Applied Physics Roll no.

:___________________________

Laboratory Experiment No.1

To Understand the Lab Equipment and Components

Performance objective
A. To have a knowhow of lab
B. To have an intro of lab equipment and components

Equipment Required:

 DMM
 Power supply
 Function Generator
 Oscilloscope

Introduction:

DMM, function generator and oscilloscope are the most commonly used components in the electronics lab.
DMM is used to measure AC and DC current and voltage, resistance and frequency of circuits. It has a circular
knob that can be set on different positions depending upon the measurement to be taken. It measures rms values
for AC and average values for pulsating DC. The power supply is used to give DC output voltage or current. It
has two terminals one positive and other negative. The function generator generates AC waveforms in the form
of triangular, square and sinusoidal waves. We can use Function Generator to change frequency or amplitude
of the source .Oscilloscope is used to display AC and DC waveforms and used to measure their voltage, time
period and frequency (in the case of AC waves).

Procedure:

Digital Multimeter:

The digital multimeter has two connection wires one wire is fixed while the other one can be shifted between
current and voltage measuring mode. In order to take measurements its black terminal is connected at negative
while red terminal is connected at positive end of the battery. In order to measure the DC current set knob at
DC current, place the terminals around the component, and determine the value. Similar is the case with
voltage. In order to calculate resistance set the knob at resistive mode, place the terminals across the resistor
and determine the value. Similarly, frequency can be measured.
 Digital Multimeter

Power Supply:
The power supply gives constant DC voltage or current supply at the output. There are two
knobs one for voltage and other one for current. Each knob has its own two connection terminals the red one is
positive and the black one is negative. The knob is rotated to get the required value of voltage.

Function Generator:
The function generator is used to give an AC voltage supply at output. Its red terminal is positive and
black is negative. It gives sinusoidal, triangular or square at the output depending upon the button pressed
Wave Shapes:
Most function generators can produce three wave shapes
a. rectangular
b. triangular
c. sinusoidal

Rectangular
 Triangular

Sinusoidal

The frequency can be varied by pressing the required button and changing its limit using fine button.
Amplitude changes the voltage of the source wave. It can produce four primary waveforms: sine, square,
triangular and ramp, as well as other kinds of waveforms under computer control. There are three parameters
that can be varied for each of the primary waveform types:
To set any of these features, press the button labeled with the feature you wish to modify (i.e., “Ampl”, “Freq”,
or “Offset”). The present setting of this feature will appear.

Function Generator
 Oscilloscope:
An oscilloscope (scope) is used to view one or more voltage waveforms on a built-in display. The
oscilloscope is used to show the waveform of output voltage. Each channel has two terminals. The larger one is
positive while the smaller clip is negative. In order to get waveform from anyone of the channels select that
channel in the mode switch. Both can show waveform simultaneously selecting ADD choice in the mode
switch. By using the INV (invert) switch the output waveform of channel two is inverted resulting into the
subtraction of the two waves. ALT (alternate) present one wave after another alternatively.
To get a waveform from any channel firstly set the position of the ground. Select ground on AC-GND-DC
switch. Change its horizontal and vertical position changing position switches. Then select the type of voltage
for which the waveform is to be observed. Then connect its terminals to the source. Each channel has a
vertical placement knob that moves the waveform for that channel up and down. Each channel also has a knob
that selects the vertical scale of the waveform in terms of volts per division. Divisions are the visible grid lines
on the oscilloscope screen. The knobs that set horizontal placement and horizontal scale in time per division
control all channels simultaneously.

Oscilloscope
Determine the voltage by formula

Move horizontal axis and set Time/Div jack to get one full wave inside integral number of boxes. Determine
time period by formula;
o
The frequency can be found by formula;
o
You can use the built in measurement functions to confirm these values, Hit the MEASURE button up in the
miscellaneous section of the control panel. Hit the CH1 button to make sure that channel 1 is the currently
active trace.

Conclusion:

Exercise:

1. What is the resistance of an ideal voltage source?

2. Why ammeter connected in series only?

3. Why the internal resistance of voltmeter is very high, where as that of an ammeter is very low?
Applied Physics Roll no.:________________________

Laboratory Experiment No.2

To Measure the Resistance by Color Coding and Multi-Meter

Performance objective

A. To measure the resistor by color codes.

B. To measure the resistance by ohm meter.

Equipment Required:

 Resistors
 DMM
 DMM Probes

Introduction:
Resistors are electronic components used extensively on the circuit boards of electronic equipment.
Resistors ‘resist’ the flow of electric current. The higher the value of resistance (measured in ohms) the
lower the current will be. They can be divided into 2 categories: fixed or variable.

Fixed resistors
Fixed resistors are available with a large selection of resistance values that are set during manufacturing and
cannot be changed easily. The symbols for resistor are:

Four band resistors

The color code is read as follows:

1. Start with the band closest to one end of resistor. The first band is the first digit of the resistance value.
If it is not clear which is banded end, start from the end that does not begin with gold or silver band.
2. The second band is the second digit of the resistance value.
3. The third band is the number of zeros following the second digit, or multiplier.
4. The fourth band indicates the tolerance and is usually gold or silver

Color coding for a resistor

The tolerance band is usually gold or silver, but some may have none. Because resistors are not the exact
value indicated by the color bands, manufacturers have included a tolerance color band to indicate the
accuracy of the resistor. Gold band indicates the resistor is within 5 % of what is indicated. Silver = 10% and
none = 20%. Others are shown in the chart:

Resistor Color Codes

The 1K ohm resistor may have an actual measurement anywhere from 950 ohms to 1050 ohms. If a resistor
does not have a tolerance band, start from the band closest to a lead. This will be the first band. If you are
unable to read the color bands, then you will have to use your DMM. Be sure to zero it out first! Table 1 will
assist in determining the value of each resistance.

Five band resistors

Certain resistors are color coded with 5 bands. Beginning at the banded end, the first band is the first digit of
the resistance value. The second band is the second digit, the third band is third digit, and the fourth band is
the multiplier. And the fifth band indicates the tolerance.

