterization of MPs
South Africa and polyamides
Bohai Sea, China Sediment Fibers Density separation 102.9 ± 39.9 to 163.3 ± 37.7 PEVA, LDPE, Distribution and Yu et al., 2016
particles/kg PE and PS characterization of MPs
South Carolina Water Fragments, fibers, foams Sieving, H2O2 treatment 6.6 ± 1.3 to 30.8 ± 12.1 Polystyrene, nylon, Distribution and Gray et al., 2018
estuaries, USA and spheres particles/L polyester, PE characterization of MPs
and PP
Geoje Island, Water Fragments, fibers, sheets Filtered through GF/F 206 ± 117 particles/L PE and PP Distribution and Song, Hong, Jang, Han, and
South Korea and EPS 0.75 mm (fragment); 0.4 ± 1.8 characterization of MPs Shim, 2015
particles/L (EPS);
4.5 ± 4.1 (fiber)
Australia Water Fibers, particles Filtered through GF/F 37 mm 547 items PES, PET Fate and transport of MPs Jensen et al., 2019
Qatar Water Fragments and fibers Centrifugation, chemical 0 to 3 particles/m3 PP Distribution and Castillo et al., 2016
digestion followed characterization of MPs
by filtration
North Atlantic Water Microfibers Filtered through 80 mm 70.8 particles/m3 Polyester, PET and Distribution and Courtene-Jones, Quinn, Gary,
Ocean, filter paper acrylic fiber characterization of MPs et al., 2017
Scotland
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Tamil Nadu Biota (Rastrelliger Fibers and fragments Digestion of intestines MPs found in 10.1% PE and PP Ingestion and effects Karthik et al., 2018
coast, India kanagurta, Siganus (10% KOH) of samples in organisms
javus, Arius arius,
(continued)
11
 12

Table 4. Continued.
Abundant Objectives and
Sampling location Sample type Shape Method of extraction MP particles polymer types governing process Reference
Leiognathus equulus,
and Mugil cephalus)
Baltic Sea and Biota (Clupea Fibers, fragments, films Visual observation of the MPs found in 5.5% PE, PA, PP, PS Ingestion and effects Rummel et al., 2016
North Sea harengus and and spherules gastrointestinal tract of samples in organisms
Scomber scombrus) under the
stereomicroscope
North Sea Biota (Clupea Spherules Digestion of intestines MPs found in 0.25% Polymethylmethacrylate Ingestion and effects Hermsen et al., 2017
harengus, Sprattus (10% KOH) of samples (PMMA) in organisms
species,Limanda
limanda, and
Merlangius merlangus)
S. VEERASINGAM ET AL.

Coast of Easter Biota (Decapterus Fragments Visual inspection MPs found in 80% of samples PE, PP Ingestion and effects Ory et al., 2017
Island muroadsi) in organisms
Adriatic Biota (Mullus barbatus) Fragments, films, pellets Digestion (30% H2O2) of MPs found in 64% of samples PE Ingestion and effects Avio et al., 2015
Sea, Italy and lines whole organism in organisms
England Biota (Platichthys Fibers and fragments Visual inspection MPs found in 75% of samples PET, PE, Polyester Ingestion and effects McGoran et al., 2017
flesus, Osmerus in organisms
eperlanus)
UK Biota (Mytilus edulis) Fibers and fragments Treated with Trypsin solution 0.678 ± 0.044 to1.582 ± 0.448 Acrylic Ingestion and effects Courtene-Jones, Quinn, Gary,
and filtration particles/g in organisms et al., 2017
China Sea salt Fragments, fibers, sheets Digestion with 17.25% H2O2 120–718 Nylon, EVA, PE, Quantification of MPs in salt Kim et al., 2018
and filtration PET, PP, PU, PVC
China Lake salt Fragments, fibers, sheets Digestion with 17.25% H2O2 28 PE, PET, PP, PS, Teflon Quantification of MPs in salt Kim et al., 2018
and filtration
China Rock salt Fragments, fibers, sheets Digestion with 17.25% H2O2 0–14 PET, PP, Teflon Quantification of MPs in salt Kim et al., 2018
and filtration
USA Sea salt Fragments, fibers, sheets Digestion with 17.25% H2O2 300 PE Quantification of MPs in salt Kim et al., 2018
and filtration
India Sea salt Fragments, fibers, sheets Digestion with 17.25% H2O2 50–600 Nylon, PE, PET, PP, PVC Quantification of MPs in salt Kim et al., 2018
and filtration
Italy Sea salt Fragments, fibers, sheets Digestion with 17.25% H2O2 5–50 Nylon, PE, PET, PP Quantification of MPs in salt Kim et al., 2018
and filtration
UK Sea salt Fragments, fibers, sheets Digestion with 17.25% H2O2 120 PP, PE, PVC Quantification of MPs in salt Kim et al., 2018
and filtration
Germany Rock salt Fragments, fibers, sheets Digestion with 17.25% H2O2 2 PET Quantification of MPs in salt Kim et al., 2018
and filtration
Korea Sea salt Fragments, fibers, sheets Digestion with 17.25% H2O2 100–300 Arcylic, Neylon, PE, PET, PP Quantification of MPs in salt Kim et al., 2018
and filtration
Thailand Sea salt Fragments, fibers, sheets Digestion with 17.25% H2O2 80–600 PE, PET, PP, PVC Quantification of MPs in salt Kim et al., 2018
and filtration
Vietnam Sea salt Fragments, fibers, sheets Digestion with 17.25% H2O2 100–200 Arcylic, PE, PP, PW Quantification of MPs in salt Kim et al., 2018
and filtration
 CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 13

