Unit-1

INTRODUCTION

Thermodynamics is the science of energy transfer and its effect on the physical
properties of substances. It is based up on the observations of common experiences which have
been formulated into thermodynamic laws. These laws govern the principles of energy
conservation.

Macroscopic Versus Microscopic Viewpoint

There are two points of view from which the behavior of matter can be studied; they are
the macroscopic and microscopic.

 In the macroscopic approach, a certain quantity of matter is considered, without the

events occurring at the molecular level being taken into account.
 Macroscopic thermodynamics is only considered with the effect of action of many
molecules and these effects can be perceived by human senses.
 The macroscopic point of view is not considered with the action of individual molecules.
 From the microscopic point of view, matter is composed of many number of molecules.
If it is a gas each molecule at a given instant has a certain position, velocity and energy,
and for each molecule these change very frequently as a result of collisions. The
behavior of gases is described by summing up the behavior of each molecule. Such a
study is made in microscopic or statistical thermodynamics.
S.No. Macroscopic approach Microscopic approach
1. In this approach a certain The approach considers that the
quantity of matter is considered system is made up of a very large
without taking into account the number of discrete particles
events occurring at molecular known as molecules. These
level. In other words this molecules have different
approach to thermodynamics is velocities and energies. The
concerned with gross or overall values of these energies are
behaviour. This is known as constantly changing with time.
classical thermodynamics. This approach to
thermodynamics which is
concerned directly with the
structure of the matter is known
as statistical thermodynamics.

The analysis of macroscopic The behaviour of the system is

2. system requires simple found by using statistical
mathematical formulae. methods as the number of
molecules is very large. So
advanced statistical and
mathematical methods are
needed to explain the changes in
the system.
 3 The values of the properties of The properties like velocity,
the system are their average momentum, impulse, kinetic
values. For example, consider a energy, force of impact etc.
sample of a gas in a closed which describe the molecule
container. The pressure of the cannot be easily measured by
gas is the average value of the instruments. Our senses cannot
pressure exerted by millions of feel them.
individual molecules. Similarly
the temperature of this gas is the
average value of translational
kinetic energies of millions of
individual molecules. These
properties like pressure and
temperature can be measured
very easily. The changes in
properties can be felt by our
senses.

4 In order to describe a system only Large number of variables are

a few properties are needed. needed to describe a system. So
the approach is complicated.

Thermodynamics system and control volume

 A thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space up on
which attention is concentrated in the analysis of a problem.
 Everything external to the system is called the surroundings or the environment
 The system is separated from its surroundings by the system boundary. The boundary
may be either fixed or moving.
 A system and its surroundings together comprise a universe

There are three classes of systems

a) Closed system
b)open system
c) Isolated system.
Closed System If the boundary of the system is impervious to the flow of matter, it is
called a closed system. An example of this system is mass of gas or vapour contained in an
engine cylinder, the boundary of which is drawn by the cylinder walls, the cylinder head and
piston crown. Here the boundary is continuous and no matter may enter or leave.
Fig
Open System Refer to Fig. An open system is one in which matter flows into or out of the
system. Most of the engineering systems are open.
Isolated System An isolated system is that system which exchanges neither energy nor matter
with any other system or with environment.
Adiabatic System An adiabatic system is one which is thermally insulated from its surroundings.
It can, however, exchange work with its surroundings. If it does not, it becomes an isolated
system.
Phase A phase is a quantity of matter which is homogeneous throughout in chemical
composition and physical structure.
Homogeneous System A system which consists of a single phase is termed as homogeneous
system. Examples : Mixture of air and water vapour, water plus nitric acid and octane plus
heptane.
Heterogeneous System A system which consists of two or more phases is called a
heterogeneous system. Examples : Water plus steam, ice plus water and water plus oil.
If a system is defined as a certain quantity of matter, then the system contains same
matter and there can be no transfer of mass across the boundary. However, if a system is
defined as a region of space within a prescribed boundary, then matter can cross the system
boundary. While former is called closed system and later is called open system.
For thermodynamic analysis of an open system, such as an air compressor, attention is
focused on a certain volume in space surrounding the compressor, known as control volume,
bounded by a surface called control surface. Matter as well as energy crosses the control
surface.
Thermodynamic properties, process, and cycles
 Every system has certain characteristics by which its physical condition may be
described eg volume, temperature, pressure etc. such characteristics are called
properties of the system.
 When all the properties of a system have definite values, then the system is said to exist
at a definite state.
 Any operation in which one are more of the properties of a system changes is called
change of state.
 The succession of state passed through during a change of state is called the path of the
change of state.
 When the path is completely specified, the change of state is called a process.
 A thermodynamic cycle is defined as a series of state changes such that the final state is
identical with the initial state.
 Fig

Thermodynamic Equilibrium

 A system is said to exist in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium when no change in any

macroscopic property is registered, if the system is isolated from its surroundings.
 An isolated system always reaches in course of time a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium and can never depart from it spontaneously.

A system will be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, if the conditions for the following
three types of equilibrium are satisfied;

1. Mechanical Equilibrium : In the balance of any unbalanced forces within the system
itself and also between the system and surroundings, the system is said to be in state of
Mechanical Equilibrium
2. Chemical Equilibrium : if there is no chemical reaction or transfer of matter from one
part of the system to another, such as diffusion or solution, the system is said to be exist
in a state of chemical equilibrium.
3. Thermal Equilibrium : when a system existing in a mechanical and chemical equilibrium
is separated from its surroundings by a diathermic wall and if there is no spontaneous
change in any property of the system, the system is said to exist in a state of thermal
equilibrium.

When the condition for any one of the three types of equilibrium are not satisfied a system
is said to be in non-equilibrium state.

An isothermal process is a change of a system, in which the temperature remains

constant: ΔT = 0. ... In contrast, an adiabatic process is where a system exchanges no heat with
its surroundings (Q = 0).

Condensation is an example of isothermal process. All the reactions going on in the

refrigerator are isothermal as a constant temperature is maintained in it. The melting of ice at
zero degree is an example of isothermal process. The reaction in a heat pump is an example of
isothermal process.
 An isobaric process is a thermodynamic process in which the pressure stays constant:
ΔP = 0. The heat transferred to the system does work, but also changes the internal energy of
the system.