Variable resistors
Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a wiper which moves along
the track as you turn the spindle. The track may be made from carbon or a coil of wire. The track is usually
rotary but straight track versions, usually called sliders, are also available. Variable resistors may be used as
a rheostat with two connections (the wiper and just one end of the track) or as a potentiometer with all three
connections in use.

Variable Resistor
This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor. Two terminals are used: one connected to an end of the
track, the other to the moveable wiper. Turning the spindle changed the resistor between the two terminals
from zero up to the maximum resistance.

Symbol of Variable Resistor

Rheostats are often used to vary current, for example to control the brightness of a lamp.

Digital Multi-Meter (DMM)

A millimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several functions in one unit. The most
basic instruments include ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter. Since the digital display directly indicates a
quantity as a number, there is no risk of parallax error when viewing a reading.

Digital Multi-Meter

1. Function/Range Switch: selects the function (voltmeter, ammeter or ohmmeter) and the range for the
measurement.
2. 200mA Input Terminal: for small current measurements.
3. 10A Input Terminal for large current measurements.
4. COM Input Terminal: Common ground, used in ALL measurements.
5. V Input Terminal: for voltage or resistance measurements.
6. Low Battery LCD: appears when the battery needs replacements.

Precautions for voltage measurements:

 o Plug the black test lead into COM jack.
o Plug the red test lead into the V jack.
o Set the function/range switch to either


DC volts or,

AC volts.
o If you do not know the approximate voltage about to be measured, use the largest voltage range
available.
o Connect the free ends of the red and black test leads across the device to be measured. Voltage is
always measured with the meter in parallel with the device.
o If the LCD displays either “1” or “-1”, with all other digits blank, the voltage is beyond the
selected range. Use the switch to select a larger range.
o Once you know the approximate voltage across the device, then use the switch to select the
lowest voltage range that will still accommodate the voltage across the device.

Precautions for Current Measurements

Turn the power off to the device.

 Plug the black test lead into the COM jack.

 Plug the red test lead into either the
o
200mA jack for small current measurements, or the
o
10A jack for large current measurements.
 If you do not know the approximate current to be measured, use the 10A jack.
 Set the function/range switch to either
o
DC amperes or
o
AC amperes
 Break open the circuit at the point where you want to measure the current by removing one of the wires.
Connect the free end of the red test lead to one place at which the wire was attached. Connect the free end of
the black test lead to the other place at which the wire was attached. Current is always measured with the
meter in SERIES with the device. Using the current meter incorrectly will blow the fuse or damage the
meter.
 Reapply the power to the device.
 If the LCD displays either “1” or “-1” with all other digits blank, the current is beyond the selected
range. Use the switch to select a larger range.
 Once you know the approximate current through the device, then use the switch to select the lowest
current range that will still accommodate the current through the device.
 Turn the power off to the device before removing the meter from the circuit.

Precaution for Resistance Measurements

Turn the power off to the device.

 Plug the black lead test into the COM jack.

 Plug the red test lead into the V jack.
 Set the function/range switch to ohms.
 If you do not know the approximate resistance to be measured, select the largest range available.
 Connect the free ends of red and black test leads across the device to be measured. Resistance is always
measured in parallel with the device.
 If LCD displays either “1” or “-1” with all other digits blank, the resistance is beyond the selected range,
use the switch to select a larger range.
 Once you know the approximate resistance of the device, and then use the switch to select the lowest
ranges that will still accommodate the resistance of the device.

Breadboard:
The term breadboard is derived from an early form of point-to-point construction. A breadboard is used to
make up temporary circuits for testing or to try out an idea. No soldering is required so it is easy to change
connections and replace components. Parts will not be damaged so they will be available to be re-used
afterwards.

Bread Board Top View

The bread board has many strips of metal (copper usually) which run underneath the board. The metal strips
are laid out as shown below.

Bread Board Rear View

These strips connect the holes on the top of the board. This makes it easy to connect components together to
build circuits. To use the breadboard, the legs of the components are place in the holes (the sockets). The
holes are made so that they will hold the components in place. Each hole is connected to one of the metal
strips running underneath the boards.
Connections on Breadboard

Breadboards have many tiny sockets (called holes) arranged on a grid. The leads of most components can be
pushed straight into the holes. ICs are inserted across the central gap with their notch or dot to the left.
The diagram shows how the breadboard holes are connected:

Circuit Mounted on Bread Board

The top and bottom rows are linked horizontally all the way across as shown by the red and black lines on the
diagram. The power supply is connected to these rows, + at the top and 0V (zero volts) at the bottom.

The long top and bottom row of holes are usually used for power supply connections. The rest of the circuit
is built by placing components and connecting them together with jumper wires. Then when the path is
formed by wires and components from the positive supply node to the negative supply node, we can turn on
the power and current flows through the path and the circuit comes alive. For chips with many legs (ICs),
place them in the middle of the board so that half of the legs are on one side of the middle line and half on
the other side.

Below are the continuity and no continuity between connection points on the bread board.

Continuity Testing by Multimeter

Observations & Calculations:

Write the color codes of Resistor by its value:

S Resistor Value in Ohm 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

No. (Ω) Band Band Band Band
1. 100 Ω ± 2%
2. 1.5K Ω ± 5%
3. 450 Ω ± 10%
4. 22K Ω ± 1%
5. 1M Ω ± 2%
6. 10K Ω ± 5%
7. 150 Ω ± 1%
8. 2K Ω ± 10%
9. 3K Ω ± 5%
10. 10M Ω ± 5%

Write the Value of Resistor by Color Codes

3rd 4th
S No. 1st Band 2nd Band Band Band Tolerance Resistor Value in Ohm (Ω)
1. Brown Black White Silver
2. Red Yellow Brown Golden
3. Blue Green Gray Brown
No
4. Violet Brown Red color
5. Yellow Orange Gray Golden
6. Orange Orange Red Silver
7. Gray White Blue Silver
No
8. Brown Black Red color
9. Red Red Golden Silver
No
10. Yellow Violet Silver color

Take 3 Resistors and measure their values by DMM and color codes. Do the resistor values measured by
DMM fall in the error tolerance range of that resistor?
Conclusion:

Exercise:

1. Do the experimental values fall within the tolerance of the resistors?

2. Why DMM as voltmeter is always connected in parallel?

Applied Physics Roll no.:___________________________

Laboratory Experiment No. 3

To Determine The Value of g using Simple Pendulum

Performance Objectives:
• To determine the value of g using simple pendulum.
• To verify that time period T of simple pendulum is independent of the mass of the bob.
• To verify that time period T of simple pendulum is independent of the amplitude.
• To verify that time period T of simple pendulum depends on the length of the string.