(Bergmann et al., 2017, 2019; Cincinelli et al., 2017; Liu, Olesen, et al.,
2019; Mintenig et al., 2017; Olesen et al., 2019; Primpke et al., 2017, 2018,
2019; Primpke, Cross, et al., 2020; Simon et al., 2018; Vianello et al., 2019;
Zarfl, 2019). m-FTIR technique is extensively used for chemical imaging
(Table 5) of different modes—coupled with ATR (Muhlschlegel et al., 2017;
Pegado et al., 2018; Song, Hong, Jang, Han, & Shim, 2015; Wagner et al.,
2017), transmission (Compa et al., 2018; Ding et al., 2018; Frias et al.,
2010; Kuhn, Schaafsma, et al., 2018; Liu, Lu, et al., 2018; Loder et al., 2015;
Lourenco et al., 2017) and reflection (Kanhai et al., 2018; Lares et al., 2018;
Phuong, Poirier, et al., 2018; Tagg et al., 2015; Vianello et al., 2013; Wang,
Peng, et al., 2017). Though mFTIR imaging is an effective method for MP
characterization, it needs long measurement time (often greater than 20 h)
of samples of MP particles on a filter (Kappler et al., 2016; Loder et al.,
2015; Primpke et al., 2017). Moreover, it also poses the risk of sample con-
tamination or loss. mFTIR in reflection mode is required a good reflection
property and it is less suitable for colored or small MP particles, whereas
transmission mode may show total absorption for large or thick particles
(Primpke, Christiansen, et al., 2020).
Automatic FTIR imaging such as FPA (focal plane array) is used for fast
acquisition of several spectra within an area through one single measure-
ment. Liu, Olesen, et al. (2019) used lFTIR imaging with a 125  125
Mercury-Cadmium-Telluride (MCT) FPA detector (spectral resolution of
5.5 lm) to identify the polymer types of MPs. Bergmann et al. (2019)
applied mFTIR equipped with a FPA (64  64 detector elements) for scan-
ning an area of 20  20 FPA (14.1 by 14.1 mm), which allowed the detec-
tion of MP particles down to 11 lm in 4.5 h. Various sophisticated
softwares are used for spectral correlation analysis in MP research.
Approximately, 1.8 million spectra, which take 48 hrs data analysis time
using the Bruker OPUS software, and take only 4 hrs time using the siMPle
software to complete the spectral correlation (Peeken et al., 2018; Primpke,
Cross, et al., 2020). Though mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) detector is
used in mFTIR chemical imaging of MPs, it is a time-consuming method
for larger filter areas (Harrison et al., 2012; Vianello et al., 2013; Yu et al.,
2016). Loder et al. (2015) used ten filters with different materials, pore size
and thickness to test their applicability for FPA based MP characterization
experiment using mFTIR (both reflectance and transmittance modes). Out
of eight tested filters, only two filters, viz., polycarbonate and the aluminum
oxide, were suitable for FPA based mFTIR measurements of MPs. The
problems of remaining six filters were their IR window range, i.e., IR trans-
parency was either too narrow, IR characteristics had high diffractive error
(reflectance mode) or absorbance values much higher than 0.5, resulting in
unclear IR spectra. Small MP particles were often concentrated on various
 14