Isentropic process In thermodynamics, a process involving change without any increase

or decrease of entropy. Since the entropy always increases in a spontaneous process, one must
consider reversible or quasistatic processes. During a reversible process the quantity of heat
transferred is directly proportional to the system's entropy change. Systems which are
thermally insulated from their surroundings undergo processes without any heat transfer; such
processes are called adiabatic. Thus during an isentropic process there are no dissipative effects
and the system neither absorbs nor gives off heat. For this reason the isentropic
process sometimes called the reversible adiabatic process.

In thermodynamics, an isentropic process is an idealized thermodynamic process that is

both adiabatic and reversible. The work transfers of the system are frictionless, and there is no
transfer of heat or matter.

An isochoric process is one where the volume of the system stays constant.
Again, 'iso' means the same and 'choric' means volume. Volume is the amount of space the
material takes up. So this would be like heating a gas in a solid, non-expandable container. The
molecules would move faster and the pressure would increase, but the size of the container
stays the same.

In thermodynamics, an adiabatic process is one that occurs without transfer of heat or

matter between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings.

An isothermal process is a change of a system, in which the temperature remains

constant: ΔT = 0. ... In contrast, an adiabatic process is where a system exchanges no heat with
its surroundings (Q = 0).

A wall which prevents thermal interaction is known as adiabatic wall and a system
enclosed within an adiabatic wall is called thermally isolated. If exchange of heat takes place
between the system and surroundings through the boundary wall, the boundary is
called diathermic wall.
Quasi-static process

Let us consider a system of gas contained in cylinder shown in figure. The system initially
is in equilibrium state, represented by the properties p1, v1, t1. The weight on the piston just
balances the upward forces exerted by the gas. If the weight is removed, there will be an
unbalanced force between the system and the surroundings, and under gas pressure, the
piston will move up till it hits the stops. The system again comes to an equilibrium state, being

described by the properties p2, v2, t2. But the intermediate states passed through by the system
are non-equilibrium states which cannot ne described by thermodynamic coordinates.
Fig 1.14 shows points 1 and 2 as the initial and final equilibrium states joined by the dotted line,
which has got no meaning otherwise. Now if the single weight on the piston is made up of very
small pieces of weights , and these weights are removed one by one very slowely from the top
of the piston, at any instant of the upward travel of the piston, if the gas system is isolated, the
departure of the state of the system from the thermodynamic equilibrium state will be
indefinitesimally small. So every state passed through by the system will be an equilibrium
state.

Such a process which but a locus of all equilibrium points passed through by the system
is known as a quasi-static process.

Pure substance

A pure substanc is defined as one of that is homogeneous and invariable in chemical

composition throughout its mass.

Concept of continuum
 From the macroscopic point of view, we are always concerned with volumes which are
very large compared to molecular dimensions. Even a very small volume of a system is assumed
to contain large number of molecules so that stastitical averaging is meaningfull and a property
value can be assigned to it. Disregarding the behaviour of individual molecules, matter here
treated as continuous.

Let us consider the mass ∆m in a volume ∆v sorrounding the point p infigure. Rhe ratio
∆m/∆v is the average mass density of the system with in the volume ∆v. We suppose that at
first ∆v is rather large, and is subsequently shrunk about the point P. if we plot ∆m/∆v against
∆v, the average density tends to approach an asymptote as ∆v increases.

How ever when ∆vbecomes so small as to contain relatively few molecules, the average
density fluctuates substantially with time as molecules pass into and out of the volume in
random motion, and so it is imposible to speak of a definite value of ∆m/∆v.

TEMPERATURE

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

The property which distinguishes thermodynamics from other sciences is temperature.

Temperature is associated with the ability to distinguish hot from cold. When two bodies at
different temperatures are brought into contact, after some time they attain a common
temperature and are then said to exist in thermal equilibrium.

Zerothlaw of thermodynamics When a body A is in thermal equilibrium with a body B,

and also saperately with a body C, then B and C will be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
This is known as zeroth law of thermodynamics.

In order to obtain a quantative measurement of temperature, a reference body is used,

and certain physical characteristics of this body which changes with temperature is selected.
The changes in the selected characteristics may be taken as an indication of change in
temperature. The selected characteristic is called the thermometric property, and the
reference body is called the thermometer.

A very common thermometer consists of a small amount of mercury in an

evacuated capillary tube. In this case the extension of the mercury in the tube is used as the
thermometer property.

Measurement of temperature-the reference points

The temperature of a system is a property that determines whether or not a system is in

thermal eqiulibrium with other systems. If a body is at , say, 700c, it will be 700c, whether
measured by a mercury-in-glass thermometer, resistance thermometer or constant volume gas
thermometer.
 Method in use before 1954 : Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are the two commonly used
scales for the measurement of temperature. Symbols C and F are respectively used to denote
the readings on these two scales. Until 1954 the temperature scales were based on two fixed
points : (i) the steam point (boiling point of water at standard atmospheric pressure), and (ii)
the ice point (freezing point of water).

The fixed points for these temperature scales are :

Temperature Celsius scale Fahrenheit scale

Steam point 100 212
Ice point 0 32
Interval 100 180
The relation between a particular value C on celsius scale and F on Fahrenheit scale is
found to be as mentioned below :

Further the relation between a temperature difference ∆tF on Fahrenheit scale and ∆tC
on celsius scale is

The use of two fixed points was found unsatisfactory and later abandoned because of
the following reasons :
(i) It is difficult to achieve equilibrium between pure ice and air-saturated water
(since when ice melts, it surrounds itself only with pure water and prevents
intimate contact with air-saturated water).
(ii) There is extreme sensitiveness of the steam point to the change in pressure.
Method in use after 1954 :
It was suggested by Kelvin that a single fixed point only was necessary to establish a
temperature. He pointed out that triple point of water (the state at which ice, liquid water and
water vapour coexist in equilibrium) could be used as the single point. The tenth CGPM, in
1954, adopted this fixed point, and value was set at 0.01°C or 273.16 K in the Kelvin scale thus
established.
Correspondingly, the ice point of 0°C on the Celsius scale becomes equal to 273.15 K on
the Kelvin scale. Celsius and Kelvin scales are distinguished by using distinct symbols t and T, the
relation between these two is then given by :
T(K) = t(°C) + 273.15
 Six different kinds of thermometers, and the names of the corresponding thermometric
properties employed are given
below :
Thermometer Thermometric property
1. Constant volumes gas Pressure (p)
2. Constant pressure gas Volume (V)
3. Alcohol or mercury-in-glass Length (L)
4. Electric resistance Resistance (R)
5. Thermocouple Electromotive force (E)
6. Radiation (pyrometer) Intensity of radiation (I or J)
Ideal Gas
From experimental observations it has been established that an ideal gas (to a good
approximation) behaves according to the simple equation
pV = mRT
where p, V and T are the pressure, volume and temperature of gas having mass m and R
is a constant for the gas known as its gas constant. Above equation can be written as
pv = RT
(where v = V/m) In reality there is no gas which can be qualified as an ideal or perfect gas.
However all gases tend to ideal or perfect gas behaviour at all temperatures as their pressure
approaches zero pressure.
For two states of the gas, eqn. (2.10) can be written as,
P1V1 P2V2
T1
= T2
Gas Thermometers