Equipment Required:
• Iron stand
• Bob
• Vernier Calliper
• Meter Rod
• String
• Cork

Introduction:

Many things in nature wiggle in a periodic fashion. That is, they vibrate. One such example is a simple
pendulum. If we suspend a mass at the end of a piece of string, we have a simple pendulum. Here, the to and fro
motion represents a periodic motion. Such oscillatory motion is called simple harmonic motion. The time of this
to and fro motion, called the period, does not depend on the mass of the pendulum or on the size of the arc
through which it swings. Another factor involved in the period of motion is, the acceleration due to gravity (g),
which on the earth is 9.8 m/s2. It follows then that a long pendulum has a greater period than a shorter
pendulum.

Procedure:
The period T of a simple pendulum (measured in seconds) is given by the formula:
T=2π√ (L/g)
to solve for “g”, L is the length of the pendulum (measured in meters) and g is the acceleration due to gravity
(measured in meters/s2). Now with a bit of algebraic rearranging, we may solve above equation for the
acceleration due to gravity g.
g= 4π²L/T2

 Measure the length of the pendulum to the middle of the pendulum bob. Record the length of the pendulum in
the table below.
 With the help of a lab partner, set the pendulum in motion until it completes 10 to and fro oscillations, taking
care to record this time. Then the period T for one oscillation
 You will make a total of eight measurements for g using three different masses at four different values for the
length L.
 Now calculate the value of g using the formula:
g= 4π²L/T2
Note: π = 3.14, 4 π² = 39.44

Observation & Calculation:

Least count of vernier calliper:
Zero Error:
Zero Correction:
Radius of the bob:
Least Count of stop watch:

No.of Length Length of Time for Time T2 L/T2=

obs. of string pendulum 10 Period constant
including L=l+r oscillations T=t/10
hook L t
(cm) (cm) (s)
(s) (s2)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean value =
 g= 4π²L/T2
by putting values in the formula we get:
g=
Conclusion:

Exercise:

1. Does the time period of simple pendulum affected by the amplitude?

2. What is simple harmonic motion? Write its few examples.

Applied Physics Roll no.:___________________________

Laboratory Experiment No. 4

The Simple Harmonic Motion of a Spring

Performance Objectives:
 To determine the effect of Mass on the Time Period of a Spring.

Equipment Required:

 Slinky Spring
 Meter Scale
 Iron Stand
 Different Masses
 Mass Hanger

Introduction:

“When the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement, the oscillation is called Simple Harmonic
Motion.”
For an Ideal Spring:
Fr = - kx
Fr= Restoring Force
X = Displacement
K = Spring Constant
-ve sign indicates the opposite direction between ‘Fr’ &’ x’.
It obeys Hooke’s Law.
“It is stated that the force needed to extend or compress a spring by some displacement, where k is a constant
factor characteristic of the spring.”
k = Fr / x
Units of k is N / m.
Spring takes some time to complete the vibrations is called as Time Period. “It is defined as the time requires to
complete one vibration.” It is represented as ‘T

T=
 Procedure:

 Take a spring known as slinky.

 Held it vertically with iron stand and attach a mass hanger also with spring.
 Put a mass ‘m’ on mass hanger and note it mean position.
 Displace it through some distance ‘x’.
 Spring starts vibration about its mean position.
 Note the time for 10 vibrations.
 Divide the noted time with 10 to measure the Time Period with respect to vibrations.
 Now calculate the Force of the mass ‘m’ by
F=mg.
 Calculate the Spring Constant ‘k’ by the formula
k=F/x.
 Now calculate the Time Period of the Spring by the formula

T=

 Now repeat the procedure for different masses to determine the Time Period.
 Calculations & Observations:

Sr Mass Displacement Force Spring Time (t) for Measured Calculated

No. (kg) m x (m) (N) Constant 10 Time Period Time Period
F=mg (N/m) vibrations (s) (s)
K=F/x (s) T=10/t

Conclusion:

Exercise:
1. What is SHM?

2. What is Restoring Force?

3. What is Hooke’s Law?

Applied Physics Roll no.:________________________

Laboratory Experiment No.5

To demonstrate the basic understanding of Function Generator

and Oscilloscope
Performance objectives:
A. How to use function generator and oscilloscope to analyzes waves.
B. How to measure voltage and time period from oscilloscope.

Equipment Required:

 Function Generator
 Oscilloscope
 Probes

Introduction:

So far we have measured only constant (or nearly constant) voltages and currents. Although
these are important, as signals they are fairly boring. A much more interesting (and
information rich) class of signals are time varying voltages and currents. In order to measure
time varying signals, we need a source of time varying signals. The DC power supply is our
source of constant voltages; the function generator is our source for that class of time varying
signals known as periodic signals.