Table 5. m-FTIR imaging characterization and identification of MPs extracted from different environmental matrices in select locations.
Sampling location Sample type Shape Method of extraction MP particles Abundant polymer types Objectives and governing process Reference
Beijiang River, China Sediment Fragments and films Density separation 178 ± 69 to 544 ± 107 PP and PE Adsorption behavior of metals; Wang, Peng, et al., 2017
and floatation particles/kg distribution and
characterization of MPs
Denmark Water — Filtered through filter 490–22,894 items/m3 PP, PVC, PES, PE and PS Distribution and characterization Liu, Olesen, et al., 2019
paper 10 mm, of MPs
H2O2 treatment
Northern Gulf Water Fragments, fibers Filtered through 4.8 to 8.2 particles/m3 Cellophane, Alkyd resin Distribution and characterization Mauro et al., 2017
of Mexico and beads Whatman glass (Bongo net); 5.0 to and PE of MPs
microfiber filter 18.4 particles/m3
0.70 mm (Bongo net)
Taihu lake, China Water Fragments, fibers, films Filtered through filter 0.01  106 to 6.8  106 Cellophane, PE, PS Distribution and characterization Su et al., 2016
and pellets items/km2(plankton and PP of MPs
S. VEERASINGAM ET AL.

paper 5 mm
net); 3.4 to 25.8
particles/L
Tamar estuary, England Water Fragments, sheets, fibers Sieving with various 204 PE, PS and PP Distribution and characterization Sadri and
and pellets mesh sizes (3 mm, of MPs Thompson, 2014
1 mm and 270 mm)
Wind farm, Yellow Water Fibers, granules Sieving, H2O2 treatment 0.330 ± 0.278 PE, PET and Cellophane Distribution and characterization Wang, Zhou, et al., 2018
Sea, China and films particles/m3 of MPs
Ross Sea, Antarctica Water Fibers and fragments Filtered through glass 0.0032 to 1.18 PE and PP Distribution and characterization Cincinelli et al., 2017
fiber filter 1mm particles/m3 of MPs
France Air Fibers Filtered on quartz fiber 2 to 355 particles/ PET, Polyamide Distribution and characterization of Dris et al., 2016
GF/A Whatman m2/day MPs in atmospheric fallout
filters (1.6 lm)
France Air Fibers Density separation and 1586 to 11,130 particles/ PP, Polyamide Distribution and characterization of Dris et al., 2017
filtration through GF/ m2/day (nylon), PE MPs in indoor and outdoor
A Whatman environments
filters (1.6 lm)
China Air Fibers Filtered on glass fiber 0 to 4 particles/m3 PET, PE, PES, RY Distribution, characterization and Liu, Wang, Fang,
GF/A Whatman risk assessment of suspended et al., 2019
filters (1.6 lm) atmospheric MPs
Finland Waste water treatment plant Fibers H2O2 treatment 0.1 to 124.7 particles/L PS, PE, PA, PP Quantification and characterization Lares et al.,2018
and filtration of MPs in wastewater effluent
Northern Ireland Biota (Mesoplodon mirus) Fibers, fragments, Digestion of intestines MPs found in 85% PP, acrylic, PE, polyester Ingestion and effects in organisms Lusher et al., 2015
and films (10% KOH) of samples
Portugal Biota (Boops boops, Trachurus Fibers and fragments Visual inspection MPs found in 19.8% PP, PE, polyester, Rayan Ingestion and effects in organisms Neves et al., 2015
picturatus Scomber japonicas, of samples
and Trachurus trachurus)
Northeast Atlantic Biota (Pleuronectes platessa, and Fibers Washed with doubly MPs found in 47.7% PA, PET, Arcylic, PP Ingestion and effects in organisms Murphy et al., 2017
around Scotland Micromesistius poutassou) distilled H2O of samples
China Biota (Hyporhamphus intermedius, Fibers, framents, pellets, Digestion (30% H2O2) of MPs found in Cellophane, PET, PS Ingestion and effects in organisms Jabeen et al., 2017
Larimichthys crocea, Mugil sheets and films whole organism 36.8%–92.3%