A schematic diagram of a constant volume gas thermometer is shown in figure. A small

amount of gas is enclosed in bulb B which is communication through the capillary tube C with
one limb of the mercury manometer M. the other limb of the mercury manometer is open to
the atmosphere and can be moved vertically to adjust the mercury levels so that the mercury
just touches the lip L of the capillary. The pressure in the bulb is used as a thermomertric
property and is given by
P=P0 +ƿmZg
Where P0 is the atmospheric pressure
ƿm is the density of mercury
when bulb is brought in contact with the system whose temperature is to be measured, the
bulb, in course of time, comes in thermal equilibrium with the system. The gas in the bulb
expands, on being heated, pushing mercury downward. Sthe flexible limb of the manometer is
then adjusted so that the mercury again touches the lip L. the difference in mercury level Z is
recorded and the pressure p of the gas in the bulb is estimated. Since the volume of the
trapped gas is constant, from the ideal gas equation
∆t = RV∆p = RP∆v
i.e the temperature increase is proportional the pressure increase.
Ideal Gas Temperature

Let us suppose that the bulb of a constant volume gas thermometer contains an amount
of gas such that when the bulb is surrounded by water at its tripple point, the pressure pt is 100
mmHg.keeping the volume V constant, let the following proceedure be considered:

1) Surround the bulb with steam condensing at 1atm, determine the pressure p and
calculate
p
θ = 273.16
1000
2) Remove some of gas from the bulb so that when when it is surrounded by water at its
tripple point, the pressure pt is 500mmHg. Determine the new value of p and then θ for
stem condensing at 1 atm.
p
θ = 273.16
500
3) Continue reducing the amount of gas in the bulb so that pt and p have smaller and smaller
values eg pt having say 250mmHg, 100mmHg, and so on. At each value of pt calculate the
corresponding θ.
4) Plot θ vs pt and extrapolate the curve to the axis where pt = 0. Read from the graph.

The graph as shown in figure indicate that although the readings of a constant volume gas
thermometer depends upon the nature of gas, all gases indicate the same temperature as pt is
lowered and made to approach zero.
A similar series os tests may be conducted with the constant gas thermometer. The constant
pressure may first be taken to be 1000mmHg, then 500mmHg etc,, and at each value of p, the
volume of gas v and vt may be recorded when the bulb is surrounded by steam condensing at 1
atm and the tripple point of water, respectively. The corresponding value of θ may be calculated
from

V
θ = 273.16
Vt

where θ is replaced by T to denote this particular temperature scale, the ideal gas temperature
scale.

Celsius temperature scale

The Celsius temperature scale employs a degree of the same magnitude as that of the ideal gas
scale, but its zero point is shifted, so that the Celsius temperature of the triple point of water is
0.01 degrees Celsius or 0.010c. it is denoted with t.

t = T-273.150c

temperature at which steam condenses at 1 atm. Pressure

ts = Ts -273.15 = 100.000c
Reversibility and Irreversibility

The second law of thermodynamics enables us to divide all process into two classes:

1. Reversibility
2. Irreversibility

A reversible process is one which is performed in such a way that at the conclusion of the
process, both the system and the surroundings may be restored to their initial states, without
producing any changes in the rest of universe.

Let the state of a system be represented by point A shown in figure and let system be taken to
point B quasi-statically by following the path A-B. if the system and also surroundings are restored to
their initial state on reverse, and no changes in the universe is produced, then the process A-B will
be a reversible process.

In the reverse process, the system has to be taken from state B to State A by following the same
path B-A. A reversible process should not leave any trace behind to show that the process had ever
occurred.

A reversible process is carried out infinitely slowly with infinitesimal gradient, so that every state
passed through by the system is an equilibrium state. So equilibrium coincides with quasi-static
process.

A natural process carried out with a finite gradient, finite time and with finite area is an irreversible
process.

Causes of Irreversibility

The irreversibility of a process may be due to either one or both of the following:

1) Lack of equilibrium during the process

2) Involvement of dissipative effects

Irreversibility due to lack of equilibrium

The following are the examples
1) Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference : The heat transfer approach
reversibility as the temperature difference between two bodies approach Zero. We define a
 reversible process as one in which heat is transferred through an infinitesimal temperature
difference. So to transfer finite amount of heat through infinitesimal temperature difference
would require infinite amount of time or infinite area. All actual heat transfer process through
finite gradient in finite time are irreversible.
2) Lack of pressure equilibrium within the interior of the system or between system and
surroundings: When there exist a difference in pressure between the system and
surroundings, are with the system itself, then both the system and surrounding or system
alone will undergo change of state instantaneously to establish equilibrium, the reverse of
this process is no possible spontaneously.
3) Free expansion: let us consider an insulated container which is divided into two
compartments A and B by a thin diaphragm. Compartment a contains mass of gas while B is
evacuated. If diaphragm is punctured gas will distribute to compartment B. this is known as
free expansion which is irreversible.

Irreversibility due to dissipative effects

The irreversibility of a process may be due to dissipative effects explained below with an
example.
Friction will always present in moving devices. In the absence of friction device rotates
continuously called perpetual motion of the third kind.