Viewing Signals with the Oscilloscope

Important settings of the oscilloscope are presented at the bottom of the display area. In
particular there will be the vertical scales or sensitivities (volts per division of the grid) for
each channel and the horizontal or time base scale (in seconds per division). Other settings
are changed by pressing one of the keys and working through on-screen menus.
Display of signals applied to channel 1 or channel 2 can be enabled and disabled by
pressing the corresponding numbered keys in the vertical controls section.
The vertical sensitivity or scale factor (volts/division) can be adjusted by the knob above
the numbered key. The horizontal scale or timebase setting (seconds/division) is adjusted
using the knob on the left of horizontal controls section.
The RUN/STOP button provides a way to freeze the display with the most recently
collected data. This is useful if the signal is noisy or the display seems ‘jumpy’ and hard to
see a good reproducible result.
On-screen menus can be closed and the full signal display restored using the small round
button above the menu selection keys at the immediate right of the display.
Pressing the AUTO key causes the scope to adjust its horizontal and vertical settings to
‘optimal’ values for the input signals. Sometimes this works nicely; often it leads to
settings that are completely inappropriate for the signals you are studying. If you use this
button, you must always look at the vertical and horizontal settings at the bottom of the
display area to see what the scope has selected, and then ask yourself if they are reasonable
for what you are doing. If you use the AUTO key and don’t see anything that makes sense,
try returning to
a known set of reasonable choices by recalling a pre-set configuration. To do this press
SAVE/RECALL !and select STORAGE SETUPS on the on-screen menu!.
Make sure that Setup no. 1 is selected and press the LOAD menu key followed by menu
off button. This restores settings appropriate to the start of the experiment. Make
adjustments manually from this point.

Procedure
I. Basic controls.
The first step in becoming familiar with the oscilloscope is to use it to observe a known
signal and observe the effects of various controls. The oscilloscope provides an internally
generated signal. This is normally used
to calibrate special adapters used with the scope. For our purposes it provides a convenient
signal with known frequency and amplitude.
Frequency is defined to be the number of cycles completed in 1 second and is routinely
given the unit of hertz (Hz). A frequency of 60 Hz means 60 complete cycles are executed
in one second. With oscilloscopes one
measures the period of a signal: the time required to complete one full cycle, and then uses
the relation between frequency f and period T to find the frequency of the signal: f = 1/T.
Use a probe on one end to connect to the scope’s channel 1 input and an alligator clip to
connect to the upper PROBE ADJUST contact.
A. Observe the pattern displayed on the scope. Try adjusting the vertical scale control and
the vertical position for channel 1 and note the results.
 Try adjusting the time-base (horizontal) scale control and the horizontal position as well.
B. For a time base (horizontal) setting of 500"s/div and a vertical setting of 2.0V/div
carefully sketch the waveform displayed.
C. Determine the amplitude of the wave. To determine the amplitude of the wave, first
measure the amplitude of the wave in divisions by using the waveform on your screen
(measuring the total vertical height and
dividing by 2 is best way to do this). After the amplitude is found in divisions, calculate the
amplitude in volts by using the vertical setting on the oscilloscope.
D. Determine the frequency of the wave. To determine the frequency of the wave you will
first need to find the period of the wave. Recall the period of a wave is the time for one
complete cycle. Similar to finding
amplitude, you can find the period in divisions and then convert to seconds using the time
base setting. Once the period is found determine the frequency.
E. Repeat parts B through D for a time base setting of 500"s/div and a vertical setting of
1.0V/div.
F. Repeat parts B through D for a time base setting of 200"s/div and a vertical setting of
1.0V/div.

Procedure:
Making a measurement with the Oscilloscope consist of two phases;
 Getting it to display anything at all.
 Getting it to display what you want.

If anyone of several important controls is not properly set, no display at all will appear, so the
first order of business is to get all of these controls into a reasonable state. Connect the channel
of oscilloscope to the function generator. Record the amplitude of each wave in volts.
Amplitude is the height of the wave times the VOLTS/DIV. It is measured from the x-axis to
the PEAK of the wave.

Connect function generator to oscilloscope and look at a sine wave in channel one, and
measure its amplitude (in volts), then measure its period T (in seconds). Check to see if 1/T is
equal to the frequency setting on the signal generator. You can use the MEASURE option in
oscilloscope. To manually determine the parameter:
Determine the voltage by formula
 Move horizontal axis and set Time/Div jack to get one full wave inside integral number of
boxes. Determine time period by formula;

The frequency can be found by formula;

With the same signal as before, switch to a square wave and a sawtooth wave, and see what they
each look like. When you are done, switch back to a sine wave.

Calculations and Observations:

 the frequency setting of the signal generator:
 the measured amplitude (from the oscilloscope):
 the measured period (from the oscilloscope):
 the calculated frequency (from your measurement of period above):
 a comparison of the frequency setting on the signal generator with that obtained from
the oscilloscope measurement:
 a sketch of the sine wave:

Input from Function Generator:

Waveform = sinusoidal
Make a waveform of Vp= 2V
Make a signal of T= 0.5msec

Make a sketch of the waves:

Amplitude Comparison Table

Manually Measured Oscilloscope Measured Percentage Error %

Amplitude Amplitude Volts
Volts
Do this for the other amplitudes and record your data in the table below.

Time period Comparison Table

Manually Measured Time Oscilloscope Measured Time Percentage Error %
period period

Conclusion:
Applied Physics Roll no.:___________________________

Laboratory Experiment No. 6

To Verify Ohm’s Law

Performance objectives:

 Verification of Ohm’s law.

Equipment Required:

 Breadboard
 Power Supply
 DMM
 Resistors
 Light Bulb and Socket
 Wire Leads

Introduction:
Ohm’s Law states that the current, I, that flows in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage, V, across the
circuit and inversely proportional to the resistance, R, of the circuit:

I=V/R

In this experiment, the current flowing through a resistor will be measured as the voltage across the resistor is
varied. From the graph of the data, the resistance is determined for Ohmic resistors (R). NonOhmic resistors
(light bulb) do not obey Ohm’s Law.
Ammeters are connected in series so that the current flows through them. The ideal ammeter has a resistance of
zero so that it has no effect on the circuit. Real ammeters have some internal resistance.
Voltmeters are connected in parallel to resistive elements in the circuit so that they measure the potential
difference across the element. The ideal voltmeter has infinite internal resistance. Real voltmeters have internal
resistance so that only a minuscule amount of current can flow through the voltmeter. This keeps the voltmeter
from becoming a significant path for current around the element being measured.