cephalus, Callionymus of samples
planus,and Cyprinus carpio)
Mondego estuary, Biota (Dicentrarchus labrax, Fibers Digestion of intestines MPs found in 38% Polyester, PP, PE, Ingestion and effects in organisms Bessa et al., 2018
Portugal Diplodus vulgaris, and (10% KOH) of samples Polyacrylonitrile
Platichthys flesus)
Shanghai, China Biota (Alectryonella plicatula, Fibers, fragments Digestion (30% H2O2) of 4.3 to 57.2 PE, PET, PA Ingestion and effects in organisms Li et al., 2015
Cyclina sinensis, Meretrix and pellets whole organism particles/individual
lusoria, Mytilus galloprovincialis,
Patinopecten yessoensis,
Ruditapes philippinarum,
Scapharca subcrenata,
Sinonovacula constricta, and
Tegillarca granosa)
French Atlantic coast Biota (Mytilus edulis and Fragments Digestion (10% KOH and 0.61 ± 0.56 to 2.1 ± 1.7 PE, PP Ingestion and effects in organisms Phuong, Poirier,
Crassostrea gigas) 50% KI) of particles/individual et al., 2018
whole organism
Qingdao, China Biota (Chlamys farreri and Mytilus Fibers, fragments Digestion (10% KOH and 5.2 to 19.4 particles/ Cellophane, PP, PTFE Ingestion and effects in organisms Ding et al., 2018
galloprovincialis) and granules 30% H2O2) of individual; 1.9 to 9.6
whole organism particles/individual
UK Biota (Mytilus edulis) Fibers, fragments Digestion (30% H2O2) of 1.1 to 6.4 PS, PP, PE Ingestion and effects in organisms Li, Green, et al., 2018
whole organism particles/individual
English channel (UK) Biota (Merlangius merlangus, Fibers, fragments, films Inspection of the MPs found in 36.5% PA, polyester, PS Ingestion and effects in organisms Lusher et al., 2013
Micromesistius poutassou, and beads digestive tract with a of samples
Trachurus trachurus, Trisopterus dissecting
minutus, and Zeus faber) microscope
Norway Biota (Mytilus spp.) Fibers, fragments Digestion (10% KOH) 1.5 ± 2.3 Cellophane, EVA, PET, Ingestion and effects in organisms Brate, Hurley,
particles/individual PP, PE et al., 2018
China Biota (Mytilus edulis, and Fibers, fragments, Digestion (30% H2O2) of 0.77 to 8.22 Rayon, PET, PE, PVC, PP Ingestion and effects in organisms Qu et al., 2018
Perna viridis) and pellets whole organism particles/individual
Mediterranean Biota (Argyrosomus regius, Diplodus Fibers Digestion (35% H2O2) of MPs found in 34% PE, PP Ingestion and effects in organisms Guven et al., 2017
coast of Turkey annularis, Lithognathus stomach of samples
mormyrus, Mullus barbatus, and intestines
Mullus surmuletus, Nemipterus
randalli, Pelates quadrilineatus,
Saurida undosquamis, Sparus
aurata, Trachurus
mediterraneus, and
Upeneus pori)
China Sea salt Fragments and fibers Digestion with 30% 550–681 CP, CL, PAN, PB, PE, PES, Quantification of MPs in salt Yang et al., 2015
H2O2 and filtration PET, PP, POM, PMA,
poly(vinyl
acetate:ethylene)
India Sea salt Fibers, fragments Digestion with 30% 56–103 PA, PE, PES, PET, PS Quantification of MPs in salt Seth and
H2O2 and filtration Shriwastav, 2018
Italy Sea salt Fibers, fragments, fi Filtration through filter 22–594 PE, PP Quantification of MPs in salt Renzi and
(0.45 mm) by Blaskovic, 2018
vacuum filtration
Croatia Sea salt Fibers, films, fragments, Filtration through filter 13,500–19,800 PE, PP Quantification of MPs in salt Renzi and
granules, pellets, (0.45 mm) by Blaskovic, 2018
and foams vacuum filtration
Spain Sea salt Fibers Centrifugation followed 50–280 PE, PET, PP Quantification of MPs in salt Iniguez et al., 2017
by filtration
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Spain Well salt Fibers Centrifugation followed 115–185 PE, PET, PP Quantification of MPs in salt Iniguez et al., 2017
by filtration
15
16 S. VEERASINGAM ET AL.