The friction makes process irreversible. Let us consider a system consists of wheel and
brake block. The flywheel was rotating with certain RPM, and it was brought to rest by applying
the friction brake. During this process there is little heat transfer from wheel to break leads to
increase in the energy of molecules present in the brake. The reverse of this process I.e.
molecular energy of the brake cannot cause the rotation of wheel again.
 Paddle wheel

Work may be transfers in to system in an insulated container by means of a paddle wheel which
also known as stirring works. Here work transferred is dissipated adiabatically into an increase in
the molecular energy of the system. To prove the irreversibility of the process, let us assume that
the same amount of work is delivered by the system at the expense of its molecular energy
results in decrease in the temperature of the system. The system is brought back to its initial
state by heat transfer from the source.

Energy in transit and Energy in state or (stored)

Energy is a general term embracing energy in transition and stored energy. The stored
energy of a substance may be in the forms of mechanical energy and internal energy (other forms
of stored energy may be chemical energy and electrical energy). Part of the stored energy may take
the form of either potential energy (which is the gravitational energy due to height above a chosen
datum line) or kinetic energy due to velocity. The balance part of the energy is known as internal
energy. In a non-flow process usually there is no change of potential or kinetic energy and hence
change of mechanical energy will not enter the calculations.

In a flow process, however, there may be changes in both potential and kinetic energy and
these must be taken into account while considering the changes of stored energy. Heat and work
are the forms of energy in transition. These are the only forms in which energy can cross the
boundaries of a system. Neither heat nor work can exist as stored energy.

Work and Heat Transfer

A closed system and its surroundings can interact in two ways i) by Work transfer and ii) by
heat transfer. These may be called energy interactions and these bring about changes in the
property of the system.

Work Transfer

work is one of the basic mode of the energy transfer. In mechanics, the action of a force on a
moving body is termed as work. A force is a means of transmitting an effect from one body to
another. But a force itself never produces a physical effect except when coupled with motion and
hence it is not a form of energy.

The work is done by a force as it acts up on a body moving in the direction of the force.
 In thermodynamics, work transfer is considered as occurring between the system and
surroundings. Work is said to be done by a system if sole effect on the things external to the system
can be reduced to the raising of a weight.

The weight may not actually be raised, but the net effect external to the system would be the
raising of weight. Let us consider the battery and the motor as a system. The motor is driving a fan.
The system is doing work up on the surroundings. When the fan is replaced by a pulley driven by a
motor, the sole effect on things external to the system is then the raising of weight.

Sign convention: If the work is done by the system on the surroundings, e.g., when a fluid
expands pushing a piston outwards, the work is said to be positive. i.e.,

Work output of the system = + W

If the work is done on the system by the surroundings, e.g., when a force is applied to a
rotating handle, or to a piston to compress a fluid, the work is said to be negative. i.e.,

Work input to system = – W

Unit of work Nm or joule, power is rate of doing work unit J/sec

PdV-Work or displacement work

Let the gas in the cylinder be a system having initially with pressure P1 and volume V1. The
system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, the state of which is described by the coordinates P1, V1. the
piston is the only boundary which moves due to gas pressure. Let the piston moves out a new final
position 2, which is also thermodynamic equilibrium with P2, V2 as properties. At any intermediate
point in the travel of piston, let the pressure be P and volume V

When the piston moves an infinitesimal distance dl and if a is the area of the piston, the
force acting on the piston F=pa and the infinitesimal work done by the gas is

dW = F.dl = padl = pdV

where dV = adl = infinitesimal volume.

When the piston moves from position 1 to position 2 with the volume change V1 to V2 the amount ow
work done is given by

W1-2 = ∫pdV

The magnitude of the work done is given by the area under path 1 -2, as shown in figure.

Path function and point function

 With reference to the above figure it is possible to take a system from state 1 to state2 along
many quasi-static paths, such as A, B OR C. since the area under each curve represents the work
for each process, the amount of work involved in each case is not a function of end states of the
path but it a function of the path followed from 1-2 for this reason work is a path function

Thermodynamic properties are point functions since for a given state, there is a definite
value of the property.

The differential of the point functions are exact or perfect differential, and the integration is
imply.

∫dV = V2-V1

On the other hand work done in a quasi-static process between two given states depends on the
path followed.

∫dW= W2- W1

pdV-Work in various Quasi-static processes

Constant Pressure Process (isobaric)

W1-2 =∫pdV= V2- V1

Constant Volume Process

W1-2 =∫pdV= 0

Process in which pV = C
 Cp
SimilarlyFor the process pv γ = C where γ =
Cv

p1v1
[
W1-2 = n − 1 1-(P2/P1) γ/ γ-1]
Flow work

If there is a continuous mass flow rate across a system boundary the system is called
an open system and the work done in such a process is known as flow-work. The flow
work, significant only in flow process or an open system, represents the energy
transferred across the system boundary as a result of the energy imparted to the fluid
by a pump, blower or compressor to make the fluid floe across the system.
Flow work in various process

1) Constant pressure process P=C

W=∫ vdp=0 since p1=p2

2) Constant volume process V=C

W=∫ vdp = v(p1-p2)

3) Constant temperature process T=c

V2
W = p1v1 lnV1
4) Polytropic Process
n
(p v -p v )
n−1 1 1 2 2

Heat Transfer

Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred across the boundary by virtue
difference.

The transfer of heat between two bodies in direct contact is called conduction. Heat may be
transferred between two bodies separated by empty space or gases by mechanism of radiation
through electromagnetic waves. If heat transfers between a surface and fluid, this mode is called
convection.

The direction of heat transfer is taken from the high temperature system to the low temperature
system. Heat flows into a system is taken as positive, heat flows out from the system is taken
as negative. Symbol of heat is Q.

A process in which no heat crosses the boundary of the system is called adiabatic process.
A wall which is impermeable to the flow of heat is called adiabatic wall.
Which permits heat is called diathermic wall.
The unit of heat is Joule
Heat transfer----A path function
The heat flow in a process can be quantified in terms of the work W done in the same
process between two given terminal states.
Heat transfer is a path function, that is the amount of heat transferred when a system changes from
state1 to state 2 depends on the intermediate states through which the system passes, i.e. its path.

∫dw = W1–2 or 1W2 (or W), and

∫dq = Q1–2 or 1Q2 (or Q)
Sign convention: If the heat flows into a system from the surroundings, the quantity is said to be
positive and, conversely, if heat flows from the system to the surroundings it is said to be negative.
In other words:

Heat received by the system = + Q

Heat rejected or given up by the system = – Q.