Ohm’s Law Applied

 Build a simple series circuit using Resistor R, an ohmmeter, an ammeter, and a wire (This will look similar
to Fig. 6.1, but without the power supply).
 Measure the equivalent resistance of the circuit using the ohmmeter and record this value. Remove the
ohmmeter and connect the unplugged power supply to the circuit. Connect a voltmeter to the circuit, across the
power supply leads (in parallel).
 Plug in the power supply and turn it on.
 Test Ohm’s Law (V = IR) by verifying that the current increases linearly with applied voltage. Apply 1V
to 9V to the circuit. Measure current and voltage and record them in the table provided.

Figure 6.1: Simple Series Circuit

Non-Ohmic Device
 Build a series circuit using the light bulb (Fig. 6.2).
 Measure the current and voltage as you increase the applied voltage in 1V increments up to 11.0 V. Record
the values in the table provided.
 Turn off and unplug the power supply; turn off the DMM.
 Figure 6.2: Connection with light bulb

Graphing
 Enter all of your voltage and current data as data sets for the resistor. Include the point (0,0).
 Plot I vs. V for the three Ohmic resistors on one graph. Apply a linear fit to each one.
 Plot a separate I vs. V graph for the light bulb.

Calculations and Observations:

For Resistor
S No. Voltmeter reading V Ammeter Reading I Resistance R (Ω)
(V) (A)
1
2

10

11
 For Light bulb
S No. Voltmeter reading V Ammeter Reading I Resistance R (Ω)
(V) (A)
1
2

10

11

Graphs:
 Conclusion:

Exercise:

1. Is the graph of I vs. V for the light bulb linear? What does this tell you about the resistance of a light
bulb?

2. What are the application of Ohm`s law?

3. How does resistance of ohmic and non-ohmic device behaves?

4. What is the power output of R when 8.0 V is applied across it (use your graph value)?
Applied Physics Roll no.:___________________________

Laboratory Experiment No. 7

To study the V-I characteristics of Semiconductor Diode

Performance Objective:

To Sketch V-I Curve of Diode in Forward Biased Region and Reverse Biased Region.
 To understand the concept of forward biasing.
 Be familiar with diode and its basic functions.
 Get concept of depletion region.

Equipment Required:
 Bread board
 Resistor
 Diode
 Digital Multi-Meter
 DC Power Supply
 Connecting Wires

Introduction:

A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes, an anode and a cathode. It allows
current to flow through it in one direction with far greater ease than other. When placed in a simple
battery-load circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent the current through the load, depending upon
the polarity of applied voltage. Forward biasing occurs when P-type semiconductor material is connected
to the positive terminal of the battery and the N-type semiconductor material is connected to the negative
terminal. In forward biased condition the diode acts as short circuit and current through the circuit is
maximum. If the polarity of applied voltage is reversed the diode is reverse biased. In reverse biased
condition it acts as open circuit all the voltage is dropped across it and no current flows through the
circuit.

Diode Symbol

When an N-type semiconductor is bounded to a P-type semiconductor, a junction is formed. This is

known as a junction diode. The diode has a unique characteristic of the ability to pass current in one
direction only.
When the source voltage Vs is positive, id is positive and the diode is in a short circuit (Vd=0), while
when Vs is negative is zero and the diode is an open circuit (Vd=Vs). The diode can be thought of as a
switch that is controlled by the polarity of the source voltage. The switch is closed for positive source
voltages and opens for negative source voltages.

Forward Biased Diode:

When the ideal diode is forward biased that is its P-terminal is connected to higher potential than N-
terminal. Then the diode behaves a short circuit and infinite current can pass through it without any
voltage across it. That is, it has zero forward resistance and no forward drop. The characteristic curve is a
straight line that starts from the origin and rises, vertically along +ve y-axis.

Reversed Biased Diode:-

When an ideal diode is reversed biased i.e. cathode is at higher potential than anode. Then the diode
behaves as an open circuit and no current pass through it and all the applied voltage appear across it.
That is diode reverse resistance is infinite and reverse current is zero. The characteristics curve is a
straight line on y-axis extending to left as shown in fig.

Another way to look at this element is to note that the diode conducts current only from P to N and
conduction takes place only when the source voltage is positive. The diode does not conduct when the
source voltage is negative. An ideal diode has no physical existence. It is only a reference form which
practical diodes are compares. The V-I characteristics of an ideal diodes for forward and reverse bias
are given below.

V-I Characteristics of Ideal Diode

Physical diodes have inherent characteristics and limitations that cause them to differ from the ideal.

V-I Characteristics of Real Diode

These are to be studies in the following experiment.

Procedure:
 Connect the diode and resistor in series as shown in circuit diagram.
 Apply DC power to the circuit in such a way that p-type is at positive and n-type is at negative
potential.
 Adjust the power supply to 0V and gradually increase the voltage.
 For each input measure the voltages dropped across diode and resistor using DMM and write these
values in table.
 Using voltage drop across resistor calculate current through diode using relation
 Sketch the graph between diode and voltage current.

Observations and calculations:

Forward Biased:

Vs (V) VD (V) VR (V) ID (mA) Power dissipated in

diode

Reverse Biased:

Vs (V) VD (V) VR (V) Reverse Power dissipated in

current diode
ID (mA)
V-I Characteristics Graph of Diode for Forward bias and Reverse bias condition
For forward bias
Plot a graph between VD and ID taking VD on the x-axis and ID on the y-axis. The graph obtained is
known as forward bias characteristic curve.

For reverse bias

Plot a graph between VD and ID taking VD on the x-axis and ID on the y-axis. The graph obtained is
known as reverse bias characteristic curve.