filters (e.g., aluminum oxide filters, and metal covered PC filters)

(Bergmann et al., 2017; Loder et al., 2015; Mani, Primpke, et al., 2019;
Mintenig et al., 2017, 2019; Peeken et al., 2018; Primpke et al., 2017, 2018,
2019; Primpke, Christiansen, et al., 2020), silicon membranes (Kappler
et al., 2015, 2016), slides (Kunz et al., 2016; Wagner et al., 2017), compres-
sion cells (Cai et al., 2019; Frias et al., 2014) and windows made of infrared
transparent or reflective materials (Loder et al., 2015; Pham et al., 2017;
Primpke, Christiansen, et al., 2020). The cost of aluminum oxide filter is
cheaper than other filters (Bergmann et al., 2017; Mani, Primpke, et al.,
2019; Mintenig et al., 2017, 2019; Primpke et al., 2017, 2018, 2019).
However, the aluminum oxide filters have wavenumber limitation toward
3600–1250 cm
1 compared to other filters (FPA: 3600–900 cm
1 and even
lowest for MCT (Primpke, Christiansen, et al., 2017, 2020). However, char-
acterization of MPs using FTIR measurements cannot be performed in the
presence of water as its spectrum will overlay the target spectra (Primpke,
Christiansen, et al., 2020; Primpke, Cross, et al., 2020).
Within a FTIR spectrum of MP, not every spectral region contains rele-
vant information (Renner, Nellessen, et al., 2019). Therefore, the spectrum
can be reduced to a more compact and highly characteristic sub-spectrum,
which can increase the selectivity of library searching (Hendrickson et al.,
2018; Kappler et al., 2015; Kroon, Motti, Talbot, et al., 2018; Renner et al.,
2017). Usually, FTIR spectra of MPs can be divided into three regions:
4000–2750, 2750–1850, and 1850–700 cm
1. Renner, Nellessen, et al. (2019)
found that the variance (intensity) and specificity (number of individual
signals) are very high in the fingerprint region (1850–700 cm
1) (Figure
S1). Therefore, it is suggested that the fingerprint region is suitable for the
identification of MPs, whereas the middle region (2750–1850 cm
1) is not
appropriate for this purpose due to its low variance and specificity
(Cabernard et al., 2018; Kappler et al., 2016). FTIR spectra for various types
of polymers are shown in Figure S1. These spectra have been evaluated
using five different spectral ranges, such as stretching vibration of CH/
CH2/CH3 groups (2980–2780 cm
1), CH2 bending vibration
(1480–1400 cm
1), C ¼ O stretching vibration (1760–1670 cm
1), C ¼ O
stretching vibration (1800–1740 cm
1) and CF2 stretching vibration
(1174–1087 cm
1). FTIR spectra of unknown MPs can be effectively identi-
fied through comparing to a commercially available polymer library of
known recorded spectra of polymers (Renner, Nellessen, et al., 2019).

4. Weathering and aging

Understanding the surface degradation of MPs in the environment
increases our knowledge of the pollutant-plastic interaction. In addition,
 CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 17

knowing the weathering of MPs is important for understanding the eco-

logical impacts of the most common type of plastic debris. The environ-
mental degradation of MPs via photo-, bio-, oxidative-, hydrolytic and
altogether were studied using FTIR techniques by many researchers
(Andrade, Fernandez-Gonzalez, et al., 2019; Auta et al., 2018; Bond et al.,
2018; Brandon et al., 2016; Costa et al., 2018; Nazareth et al., 2019;
Rajakumar et al., 2009; Ren et al., 2019; Tang et al., 2019; Tofa et al., 2019;
von Friesen et al., 2019). FTIR results highlight three likely areas of weath-
ering related changes in MPs: hydroxyl groups (broad peaks from 3100 to
3700 cm
1, centered at 3300–3400 cm
1), alkenes or carbon double bonds
(1600–1680 cm
1) and carbonyls (1690–1810 cm
1). FTIR spectroscopy is
used to measure the changes in chemical bond structures (carbonyl groups,
hydroxyl, and carbon-oxygen) with weathering (Brandon et al., 2016).
Carbonyl index (CI) is commonly used to measure the light induced
photo-oxidation of polyethylene MPs, since it normally increases with
increasing exposure time, i.e., increasing degree of photo-degradation
(Endo et al., 2005; Veerasingam, Saha, et al., 2016). Carbonyl index is
defined as the absorbance of carbonyl bond peaks relative to the absorb-
ance of reference peaks (methylene bond). The carbonyl absorption bands
are considered in the region 1760–1690 cm
1 and the methylene absorption
bands are taken in the region 1490–1420 cm
1 (methylene scissoring peak)
(Halle et al., 2016). Hydroxyl index (HI) is calculated as the ratio of the
absorbance peak at 3340 cm
1 (3300–3400 cm
1) to the absorbance at ref-
erence peak. It is found that several reference peaks are used, including 974
and 2720 cm
1 for PP and 1465 and 2020 cm
1 for PE (Brandon et al.,
2016). Rajakumar et al. (2009) noted significant changes of HI only at the
time of rapid growth of CI value. Carbon-oxygen index (COI) is measured
based on the ratio between absorbance peak in the region 1000 to
1200 cm
1 and reference peak. Reference peak regions for PE and PP are
2908–2920 cm
1 and 2885–2940 cm
1, respectively. Changes in HI and
COI values could be readily diagnosed by FTIR, followed by CI value
(Brandon et al., 2016).
Recently, Andrade, Winemiller, et al. (2019) found that FTIR could be
used as a low-cost technique to monitor changes in different polymer types
(polyamide, polypropylene and polystyrene) of MPs during oceanic aging.
In polyamide MPs, the photo-oxidation and/or thermo-oxidation processes
increase the intensity of 1150 cm
1 band in FTIR spectra. The IR spectrum
of polypropylene MP changes substantially with weathering due to the
appearance of following functional groups: 3370 and 3240 cm
1 (hydroxyl
groups), 1640 cm
1 (C ¼ O and double bonds), 1530 cm
1 (C ¼ O ketones),
1440 cm
1 (carboxylic acids), 1140 cm
1 (alkanes), 1100 cm
1 (C–O bond),
and 720 cm
1 (CH2) (Andrade, Fernandez-Gonzalez, et al., 2019; Tang
18 S. VEERASINGAM ET AL.