Comparison of Work and Heat

Similarities:

1. Both are path functions and inexact differentials.

2. Both are boundary phenomenon i.e., both are recognized at the boundaries of the system as
they cross them.
3. Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike properties, work or heat has no
meaning at a state.
4. Systems possess energy, but not work or heat.

Dissimilarities:

1. In heat transfer temperature difference is required.

2. In a stable system there cannot be work transfer, however, there is no restriction for the
transfer of heat.
3. The sole effect external to the system could be reduced to rise of a weight but in the case of
a heat transfer other effects are also observed.

Specific Heat and Latent Heat

The specific heat (c) Of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise a unit mass
of the substance through a unit raise in temperature.

Q=mcp∆t

specific heat at constant pressure cp

specific heat at constant Volume cv

Latent heat is the amount of heat required to cause a phase change in unit mass of a substance at a
constant pressure and temperature.

There are three phases in which matter can exist Solid, Liquid, Gas.

The latent heat of a fusion is the amount of heat transferred to melt unit mass of solid into liquid, or
to freeze unit mass of liquid to solid.

The latent heat of a Vaporization is the amount of heat transferred to vaporize unit mass of liquid
into vapor, or to condense unit mass of vapor to liquid.

The latent heat of a Sublimation is the amount of heat transferred to convert unit mass of solid into
vapor, or vice-versa.
 Unit-II
INTERNAL ENERGY
It is the heat energy stored in a gas. If a certain amount of heat is supplied to a gas the
result is that temperature of gas may increase or volume of gas may increase thereby doing some
external work or both temperature and volume may increase ; but it will be decided by the
conditions under which the gas is supplied heat. If during heating of the gas the temperature
increases its internal energy will also increase. Joule’s law of internal energy states that internal
energy of a perfect gas is a function of temperature only. In other words, internal energy of a gas
is dependent on the temperature change only and is not affected by the change in pressure and
volume.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
In the early part of nineteenth century the scientists developed the concept of energy and
hypothesis that it can be neither created nor destroyed; this came to be known as the law of the
conservation of energy. The first law of thermodynamics is merely one statement of this general
law/principle with particular reference to heat energy and mechanical energy i.e., work.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The transfer of heat and performance of work may both cause the same effect in a
system. Heat and work are different forms of same entity, called energy, which is conserved.
Energy which enters a system as heat may leave as energy or as work may leave as heat.
Let us consider a system which consists of known mass of water M contained in an
adiabatic vessel having a thermometer and paddle wheel. Let a certain amount of work W1-2 be
done up on the system by the paddle wheel. The quantity of work can be measured by the fall of
weight which drives the paddle wheel through the pulley. The system is initially at temperature
t1, the same as that of atmospheric pressure, and after work transfer let the temperature rise to t2.
The pressure is always 1atm. The process 1-2 undergone by the system is shown in fig. let the
insulation now be removed so that the system and surroundings interact by the heat transfer till
the system returns to its original temperature t1 attaining the condition of equilibrium with
atmosphere.
The amount of heat transfer during the process 2-1 shown in figure is given by
Q1-2 = mcp(t2-t1)
The system executes a cycle, which consists of a definite amount of work input W1-2 to
the system followed by the transfer of an amount of heat Q1-2 from the system.
It is found that this W1-2 is always proportional to Q1-2.
 The First Law of Thermodynamics can, therefore, be stated as follows:
“When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle then the net heat supplied to the
system from the surroundings is equal to net work done by the system on its surroundings”.
∮ dQ ∞ ∮ dW
∮ dQ =J ∮ dW
where J is the proportionality constant and is known as Mechanical Equivalent of heat. In
S.I. units its value is unity, i.e., 1 Nm/J.
Where ∮ represents the sum for a complete cycle.
The First Law of Thermodynamics may also be stated as follows:
“Heat and work are mutually convertible but since energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, the total energy associated with an energy conversion remains constant”.
Or
“No machine can produce energy without corresponding expenditure of energy, i.e., it is
impossible to construct a perpetual motion machine of first kind”.
By heat transfer the experiments show:
(i) A definite quantity of work is always required to accomplish the same
temperature rise obtained with a unit amount of heat.
(ii) (ii) Regardless of whether the temperature of liquid is raised by work transfer
or heat transfer, the liquid can be returned by heat transfer in opposite direction
to the identical state from which it started.
(iii) The above results lead to the inference that work and heat are different forms
of something more general, which is called energy.
PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINE OF THE FIRST KIND—PMM 1
The first law of thermodynamics states the general principle of the conservation of
energy. Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but only gets transformed from one form to
another. There can be no machine which would continuously supply mechanical work without
some form of energy disappearing simultaneously (Fig). Such a fictitious machine is called a
perpetual motion machine of the first kind, or in brief, PMM 1. A PMM 1 is thus impossible.
 The converse of the above statement is also true, i.e., there can be no machine which
would continuously consume work without some other form of energy appearing simultaneously
(Fig).

Corollaries of first law

1. It is impossible to construct a perpetual motion machine of first kind i.e. no machine
working over a cycle can produce energy without corresponding expenditure of energy.
2. Converse of PMM1 is true.
There cannot be any machine which would consume work energy without some other
form of energy appearing simultaneously.
APPLICATION OF FIRST LAW TO A PROCESS
When a process is executed by a system, the change in stored energy of the system is
numerically equal to the net heat interactions minus the net work interaction during the
process.
∴ E2 – E1 = Q – W
∴∆ E = Q – W
Q=∆E+W
∫d (Q- W) = ∆ E = E2 – E1
where E represents the total internal energy.
If the electric, magnetic and chemical energies are absent and changes in potential and
kinetic energy for a closed system are neglected, the above equation can be written as
∫d (Q-W) = ∆U = U2 – U1
∴ Q – W = ∆U = U2 – U1
Generally, when heat is added to a system its temperature rises and external work is
performed due to increase in volume of the system. The rise in temperature is an indication of
increase of internal energy. Heat added to the system will be considered as positive and the heat
removed or rejected, from the system, as negative.
First law for a closed system undergoing a change of state
The expression (⅀W) cycle = (⅀Q) cycle only to systems undergoing cycles, and the
algebraic sum of all energy transfer across the system boundaries is zero. But if a system
undergoes a change of state during which both heat transfer and work transfer are involved, the
net energy transfer will be stored are accumulated within the system. If Q is the amount of heat
transferred to the system and W is the amount of work transferred from the system during the
process, the net energy transfer ( Q-W) will be stored in the system. Energy in storage is neither
heat nor work, and is known as internal energy of the system.
 Q - W = ∆E
If there are more number of energy transfer quantities involved in the process, as shown in figure

Q2+Q3-Q1 = W2+W3-W1-W4
Energy is thus conserved in the operation. The first law is a particular formulation of the
principle of the conservation of energy.
Energy a property of the system

Consider a system which changes its state from state1 to state2 by following the paths
A,B and C. So the system undergoes a cyclic process.
For path A
QA= ∆EA + WA
QA-WA= ∆EA
 For Path B
QB= ∆EB + WB
From the process A and B
WA+ WB = QA + QB
QA -WA= WB -QB
∆EA = -∆EB
lly ∆EB = ∆Ec
Which says that irrespective of path followed change in internal energy is same. If some arbitrary
value of energy is assigned to state 2, then the value of energy at state 1 and state 2 is fixed and
have definite value. Hence it is a point function and a property of a system.
Different Forms of Stored Energy
In thermodynamics energy is of two types
 Energy in transit ex:- work and heat
 Energy in storage called internal energy of the system represented with ‘E’
There are two modes in which energy stored in the system:
1. Macroscopic energy mode: it includes macroscopic kinetic energy and potential
energy
Macroscopic kinetic energy = mV2 /2 where V is velocity and m is mass
Potential energy = mgz where m is mass, g is gravity, z is height
2. Microscopic Energy mode refers to the energy stored in the molecular and atomic
structure of the system, called molecular internal energy ‘E’
Molecules contain rotational energy, translational energy, vibrational energy,
electronic energy, chemical energy.
e = et + er + ev + eche + eele
E = Ek + Ep +U
Ek = 0 if velocity is 0
Ep = 0 if Z = 0
Then
E=U
Then Q = ∆ E + W becomes
Q = ∆U + W
Applying differentiation
dQ = dU + dW
dQ = dE + dW let dW = pdv work
dQ = dU + pdv
on integration
Q = ∆U + ∫ pdv or
Q = ∆E + ∫ pdv
Enthalpy
The enthalpy of a substance h is defined as h = u + pv
It is an intensive property
Internal energy is equal to the heat transferred in a constant volume process involving no other
work other than pdv work.
It is possible to derive an expression for the heat transfer in a constant pressure process involving
no work other than pdv
Then dQ = dU + pdv
Pdv = dpv
(dQ)P = dU + dpv
(dQ)P = d(U + pv)
(dQ)P = dh.

Control Volume

If certain mass of steam is considered as thermodynamic system, then the energy

equation becomes
Q = ∆Ek + ∆Ep +∆U + W
Instead of concentrating attention upon a certain quantity of fluid, which constitutes a moving
system in flow process, attention is focused upon a certain fixed region in space called Control
Volume through which the moving substance flows.
The broken line in the figure represents the surface of the control volume which is known
as control surface.
Steady Flow Process: As a fluid through a certain control volume, its thermodynamic properties
may vary along the space coordinates as well as with time. If the rate of flow of mass and energy
through the control surface change with time, the mass and energy within the control volume
also would change with time.
Steady flow means that the rates of flow of mass and energy across the control surface are
constant.
At the steady state of a system, any thermodynamic property will have a fixed value at a
particular location, and will not alter with time.
Energy Balance in Simple Steady Flow Process (steady flow energy equation)
Steady Flow Energy Equation (S.F.E.E.) In many practical problems, the rate at which
the fluid flows through a machine or piece of apparatus is constant. This type of flow is called
steady flow.
Assumptions: The following assumptions are made in the system analysis:
(i) The mass flow through the system remains constant.
(ii) Fluid is uniform in composition.
(iii) The only interaction between the system and surroundings are work and heat.
(iv) The state of fluid at any point remains constant with time.
(v) In the analysis only potential, kinetic and flow energies are considered.

Figure shows a schematic flow process for an open system. An open system is one in
which both mass and energy may cross the boundaries. A wide interchange of energy may take
place within an open system. Let the system be an automatic engine with the inlet manifold at the
first state point and exhaust pipe as the second point. There would be an interchange of chemical
energy in the fuel, kinetic energy of moving particles, internal energy of gas and heat transferred
and shaft work within the system. From Fig. 4.30 it is obvious that if there is no variation of flow
of mass or energy with time across the boundaries of the system the steady flow will prevail. The
conditions may pass through the cyclic or non-cyclic changes within the system. As a result the
mass entering the system equals the mass leaving, also energy entering the system equals energy
leaving.
Q = Heat supplied (or entering the boundary) per kg of fluid,
W = Work done by (or work coming out of the boundary) 1 kg of fluid,
A1, A2 = cross section area of stream in M2
w1 and w2 mass flow rate
V1 and V2 = Velocity of fluid,
v1 and v2 = Specific Volume of the fluid,
 z1 and z2 = Height above datum,
p1 and p2 = Pressure of the fluid,
u1 and u2 = Internal energy per kg of fluid, and
pv = Energy required for 1 kg of fluid.
dQ/dt rate of heat transfer
dW/dt is rate of work transfer.
t is time in sec
let displacement work done at the entrance for mass dm1 is -p1v1dm1
let displacement work done at the exit for mass dm2 is p1v1dm2
then W = Wx - p1v1dm1 + p1v1dm2
in the rate form
dW dWx dm1 dm2
= − p1v1 + p2v2
dt dt dt dt
dW dWx
= − p1v1w1 + p2v2w2
dt dt
Energy of stream entering the system must be equal to energy of stream
leaving the system
dQ dW
W 1e 1+ = W 1e 1+
dt dt
The above equations 5.7 and 5.8 are known as steady flow energy equations (SFEE)
Applications of steady flow energy equations
Mostly in engineering applications the situations occur with the steady flow conditions. For
example in nozzle, turbines, compressors, IC engines etc. All these devices can divide into 3
categories
a) Work producing devices: In these cases the work is developed by the system. Ex Steam
turbines, gas turbines, IC engines, etc. Here is work is treated as +ve work.
b) Work requiring devices: In these cases the work is required to run the system. Ex Air
compressors, hydraulic pumps etc. Here is work is treated as +ve work.
c) No Work devices: in some cases device is used to exchange heat and develops no work.
Ex : nozzle, Diffuser, boilers etc
Nozzle and Diffuser: A nozzle is a device which increases the KE of the fluid as the expense of
pressure energy. Let nozzle is perfectly insulated, mass M kg/s is flowing through nozzle.
V1 dQ V2
h1 + 2 + Z1g + dm = h2 + 2 + Z2g + dW
dm

insulated Nozzle Q = 0, no work device W = 0, Datum height Z1 = Z2 =Z and V1 << V2than V1

can be neglected.
V1 V2
h1 + 2 + = h2 + 2 +
V2 = √2(h2- h1)
Turbine : it is a device which develops power at the expense of enthalpy
V1 dQ V2
h1 + 2 + Z1g + dm = h2 + 2 + Z2g + dW
dm
Neglecting change in kinetic and potential energy, no heat transfer because of
insulation Q= 0.
Then W = M( h1-h2)

Compressor: it is a device which requires power at the expense of enthalpy for compression of
work, which is insulated
Neglecting change in kinetic and potential energy, no heat transfer because of
insulation Q= 0.
W = M( h1-h2)
This value –ve indicates consumption of work.

Steam Condenser: let the enters to the condenser with enthalpy h1 and leaving with h2
 Wch1 + Wsh2 = Wch3 + wsh4
Wc = Ws =W
h2 – h4 = h3– h1
Throttling Device: when a fluid flows through a control passage, like partially opened valve and
orifice there is an appreciable drop in pressure and flow is said to be throttled. Figure shows a
process of throttling by a partial opened valve on a fluid flowing in the insulated pipe.

Limitations of first law of thermodynamics

First law of thermodynamics states that a certain balance will hold when a system
undergoes a change of state or thermodynamic process. But it does not give any information
whether the change of state or the process is at all feasible or not.
The first law cannot indicate whether a metallic bar of uniform temperature can
spontaneously become warmer at one end and cooler at other end. All that the law can state is
that if this process occurs, the energy gained by one end would be exactly equal to the lost by the
other end.
Spontaneous process in nature occur only in one direction.
 Heat always flows from a body at higher temperature to a lower temperature.
 Water always flows downwards.
The reverse of these is never happens spontaneously. The spontaneity of the process is due to a
finite driving potential, sometimes called the force or cause, and what happens is called flux or
current or effect,
These transfer process can never spontaneously occur from lower to higher potential. Thus
directional law puts limitations on energy transformation other than that imposed by the first law.

Work is said to be a high grade energy and heat is said to be a low grade energy. The complete
conversion of high grade energy in a cycle is impossible.
The efficiency of a heat engine or a heat engine cycle.
The assumptions made for describing the working of the Carnot engine are as follows:
(i) The piston moving in a cylinder does not develop any friction during motion.
(ii) The walls of piston and cylinder are considered as perfect insulators of heat.
(iii) The cylinder head is so arranged that it can be a perfect heat conductor or perfect
heat insulator.
(iv) The transfer of heat does not affect the temperature of source or sink.
(v) Working medium is a perfect gas and has constant specific heat.
(vi) Compression and expansion are reversible.
The Carnot cycle cannot be performed in practice because of the following reasons:
1. It is impossible to perform a frictionless process.
2. It is impossible to transfer the heat without temperature potential.
3. Isothermal process can be achieved only if the piston moves very slowly to allow heat
transfer so that the temperature remains constant. Adiabatic process can be achieved only if
the piston moves as fast as possible so that the heat transfer is negligible due to very short
time available. The isothermal and adiabatic processes take place during the same stroke
therefore the piston has to move very slowly for part of the stroke and it has to move very
fast during
Entropy
If first law of thermodynamics is said to be the law of internal energy, second law is said
to be the law of entropy. In fact thermodynamics is a study of three E’s namely energy,
equilibrium and entropy.
THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE

Consider a cycle that is made up of two processes: process 1-2, which is arbitrary
(reversible or irreversible), and process 2-1, which is internally reversible, as shown in Figure.
From the Clausius inequality,
The second integral in the previous relation is recognized as the entropy change S1-S2.
Therefore,

which can be rearranged as

It can also be expressed in differential form as

where the equality holds for an internally reversible process and the inequality for an
irreversible process. We may conclude from these equations that the entropy change of a closed
system during an irreversible process is greater than the integral of dQ/T evaluated for that
process. In the limiting case of a reversible process, these two quantities become equal.

The entropy change of a closed system during an irreversible process is always

greater than the entropy transfer. That is, some entropy is generated or created during an
irreversible process, and this generation is due entirely to the presence of irreversibilities. The
entropy generated during a process is called entropy generation and is denoted by Sgen. Noting
that the difference between the entropy change of a closed system and the entropy transfer is
equal to entropy generation, can be rewritten as an equality as
 Note that the entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero. Its value
depends on the process, and thus it is not a property of the system. Also, in the absence of any
entropy transfer, the entropy change of a system is equal to the entropy generation.

This equation can be expressed as the entropy of an isolated system during a process
always increases or, in the limiting case of a reversible process, remains constant. In other words,
it never decreases. This is known as the increase of entropy principle.

The increase of entropy principle does not imply that the entropy of a system cannot
decrease. The entropy change of a system can be negative during a process (Fig. 7–8), but
entropy generation cannot. The increase of entropy principle can be summarized as follows:

Some Remarks about Entropy In light of the preceding discussions, we draw the following
conclusions:

1. Processes can occur in a certain direction only, not in any direction. A process must proceed in
the direction that complies with the increase of entropy principle, that is, Sgen > 0. A process
that violates this principle is impossible. This principle often forces chemical reactions to come
to a halt before reaching completion.

2. Entropy is a nonconserved property, and there is no such thing as the conservation of entropy
principle. Entropy is conserved during the idealized reversible processes only and increases
during all actual processes.

3. The performance of engineering systems is degraded by the presence of irreversibilities, and

entropy generation is a measure of the magnitudes of the irreversibilities present during that
process. The greater the extent of irreversibilities, the greater the entropy generation. Therefore,
entropy generation can be used as a quantitative measure of irreversibilities associated with a
process. It is also used to establish criteria for the performance of engineering devices.
UNIT-IV
 GAS POWER CYCLES
Two important areas of application for thermodynamics are power generation and refrigeration. Both are
usually accomplished by systems that operate on a thermodynamic cycle. Thermodynamic cycles can be divided
into two general categories: power cycles, and refrigeration cycles.

The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are often called engines, and the
thermodynamic cycles they operate on are called power cycles. The devices or systems used to produce a
refrigeration effect are called refrigerators, air conditioners, or heat pumps, and the cycles they operate on are called
refrigeration cycles.

Thermodynamic cycles can also be categorized as gas cycles and vapor cycles, depending on the phase of
the working fluid. In gas cycles, the working fluid remains in the gaseous phase throughout the entire cycle, whereas
in vapor cycles the working fluid exists in the vapor phase during one part of the cycle and in the liquid phase during
another part.

Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized yet another way: closed and open cycles. In closed cycles, the
working fluid is returned to the initial state at the end of the cycle and is recirculated. In open cycles, the working
fluid is renewed at the end of each cycle instead of being recirculated.

In automobile engines, the combustion gases are exhausted and replaced by fresh air–fuel mixture at the
end of each cycle. The engine operates on a mechanical cycle, but the working fluid does not go through a complete
thermodynamic cycle.

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ANALYSIS OF POWER CYCLES

Most power-producing devices operate on cycles, and the study of power cycles is an exciting and important part of
thermodynamics. The cycles encountered in actual devices are difficult to analyze because of the presence of
complicating effects, such as friction, and the absence of sufficient time for establishment of the equilibrium
conditions during the cycle. To make an analytical study of a cycle feasible, we have to keep the complexities at a
manageable level and utilize some idealizations.

When the actual cycle is stripped of all the internal irreversibilities and complexities, we end up with a cycle that
resembles the actual cycle closely but is made up totally of internally reversible processes. Such a cycle is called an
ideal cycle.

A simple idealized model enables engineers to study the effects of the major parameters. The cycles discussed in
this chapter are somewhat idealized, but they still retain the general characteristics of the actual cycles they
represent.

The conclusions reached from the analysis of ideal cycles are also applicable to actual cycles. The thermal efficiency
of the Otto cycle, the ideal cycle for spark-ignition automobile engines, for example, increases with the compression
ratio. This is also the case for actual automobile engines.

Recall that heat engines that operate on a totally reversible cycle, such as the Carnot cycle, have the highest thermal
efficiency of all heat engines operating between the same temperature levels. That is, nobody can develop a cycle
more efficient than the Carnot cycle.

Each ideal cycle discussed in this chapter is related to a specific work-producing device and is an idealized version
of the actual cycle.

The idealizations and simplifications commonly employed in the analysis of power cycles can be summarized as
follows:
1. The cycle does not involve any friction. Therefore, the working fluid does not experience any pressure drop as it
flows in pipes or devices such as heat exchangers.

2. All expansion and compression processes take place in a quasiequilibrium manner.

3. The pipes connecting the various components of a system are well insulated, and heat transfer through them is
negligible.

4. Neglecting the changes in kinetic and potential energies of the working fluid is another commonly utilized
simplification in the analysis of power cycles.

In the preceding chapters, property diagrams such as the P-v and T-s diagrams have served as valuable aids in the
analysis of thermodynamic processes. On both the P-v and T-s diagrams, the area enclosed by the process curves of
a cycle represents the net work produced during the cycle (Fig. 9–5), which is also equivalent to the net heat transfer
for that cycle.

On a T-s diagram, a heat-addition process proceeds in the direction of increasing entropy, a heat-rejection process
proceeds in the direction of decreasing entropy, and an isentropic (internally reversible, adiabatic) process proceeds
at constant entropy. On a T-s diagram, the ratio of the area enclosed by the cyclic curve to the area under the heat-
addition process curve represents the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

THE CARNOT CYCLE AND ITS VALUE IN ENGINEERING

The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally reversible processes: isothermal heat addition, isentropic expansion,
isothermal heat rejection, and isentropic compression. The P-v and T-s diagrams of a Carnot cycle are replotted in
Fig. 9–6. The Carnot cycle can be executed in a closed system (a piston–cylinder device).

The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle that can be executed between a heat source at temperature TH and a sink
at temperature TL, and its thermal efficiency is expressed as

AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS

In gas power cycles, the working fluid remains a gas throughout the entire cycle. Spark-ignition engines, diesel
engines, and conventional gas turbines are familiar examples of devices that operate on gas cycles.

In all these engines, energy is provided by burning a fuel within the system boundaries. That is, they are internal
combustion engines.

Because of this combustion process, the composition of the working fluid changes from air and fuel to combustion
products during the course of the cycle.

However, considering that air is predominantly nitrogen that undergoes hardly any chemical reactions in the
combustion chamber, the working fluid closely resembles air at all times.

Even though internal combustion engines operate on a mechanical cycle (the piston returns to its starting position at
the end of each revolution), the working fluid does not undergo a complete thermodynamic cycle. It is thrown out of
the engine at some point in the cycle (as exhaust gases) instead of being returned to the initial state. Working on an
open cycle is the characteristic of all internal combustion engines.

The actual gas power cycles are rather complex. To reduce the analysis to a manageable level, we utilize the
following approximations, commonly known as the air-standard assumptions:

1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.

2. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external source .

4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that restores the working fluid to its initial state.

OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES

The ratio of the maximum volume formed in the cylinder to the minimum (clearance) volume is called the
compression ratio r of the engine:

Another term frequently used in conjunction with reciprocating engines is the mean effective pressure (MEP). It is a
fictitious pressure that, if it acted on the piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of
net work as that produced during the actual cycle (Fig. 9–12). That is,

The mean effective pressure can be used as a parameter to compare the performances of reciprocating engines of
equal size. The engine with a larger value of MEP delivers more net work per cycle and thus performs better.

Reciprocating engines are classified as spark-ignition (SI) engines or compression-ignition (CI) engines, depending
on how the combustion process in the cylinder is initiated. In SI engines, the combustion of the air–fuel mixture is
initiated by a spark plug. In CI engines, the air–fuel mixture is self-ignited as a result of compressing the mixture
above its selfignition temperature.
–+