Conclusion:

Exercise:

1. What Is A PN Junction?

2. Explain What Is An Ideal Diode?

3. Explain What Is Leakage Current?

4. Define What Is The Mechanism By Which Conduction Takes Place Inside The
Semiconductor?

5. Define What Do You Mean By Donor And Accept Or Impurities?

6. Define What Are the Charge Carriers In P-type And N-type Semiconductors?

7. Why Is Called the Depletion Region?

8. Define Cut-in Voltage Of A P-n Junction Diode?

9. Define Breakdown Voltage?
Applied Physics Roll no.:___________________________

Laboratory Experiment No. 8

To demonstrate the working & operation of Light Emitting Diode

Performance Objectives:

A. To demonstrate the operation of a typical LED.

B. To measure some of the characteristics of the LED
C. Identify the LED’s anode and cathode.

Equipment Required:
 Bread board
 Resistor
 LED
 Digital Multi-Meter
 DC Power Supply
 Connecting Wires

Introduction:
The lighting emitting diode is a p-n junction diode. It is a specially doped diode and made up of a special type
of semiconductors. When the light emits in the forward biased, then it is called as a light emitting diode.
The light emitting diode simply, we know as a diode. When the diode is forward biased, then the electrons &
holes are moving fast across the junction and they are combining constantly, removing one another out. Soon
after the electrons are moving from the n-type to the p-type silicon, it combines with the holes, then it
disappears. Hence it makes the complete atom & more stable and it gives the little burst of energy in the form
of a tiny packet or photon of light.

The above diagram shows how the light emitting diode works and the step by step process of the diagram.
From the diagram, we can observe that the N-type silicon is in red color and it contains the electrons, they are
indicated by the black circles.
 The P- type silicon is in the blue color and it contains holes, they are indicated by the white circles.
 The power supply across the p-n junction makes the diode forward biased and pushing the electrons from n-
type to p-type. Pushing the holes in the opposite direction.
 Electron and holes at the junction are combined.
 The photons are given off as the electrons and holes are recombined.

Working Principle of LED

The working principle of the Light emitting diode is based on the quantum theory. The quantum theory says
that when the electron comes down from the higher energy level to the lower energy level then, the energy
emits from the photon. The photon energy is equal to the energy gap between these two energy levels. If the
PN-junction diode is in the forward biased, then the current flows through the diode.
In this experiment you will observe the operation of a typical LED which emits a visible red light. You
will observe the relation between the LED’s forward current and forward voltage ass you observe the
LED’s brightness. The circuit symbol is

Forward bias requires that the voltage at the anode (a) of the LED is positive with respect to the voltage at
the cathode (k). The cathode has the shorter lead.

I-V Characteristics of LED

There are different types of light emitting diodes are available in the market and there are different LED
characteristics which include the color light, or wavelength radiation, light intensity. The important
characteristic of the LED is color. In the starting use of LED, there is the only red color. As the use of LED is
increased with the help of the semiconductor process and doing the research on the new metals for LED, the

different colors were formed.

 The above graph shows the approximate curves between the forward voltage and the current. Each curve in the
graph indicates the different color.

Advantages:

 They're tiny and relatively inexpensive.

 They're easy to control electronically.
 They last virtually forever. That makes them brilliant for traffic signals.
 They make light electronically without getting hot and that means they save lots of energy

Procedure:

1- Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram.

2- Connect your voltmeter across R. Connect power supply to the circuit shown.
3- Now rotate power supply knob until the voltage across R is equal to 1 volt (measure with your voltmeter).
Since R has a value of 1 k ohm (1000 ohms) the current through it will equal to (according to Ohm’s Law)
its voltage drop divided by its resistance or:
I = 1volts / 1000 ohms = 1 milliampere
Since this same current (series circuit) is flowing through the LED, the LED’s forward current (IF) must
now be equal to 1 milliampere.
4- Use the voltmeter to measure the forward voltage across the LED. Record your measured value (in
volts) immediately below the IF values of 1 milliampere in the table provided. Your recorded value
indicates the amount of forward voltage (VF) across the LED when its forward current (IF) is equal to 1
milliampere.

5- Complete the table in by determining the VF value that corresponds to each value of IF. To do this simple
repeat steps 3 and 4 for different values. Each time you increased IF to a higher value, the intensity of the
light produced by the LED will increase. The radiant power produced by an LED increased with current.
Turn off your power supply.
6- Plot corresponding IF and VF values on the graph, Join the various points to form a curve.
Observations & Calculations:
Record of IF & VF values:

LED Current Voltage Measurement

IF (mA)

VF (V)

Vs

Graph: plotting IF and VF values

Conclusion:
Exercise:

1. Light Emitting Diode (LED) - what is it?

2. LEDs resistance - what is it and how it behaves?

3. Tell 3 applications of LEDS?

Applied Physics Roll no.:___________________________

Laboratory Experiment No. 9

To demonstrate the behavior of capacitor

Performance objectives:

 To understand effective capacitance

 To understand capacitor blocks DC and allows AC
 To understand Charging and Discharging of Capacitors and capacitor acts as a voltage source when
charged

Equipment Required:
 AC source
 DC source
 Switches
 Resistor
 Capacitors
 LED
 Connecting Wires
 DMM
 Multisim Software

Introduction:
A capacitor is made up of two or more plates, which are separated by a dielectric (insulating) material. When
voltage is applied across the capacitor plates, current flows out of one plate and into the other through the
voltage source. Ideally, no current flows through the dielectric separating the capacitor plates. The charge on
the capacitor is stored in the electric field set up between the oppositely charged plates. If the applied voltage
is dc, the capacitor will charge to the value of the applied voltage and will retain this charge until the applied
voltage changes. If the applied voltage is ac, the capacitor will essentially follow the polarity changes of the
applied voltage, alternately charging and discharging in opposite directions during each half cycle; thus
effectively passing alternating current. Some of the basic concepts are:

 A capacitor blocks the flow of direct current.

 A capacitor effectively passes alternating current.
 The capacitance of a capacitor is determined by the spacing between the plates, the surface area of the
plates, and the type of dielectric material.
 Capacitors in series give reduced total capacitance; capacitors in parallel add directly.
 A capacitor temporarily stores energy when charged; this energy is returned to the circuit when the
capacitor discharges.
 Capacitance (C) is the measure of how much electrical charge a capacitor can store. The unit of capacitance is
the farad (F), named in honor of Michael Faraday. By definition, a capacitor has a capacitance of one farad
when it stores one Coulomb of charge with one volt is applied across its plates.
The mathematical formula for calculating the total capacitance of capacitors in series and parallel are as
follows:

CT(series) = 1/C1+1/C2+1/C3....