et al., 2019). The FTIR spectra of weathered polystyrene MP showed spec-

tral changes correspond to the formation of new bands at 3360–3240 cm
1
(hydroxyl group), 1640 cm
1 (double bond or C ¼ O groups), and
1100 cm
1 (C-O bonds) (Andrade, Fernandez-Gonzalez, et al., 2019). The
degree of crystallinity of polymer is a key variable in defining the morpho-
logical, physical and mechanical properties of the MP. Crystallinity is calcu-
lated by the method used in Stark and Matuana (2004). The doublet peaks
observed at 1474–1464 cm
1 and 730–720cm
1 correspond to PE crystal-
line content (1474 and 730 cm
1) and amorphous content (1464 and
720 cm
1), respectively. The percentage of the crystalline content, X, can be
calculated using the following equation:
ð1
Ia =Ib Þ=1:233
X ¼ 100
ð100Þ
1 þ Ia =Ib
where Ia and Ib can be determined from the bands at either 1474 and
1464 cm
1 or 730 and 720 cm
1, respectively. Crystallinity increases when
chain scission occurs in MPs. The shorter chains produced by chain scis-
sion events can crystallize more readily than the crosslinks. The chain scis-
sion affects the tie molecules, and thereby the crystallinity is decreased.
Holmes et al. (2014) found that the weathering process is more influenced
in the absorption of trace metals by MPs than its polymer types. It is found
that during the aging process, the absorbance ratio between contaminant
vibrational band and polymer vibrational band is increased. However, aging
of polymers is a very complex process and it is nearly impossible to esti-
mate average duration of existence of MPs in an environmental compart-
ment. Instead, aging extent of several MPs can be compared with one
another (Renner et al., 2017). Wang, Zhou, et al. (2019) reported that the
probable sources of major MPs can be identified based on polymer types,
shape and topographic features.

5. Ecotoxicology
Globally, environmental-vector of MPs have been studied in various marine
and freshwater biota, especially in fish, bivalves and birds (Anbumani &
Kakkar, 2018; Chang et al., 2020; Du et al., 2020). Several toxicology studies
(organismal-vector) including uptake of MPs and associated pollutants have
been conducted in laboratories (Browne et al., 2013; Cole et al., 2013;
Koelmans et al., 2016). Fishes and bivalves, which are used as bio-indica-
tors to assess the health of aquatic ecosystems, are also used as the most
common organisms to study ecotoxicology of MPs. The major toxic effects
of MPs on biota can be categorized as follows: (1) physical toxicity, (2)
chemical toxicity, (3) cellular toxicity, and (4) Toxicity due to pathogenic
microbes (Bhattacharya & Khare, 2020). Following are the adverse effects
 CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 19

of ingested MPs in aquatic and terrestrial organisms reported in the publi-

cations: (1) feeding activity and behavioral changes (Bour et al., 2018;
Scherer et al., 2017; Wang, Mao, et al., 2019; Wu, Tao, et al., 2019), (2)
inhibition of growth, reproduction and fecundity (Garrido et al., 2019), (3)
histopathological damage and/or death (Lei et al., 2018), (4) Oxidative
stress (Yu et al., 2018), (5) neurotoxicity (Barboza et al., 2018), (6) immune
system responses (Avio et al., 2015), (7) changes in gene expression
(Rochman et al., 2014, 2015), and (8) energy deficiency (Rodriguez-Seijo,
2018). Prokic et al. (2019) found that in biota, MPs can have the following
effects: (1) induce oxidative damage (increased lipid peroxidation and DNA
strand breaks), (2) alter anti-oxidative system (superoxide dismutase, cata-
lase and glutathione peroxidase were parameters with the highest and sig-
nificant changes in activities) and metabolism (isocitrate dehydrogenase
and lactate dehydrogenase activity), and (3) have neurotoxic effects (inhib-
ition of acetylcholinesterase activity). These effects depend on size and dose
of used MPs, and/or their interaction with other xenobiotics.
FTIR spectroscopic imaging (mFTIR) is found to be label-free, nondes-
tructive chemical analysis and powerful tool for studying live biological
cells (Chan & Kazarian, 2013; Baker et al., 2014). Recently, m-FTIR spec-
troscopy was used to describe the distribution of MPs in different fish
organs and the possibility of bio-accumulation in fish tissues (Su, Deng,
et al., 2019). Sun, Chen, et al. (2018) used FTIR technique to investigate
the toxic effects of polystyrene nano- and micro-particles on the marine
bacterium Halomonas alkaliphila. FTIR absorption bands for carbohydrate,
polysaccharides, and amide were shifted to a higher wavenumber when
Halomonas alkaliphila was exposed to nanoplastics, but not in MPs. Thus,
the size of plastics plays an important role in the alteration of the bacterial
chemical composition (Sun, Chen, et al., 2018). Therefore, FTIR technique
is not only used to identify the polymer types of MPs ingested by biota,
but also used to investigate the toxicity effects in the biota.

6. Analytical methods and future challenges

The quality, spectral contrast and quantitative precision of FTIR spectrum
recorded from a MP sample depends on the choice of sample preparation
method and/or sampling technique. Transmission, attenuated total reflect-
ance, diffuse reflectance, reflectance (mapping) and reflectance (focal plane
array mapping) techniques are used extensively in MP research, and every
technique has its own advantages and disadvantages (Table 6) depending
on analytical issue and sample properties (Renner et al., 2016). Three steps
are followed to characterize the MPs using FTIR spectra: (1) inspection of
data quality, (2) evaluation of FTIR spectra to identify the corresponding
20 S. VEERASINGAM ET AL.

Table 6. Techniques and accessories used in FTIR for analysis of MPs based on their merits
and demerits (modified from Renner et al., 2016).
Penetration Size of
Sampling technique Handling depth (mm) MPs (mm) Unsuitable
(1) Transmission
Transmittance of thin Very simple <300 >13,000 MPs, polyamides
polymer films
Transmittance of MPs Complex <300 <1000 Large MPs, individual MPs
within KBr pellets
m-Transmittance Very complex <300 >10 Polyamides
(2) Reflectance
Attenuated total Very simple 2 >1000 Small MPs, convex particles,
reflectance (ATR) severely aged or
contaminated samples
m-ATR Complex 2 >100 Convex particles, severely aged
or contaminated samples
(3) Diffuse reflectance
DRIFTS Complex <50 <50 Large MPs, individual MPs

MPs, and (3) identification using spectral library search—calculation of a

similarity value called “Hit Quality Index” (HQI).
Inspection of data quality has two steps—looking at the characteristic
shape of the whole spectrum and characterizing individual vibrational
bands. However, this inspection method requires much experience and it is
very time consuming. Smoothing and baseline correction are important to
improve the quality of FTIR spectra of MPs (smoothing to increase signal-
to-noise ratio). The moving average and Savitzky-Golay smoothing are well
established and both are useful techniques to enhance the certainty of
results. The common baseline correction methods used in FTIR spectros-
copy are Savitzky-Golay differentiation (based on Savitzky-Golay smooth-
ing), rolling-circle filter, asymmetric least squares, and adaptive iteratively
reweighted penalized least squares (Renner, Nellessen, et al., 2019).
Evaluation of FTIR spectra is the most critical step in MP analysis.
Manual interpretation of relevant absorption peaks based on reference
tables and comparison of complete spectra with a reference spectral library
are the two common approaches in the evaluation. Manual interpretation is
time consuming and requires expert knowledge, and thus, it suits only for
a low throughput quantity. Spectra obtained from analysis of MPs are typ-
ically compared and matched with those of model samples from library
databases. For example, in one study, the spectra matched with HQI 0.7
were accepted, those with HQI <0.6 were rejected and spectra with HQI ¼
0.6 were individually interpreted (Woodall et al., 2014).
FTIR spectra acquired from different modes (transmission, reflection and
diffuse reflectance) are not the same (Picollo et al., 2014). Only a few
researchers are working on this topic (Xu & Gowen, 2019; Xu, Thomas,
et al., 2019), and adequate attention is not given for comparing/matching
the unknown spectra with literature/spectral library. Several degradation
processes in MPs cause spectral alterations relative to pristine reference
 CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 21

library spectra. Thus, library searching could be vulnerable to misidentifica-

tion of MP samples. However, most studies ignored spectral changes caused
by MP degradation when comparing or matching with the reference spec-
tral library. Therefore, it is important to improve new library searching
procedures, which are more robust and can handle the problem of compar-
ing the weathered MPs with virgin polymer references. Substrate (holding
MPs) has a minimum spectral interference and can immobile the MPs
especially for m-FTIR imaging, where the stage moves during scanning
(Corami et al., 2020; Vianello et al., 2013; Xu, Thomas, et al., 2019).
Therefore, it is necessary to address the importance of appropriate substrate
material for obtaining high quality results with minimum spectroscopic
interference in the FTIR spectra.
In general, two approaches are followed to analyze MPs on filter materi-
als: (1) measurement of complete filter area spot by spot (Kappler et al.,
2016; Loder et al., 2015; Primpke et al., 2017) and (2) measurement of
selected points of interest (Maes et al., 2017). In complete filter measure-
ment method, the maximum number of spots are analyzed (also high ana-
lysis time) and big data sets are needed to be evaluate. However, without
either FPA detector or charge-coupled device, this approach is not recom-
mended. In the select points of interest measurement method, the number
of spots (also less analysis time) is reduced, and FPA detector is not
needed. But there is a risk of overlooking MP particles and also an add-
itional step is required to define points of interest (Renner et al., 2020).
Though the automated evaluation method demonstrated that the analysis
time has decreased from several days to 4–9 h for a scanning, only recently
this technique is introduced in the MP research (Chen et al., 2020;
Primpke, Christiansen, et al., 2020). Therefore, further improvements are
needed in constructing a reference spectrum for weathered MPs, and also
reducing the analytical time. Moreover, training the classifier can increase
the analysis speed substantially when dealing with large datasets of FTIR
spectra. For example, automated identification methods were tested based
on hierarchical cluster analysis (Primpke et al., 2018), shortwave infrared
imaging (Schmidt et al., 2018), identification of the most relevant bands
(Renner et al., 2017; Renner, Nellessen, et al., 2019), random decision forest
method (Hufnagl et al., 2019), modified chemometric identification concept
(Renner, Sauerbier, et al., 2019), machine learning method (Kedzierski
et al., 2019), Python based lFTIR mapping (Renner et al., 2020) and
Hybrid fusion method (Chabuka & Kalivas, 2020). The analysis of FTIR
spectra is time-consuming as often it is needed to compare the spectra one
by one with the reference spectra. Moreover, appearance of additional
bands in the spectra due to aging of MPs and/or fouling present on par-
ticles is a significant part of misinterpretation. More often, the reference
22 S. VEERASINGAM ET AL.

spectra in the spectral library are made of new and clean plastics, and there
could be a possibility that MPs may not be identified successfully with the
matching algorithm and spectral library of FTIR instrument. Therefore, it
is mandatory to develop additional accessories to combine with FTIR tech-
niques for the characterization of MP particles less than 10 mm size.

7. Conclusions
MPs have been identified and reported in environmental matrices from the
poles to equator and from atmosphere to deep ocean. Though the usage of
FTIR techniques in MP research has increased tremendously since 2004,
there are still some challenges to be overcome in the area of standardizing
the operational protocols for identification and quantification. Among the
reviewed research articles, ATR-FTIR has been used in 60% of the studies
to characterize different polymer types at various environmental matrices.
Attenuated total reflectance (ATR) technique coupled with FTIR spectros-
copy is widely used to characterize the large size MPs, whereas smaller
MPs require the use of mFTIR coupled with detector, especially, mFTIR
coupled with focal plane array detector facilitates a much faster generation
of chemical imaging of MPs by simultaneously scanning several thousand
spectra within a single measurement. FTIR technique is also used to study
the changes in chemical bond structures (hydroxyl, carbonyl groups and
carbon-oxygen) of MPs during various weathering process. Moreover, FTIR
method is used to understand the ecological effects of ingested MPs and its
associated pollutants and biochemical variations at the cellular level.
Following criteria are needed to be considered during data processing,
evaluation and identification MPs using FTIR spectroscopy: (1) when we
compare/match an unknown spectrum with literature or a commercial
spectral library, it is necessary to check the mode of acquisition of FTIR
spectra (acquired the same mode or different modes), (2) the spectral
change caused by weathering and aging, when comparing or matching with
the spectral library, and (3) desirable substrate to be used to reduce the
spectral interference. Standardization of chemometric techniques, decrease
in data processing time, better file handling capabilities of systems are
expected to improve FTIR analysis in MP pollution research. Since identifi-
cation of MP particles <10 mm using FTIR technique is a challenging task,
development of novel additional accessories or proper combination use of
existing techniques is needed for future MP research.

Acknowledgements
This work was carried out under the following projects: (1) QUEX-ESC-QP-TM-18/19,
funded by Qatar Petroleum through ESC, Qatar University, Qatar, (2) INT/RUS/RFBR/P-
 CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 23

339, funded by Department of Science & Technology, India, and (3) RFBR No. 18-55-
45024, funded by RFBR, Russia.

ORCID
S. Veerasingam http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1791-3418
M. Ranjani http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6996-2257
R. Venkatachalapathy http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0318-8232
Andrei Bagaev http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4018-7642
Vladimir Mukhanov http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5324-045X
Daria Litvinyuk http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9732-1219
M. Mugilarasan http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6110-6149
K. Gurumoorthi http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4688-9020
L. Guganathan http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3986-3017
V. M. Aboobacker http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0385-6918
P. Vethamony http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2849-5370

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