CT(parallel) = C1+ C2+ C3....

Procedure:
 To demonstrate that capacitors pass alternating current but block direct current the procedure is:
 Connect the ac circuit shown in Figure below. Set the ac ammeter. The positive side of the ac ammeter
should be connected to capacitor C1.
 Use the power source voltage to 15Vac.
 Measure the current flow.
I= ______________

Now disconnect the power source voltage.

 Now conduct the dc circuit.

 This circuit is the same as the circuit of Figure above, except that a dc ammeter is used in place of the
ac ammeter and the dc voltmeter is used instead of the ac voltmeter function.
 Adjust the power source voltage to 15Vdc.
 Measure the current flow.
I= ______________

To demonstrate that a charged capacitor when disconnected from the circuit will hold a charge, thus becoming a
voltage source capable of giving an electric shock, the procedure is:
 Make the circuit as shown in Figure below.

 Be sure the positive side of the circuit is connected to the positive terminal of the capacitor C3 and the
negative side to the negative (-) terminal.
 Connect one end of the load to the positive terminal of capacitor C3. Do not connect the other end of the
load.
 Close switch S and adjust the power source voltage to 15Vdc.
 Open switch S and reduce the power source voltage to zero. All power is now removed.

 Connect the free end of the load to the negative terminal of the capacitor. Describe what happened.
Calculations and Observations:

For Charging
Time Voltage

For Discharging
Time Voltage
Graph:

Conclusion:

Exercise:

1.Compare the current measurements. Do the results indicate that a complete path exists for ac current flow?
And for dc current flow? Explain you results.
 Applied Physics Roll no.:___________________________

Laboratory Experiment No. 10

Series and Parallel Combination of Resistors and Capacitors

Performance Objectives:
 To understand the equivalent resistance/capacitance in series and parallel combination of complex
network
 Comparison of Ceq and Req from practical and theoretical

Equipment Required:

 Resistors
 Capacitors
 Breadboard
 DMM
 Connecting wires

Introduction:
The resistor is a passive electrical component to create resistance in the flow of electric current. In almost
all electrical networks and electronic circuits they can be found. The resistance is measured in ohms (Ω).
An ohm is the resistance that occurs when a current of one ampere passes through a resistor with a one
volt drop across its terminals. The current is proportional to the voltage across the terminal ends. This ratio
is represented by Ohm’s law:

Resistors are used for many purposes. A few example include delimit electric current, voltage division,
heat generation, matching and loading circuits, -control gain and fix time constants. They are
commercially available with resistance values over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. They
can be used to as electric brakes to dissipate kinetic energy from trains, or be smaller than a square
millimeter of electronics.

Series Resistance:
The total resistance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of individual resistances “In a series you will
need to calculate the total resistance of the circuit. To calculate the total resistance, we use the formula:



Parallel Resistance:
 parallel circuit is a closed circuit in which the current divides into two or more paths before
recombining to complete the circuit. Each load connected in a separate path receives the full circuit
voltage and the total circuit current is equal to sum of the individual branch resistances.

 

A capacitor is made up of two or more plates, which are separated by a dielectric (insulating) material.
When voltage is applied across the capacitor plates, current flows out of one plate and into the other
through the voltage source. SI unit of capacitance is Farad (F). Capacitance is the ability of a capacitor to
collect and store energy in form of an electrical charge. Its formula is given by:
C=Q/V
Ideally, no current flows through the dielectric separating the capacitor plates. The charge on the
capacitor is stored in the electric field set up between the oppositely charged plates. If the applied voltage
is dc, the capacitor will charge to the value of the applied voltage and will retain this charge until the
applied voltage changes. If the applied voltage is ac, the capacitor will essentially follow the polarity
changes of the applied voltage, alternately charging and discharging in opposite directions during each
half cycle; thus effectively passing alternating current. Some of the basic concepts of capacitor are:
A capacitor blocks the flow of direct current.
A capacitor effectively passes alternating current.
The capacitance of capacitor is determined by the spacing between the plates, the surface area of the
plates, and the type of dielectric material.
Capacitors in series give reduced total capacitance; capacitors in parallel add directly.
A capacitor temporarily stores energy when charged, this energy is returned to the circuit when the
capacitor discharges.
Series Capacitor:
When capacitors are connected one after another, they are said to be in series. For capacitor in series,
the total capacitance can be found by adding the reciprocals of the individual capacitances, and taking
the reciprocal of the sum.

Parallel Capacitor:
Capacitors are connected together in parallel when both of its terminals are connected to each terminal
of another capacitor. The voltage (Vc) connected across all the capacitors that are connected in parallel
is the same.

Series and parallel Capacitor:

 Capacitor = C1= C2 = 0.1µF
 Capacitor = C4 = C5 = 2.2µF
 Capacitor = C6 = C7 = 3.3µF

Circuit Diagram:

Observations & Calculations:

Colour code values of resistances:
Resistance R1=R2:

Resistance R3=R4:

Resistance R5=R6:

Resistance R7=R8:

Theoretical Values:

By software:

Req = 3.874kΩ
Software Value:

DMM Value:

Difference:

Calculate Equivalent Capacitance of Circuit:

Applied Physics Roll no.:__________________

Laboratory Experiment No. 11

To measure the speed of sound using stationary waves by resonance

method
Performance Objectives:
 To determine the wavelength λ of sound in air at room temperature using stationary
waves by resonance method.
 To determine the speed v of sound in air at room temperature using stationary waves
by resonance method.
 To verify the speed v of sound at any given temperature t °C .
Equipment Required:
 Tuning fork of different frequencies
 Resonance tube
 Water reservoir
 Stopper
 Thermometer
 Rubber pad
Introduction:
In this experiment the velocity of sound in air is to be found by using tuning forks of known
frequency. The wavelength of the sound will be determined by using the phenomenon of the
resonance in air column. The apparatus for the experiment consists of a long cylindrical
plastic tube attached to the water reservoir. The length of the water column may be changed
by raising or lowering the water level while the tuning fork is held over the open end of the
tube. Resonance is indicated by the sudden increase in the intensity of the sound when the
column is adjusted to the proper length. The resonance is a standing wave phenomenon in the
air column and occurs when the column length is λ/2, 3 λ /2 etc.
Procedure:
 Note the temperature “t” of lab by using thermometer in °C.
 Strike the tuning fork of known frequency “f” gently on the rubber pad and hold it on
the open end of the resonance tube so that the prongs of the tuning fork moves up and
down.
 By adjusting the water level note the position “l1” at which 1st resonance takes place
means that the loud sound is heard.
 Similarly, note the position “l2” at which second louder sound is heard means that
second resonance takes place.
 Find the separation between the 1st and 2nd resonance positions.
l = l2 – l1
 Calculate the wavelength of the stationary wave produced in the air column “l” by the
following formula:
λ = 2l
Applied Physics Roll no.:__________________

 Calculate the speed of sound at “t°C” by the formula:

Vt =f λ.

 Repeat the experiment by using the tuning fork of different frequencies and then take
the mean.
 Calculate the speed of sound in air at “0°C” by the following formula:

V0= Vt – 0.61t.

Diagram:

Tuning fork

Water reservoir

Stopper
Resonance tube

Observations and calculations:

Temperature of the lab, t= ............................°C

No. of Frequency Position of Position of l = l2 – l1 Vt = f λ /

observations of tuning 1st 2nd
(cm) Vt = 2lf
fork “f” resonance resonance
(Hz) l1(cm) l2(cm) (ms-1)
Applied Physics Roll no.:__________________

1.

2.

3.

Mean speed of sound at t°C, Vt =................................ms-1

Speed of sound at 0°C, V0= Vt – 0.61t.

V0 =.................................ms-1
Actual value of sound,
V =.............................ms-1
Percentage error formula:

Actual value – Calculated value × 100

Actual value

Error =......................%

Conclusion:

Exercise:

What is resonance?

What is the effect of pressure on the speed of sound?

What is the velocity of sound in air, if temperature of air is 20°C.

Applied Physics Roll no.:___________________________

Laboratory Experiment No. 12

To demonstrate the working of diode as a Half Wave Rectifier

Performance Objectives:
 To understand the concept of half wave rectification.
 Get the concept of output voltages and its waveforms.
 Get concept of frequency and percentage error.
Equipment Required:
 Bread board
 Resistor
 Diode
 DMM
 AC Power Supply (Function generator)
 Oscilloscope
 Connecting wires

Introduction:
A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes an anode and a cathode. It allows current to
flow through it in one direction with far greater ease than in other. When placed in a circuit with an AC supply
and load diode acts as Half-wave Rectifier. Rectifier is a device that converts AC input voltage to DC output
voltage. Diode as half-wave rectifier allows the current through the load in one-half cycle but prevents in the
other, thus giving a pulsating DC as output. When P-type (anode) of diode is 0.7V (in case of silicon) at
positive potential with respect to the N-type (cathode) the diode is Forward Biased. In forward biased
condition, the diode acts as short circuit and current through the circuit is maximum. When the polarity of
applied voltage is reversed the diode is reverse biased. In reverse biased condition, it acts as open circuit all the
voltage is dropped across it and no current flows through the circuit. The peak output voltage, which appears
across load, is 0.7 V less than the input voltage.

Half-Wave Rectification Circuit

 For a sinusoidal input voltage, the no-load output DC voltage for an ideal half-wave rectifier is

Vrms = Vpeak / 2

Vdc = Vpeak / ᴨ

Where
Vdc, Vav – DC output voltage or average output voltage
Vpeak – peak value of input voltage
Vrms – the output voltage of root mean square value

Procedure:
 Connect resistor and the diode in series as shown in circuit diagram above.
 Apply AC voltage across the circuit using function generator with a suitable peak value and 1 kHz frequency.
 Study the waveforms of input and outputs across the diode and resistor through the oscilloscope for both
positive and negative cycles.
 Measure peak voltages of input voltage, time period and frequency of the waveforms of diode and resistor for
both half cycles.
Determine the percentage error in peak voltages using formula:

 Similarly measure peak voltages of input voltage, output voltage across diode and resistor and measure the
percentage error.

Observations and Calculations:

Source :

Vin=

f=

Measurements through Oscilloscope:

 Voltage

 Time period
 Frequency:

 Waveform:

Vavg =

Output Voltage:

Vout =

 Time Period:

 Frequency:
 Percentage Error:

Measured value =
Calculated value =

Result:

Waveform:

Vavg =
Conclusion:
Applied Physics Roll no.:_________________

Laboratory Experiment No. 13

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
Objective:
 To understand the working of Zener diode as Voltage regulator.
Equipment Required:
 DC Power Supply
 Zener Diode (5.6V,4.7V,6.2)
 Resistor (100Ω)
 Breadboard
 Digital Multi-meter
 Connecting Wires
Introduction:
Zener diode is a special diode with increased amounts of doping. This is to compensate for the
damage that occurs in the case of a PN junction diode when the reverse bias exceed’s the
breakdown voltage and thereby current increases at a rapid rate. Voltage regulator is an
electronic ckt which keeps the output voltage constant irrespective of changes in input voltage
supply. Zener diode is connected in reverse biased to operate as voltage regulator. The negative
terminal of battery is connected to anode of Zener diode while the positive terminal is connected
to cathode. The input voltage should be greater than Zener diode voltage (Vz), then only Zener
diode will work in the Zener region.
If the input voltage is higher than Zener diode voltage, the current through Zener diode increases
and we will get a constant output voltage.
ID = IS. ( eVD/ɳkT/e-1)
Circuit Diagram:
Applied Physics Roll no.:_________________

Observations and Calculations:

Vs(V) V z (V) VD (V)

Conclusion: