Sets.

“A set is a Many that allows itself to be thought of as a One.”

Georg Cantor.

A set is a collection or list of objects, called members or elements, whose membership is

precisely defined. The order of the members is not important. We then consider the set as a
single object.

If an element a is a member of the set X, we write,

𝑎∈𝑋

∈ is called the membership symbol.

If an element a is not a member of the set X, we write,

𝑎∉𝑋

There are two ways of describing a set.

1. Enumeration: A list of all the members enclosed in ‘curly’ brackets, { }.

e.g.

A is the set of vowels in the English alphabet. 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢}.

ℕ is the set of natural numbers: ℕ = {1,2,3, … , ∞}.

ℕ0 is the set of natural numbers including zero: ℕ0 = {0,1,2,3, … , ∞}. Also called
whole numbers.

ℤ is the set of integers, (positive and negative) including zero: ℤ =

{−∞, … , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … , ∞}.

ℚ is the set of all rational numbers. I.e., numbers that can be written as the ratio of
integers, a/b, (fractions) where a and b≠0 are integers.
 Irrational numbers are numbers that cannot be written as the ration of integers. E.g., 𝜋
and √2.

ℝ is the set of real numbers, rational and irrational.

The set of irrational numbers can be written as

̅ = ℝ−ℚ
ℚ

All the above sets are infinite sets: they have an infinite number of members.

Examples.

1. Given that 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4},

a. Is 2 ∈ 𝐴?
b. Is 4 ∈ 𝐴?
c. Is 5 ∈ 𝐴.
d. Is {3} ∈ 𝐴.

a. Yes. It is in the list.

b. Yes. It is in the list.
c. No. Not in the list. 5 ∉ 𝐴.
d. No. Not in the list. {3} ∉ 𝐴 Don’t confuse a with {𝑎}. a is a variable; {𝑎} is a set
containing a.

2. 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4}, 𝐵 = {5,6,7,8, 𝐴}.

a. Is 5 ∈ 𝐵?
b. Is 1 ∈ 𝐵?
c. Is 𝐴 ∈ 𝐵?

a. Yes. It is in the list.

b. No. Not in the list.
c. Yes. In the list. 𝐵 = {5,6,7,8, 𝐴} = {5,6,7,8, {1,2,3,4}}.

3
3. 𝑀 = {1, 4 , 𝜋, 4, … }.
a. Is 5 ∈ 𝑀?
b. Is M a set?

a. Undetermined.
b. No. No precise rule for forming the set.

4. 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4}, 𝐵 = {{4}5,6,7,8, }, 𝐶 = {𝐵, 9,10,11,12, {1,2,3,4}}.

 a. Is 4 ∈ 𝐴?
b. Is {4} ∈ 𝐴?
c. Is 4 ∈ 𝐵?
d. Is {4} ∈ 𝐵?
e. Is 1 ∈ 𝐶?
f. Is 𝐴 ∈ 𝐶?
g. Is 5 ∈ 𝐶?
h. Is {4} ∈ 𝐶?
i. Is 4 ∈ 𝐶?

a. Yes. In the list.

b. No. Not in the list.
c. No. Not in the list.
d. Yes. In the list.
e. No. Not in the list.
f. Yes. 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4}. In the list.
g. No. Not in the list.
h. No. Not in the list.
i. No. Not in the list.

2. Predicate: Members of the set are stated by compliance with some property or rule.
This is called set-builder notation.

𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑃(𝑥)} or 𝐴 = {𝑥|𝑃(𝑥)}.

x is a variable and P(x) is the rule or predicate.

This reads as ‘A is the set of all x such that P(x) is true.’

We can also specify the domain of the variable, x (values for which P(x) exists).

𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑃(𝑥)} or 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑃(𝑥)}.

We can add the domain to the predicate.

𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∧ 𝑃(𝑥)}.

∧ is the logical operator ‘and.’ This is known as logical conjunction.

This reads, ‘A is the set of all x such that x is a real number and P(x) is true.’

This says that x is a real number, and the set A is the range of P(x).

E.g.

Natural numbers: ℕ = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ: 𝑥 > 0}.

 Natural numbers including zero: ℕ0 = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ: 𝑥 ≥ 0}.

𝑎
Rational numbers: ℚ = {𝑥 = 𝑏 : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ ∧ 𝑏 ≠ 0}.

̅ = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∧ 𝑥 ∉ ℚ}.
Irrational numbers: ℚ

Examples.

Write the following sets in list form.

a. 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ: −3 < 𝑥 ≤ 4}.
b. 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ: −3 ≤ 𝑥 < 4}.
𝑛
c. 𝐶 = {𝑥 ∈ ℚ: 𝑥 = 3 ∧ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ}.
d. 𝐷 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 𝑥 = 𝑛2 + 1 ∧ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ0 }.
e. 𝐸 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 𝑥 = 2𝑛 − 1 ∧ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ0 ∧ 𝑛 < 4}.

a. 𝐴 = {−2, −1,0,1,2,3,4}
b. 𝐵 = {−3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3}
1 2 3 4 5
c. 𝐶 = {3 , 3 , 3 , 3 , 3 , … }
d. 𝐷 = {1,2,5,10,17, … }
e. 𝐸 = {−1,1,3,5,7}

Write the following sets in set-builder notation.

a. 𝐴 = {1,3,5,7,9}
b. 𝐵 = {1,3,5,7,9, … }
c. 𝐶 = {1,4,9,16, 25,36, … }
d. 𝐷 = {0,2,4,6,8,10}
e. 𝐸 = {0,2,6,8,10, … }

a. 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 𝑥 = 2𝑛 + 1 ∧ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ0 ∧ 𝑛 ≤ 4}. 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ: 𝑥 = 2𝑛 − 1 ∧ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ0 ∧
1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 5}.
b. 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 𝑥 = 2𝑛 + 1 ∧ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ0 }. All positive odd numbers.
c. 𝐶 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ: 𝑥 = 𝑛2 ∧ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ}.
d. 𝐷 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 𝑥 = 2𝑛 ∧ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ0 ∧ 𝑛 < 6}.
e. 𝐸 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 𝑥 = 2𝑛 ∧ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ0 }. All positive even numbers including zero.

The empty set.

={ } is the empty set: Contains no elements. It is a mathematical object: the set containing no
members.
Equivalence of sets.

Two sets, A and B, are equal iff (if and only if) all members of A are also members of B and
vice versa.

Note: { } ≠ {}

{ } has zero elements. {} has one element: the empty set. A set that has only one element is
called a singleton.

Note: { } ≠ {0}

{ } has zero elements. {0} has one element: 0.

Note: {0} ≠ {}

Both contain one element, but they are not the same.

Examples.

𝐴 = {1,2,3,4}, 𝐵 = {4,3,2,1}, 𝐶 = {{4}, {3}, 2,1}, 𝐷 = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {4}},

1. Is A=B?
2. Is B=C?
3. Is 1 ∈ 𝐴?
4. Is 1 ∈ 𝐶?
5. Is 3 ∈ 𝐶?
6. Is {3} ∈ 𝐶?
7. Is A=D?
8. Is 3 ∈ 𝐷?
9. Is {3} ∈ 𝐷?

1. Yes. They contain the same members. Order is not important.

2. No. They do not contain the same members.
3. Yes. In the list.
4. Yes. In the list.
5. No. Not in the list.
6. Yes. In the list.
7. No. Do not contain the same members.
8. No. Not in the list.
9. Yes. In the list.
Cardinality.

The cardinality of a set is the number of elements in the set.

We write this as |𝐴|.

E.g. 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4}.

A has 4 members. Its cardinality is 4. |𝐴| = 4.

Note: Two sets having the same cardinality may not necessarily be equal.

E.g. 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4}, 𝐵 = {5,6,7,8}.

|𝐴| = |𝐵| = 4 , but 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵.

a. What is the cardinality of ?

b. What is the cardinality of {}?

a. 0. It has no members.
b. 1. It has one member: the empty set.

Finite and infinite sets.

Finite sets have a finite number of members.

Infinite sets have an infinite number of members.

E.g.

𝐴 = {1,2,3,4} is finite. 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢} is finite.

ℤ is infinite.

Is 𝑆 = {𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠} finite or infinite? Is ℕ finite or infinite? Is ℝ finite or infinite?

S is finite. ℕ infinite. ℝ is infinite.

Countable and uncountable sets.

Countable sets are those whose members can be listed. They are either finite or have a one-to-
one mapping with the natural numbers, ℕ.
𝐴 = {1,2,3,4} is countable. 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢} is countable.

Is 𝑆 = {𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠} countable or uncountable? Is ℤ countable or uncountable? Is ℕ

countable or uncountable? Is ℝ countable or uncountable?

𝑆 = {𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠} is countable.

ℤ countable. One-to-one correspondence with ℕ. Called infinitely countable.

ℕ countable. One-to-one correspondence with itself. Called infinitely countable.

ℝ uncountable. No one-to-one correspondence with ℕ. Proved by Georg Cantor, 1891.

Countable sets have the same cardinality as ℕ.

The cardinality of ℕ is infinite. It is denoted by ‫א‬0. Pronounced ‘aleph-null.’

|ℕ| = ‫א‬0

An uncountable set has cardinality>‫א‬0

|ℕ| ≠ |ℝ|

The Universal Set.

The universal set is a set that contains all the elements related to a specific context. It is denoted
by the letter U. The universal set is a superset of all subsets in a given context.

E.g. In the context of numbers, the real numbers is the universal set.

ℕ ⊆ ℕ0 ⊆ ℤ ⊆ ℚ ⊆ ℝ

Example. Given 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4}, 𝐵 = {5,6,7,8}, the universal set of A and B is 𝑈 =

{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}. A and B are subsets of the universal set.

Example. 𝐴 = {5,2,3,7}, 𝐵 = {5,6,7,8}, C= {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}, 𝐷 = {{5,6,7,8}}.

What is the universal set?
𝑈 = {5,2,3,6,7,8, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, {5,6,7,8}}

Subsets.

Given two sets, A and B, A is a subset of B if all members of A are also members of B. We say
that A is contained in B.

If A is a subset of B, we write

𝐴⊆𝐵

This includes the possibility that A=B. Then, A is a subset of itself.

𝐴⊆𝐴

We can also say that B contains A. In this case, B is a superset of A.

If B is a superset of A, we write

𝐵⊇𝐴

Note: For every set, A,  ⊆ 𝐴.

Note: ℕ ⊆ ℕ0 ⊆ ℤ ⊆ ℚ ⊆ ℝ

The irrational numbers are a subset of the real numbers.

̅ ⊆ℝ
ℚ
The irrational numbers are not a subset of the rational numbers, the integers, the whole
numbers, or the natural numbers.

̅ ⊈ℚ
ℚ

E.g. If 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4} and 𝐵 = {1,2,3,4,5}, then all elements of A are contained in B. So, A is a
subset of B.

Example.

a. Is 𝐶 = {2,3} a subset of A?
b. Is 𝐶 = {2,3} a subset of B?
c. Is  ⊆ 𝐴?

a. Yes. All members of C are also members of A.

b. Yes. All members of C are also members of B.
c. Yes. , the empty set, is a subset of all sets.

Note: Since 𝐶 ⊆ 𝐴 and 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, then 𝐶 ⊆ 𝐵, for any sets A, B and C.

Example. Given 𝐴 = {1,2,3, }, 𝐵 = {}, 𝐶 = {1,2,3, {}}, 𝐷 = {1,3, { }}.

a. Is 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴?
b. Is  ∈ 𝐴?
c. Is 𝐵 ∈ 𝐴?
d. Is A=C?
e. Is 𝐷 ⊆ 𝐴?
f. Is  ∈ 𝐶?
g. Is  ∈ 𝐷?
 a. Yes. It is contained in A.
b. Yes. It is in the list.
c. No. It is not in the list.
d. No. They don’t have the same members.
e. Yes. D is contained in A.
f. No. It is not in the list. { } ≠ {}.
g. Yes.  = { }.

Example. 𝐴 = {3,8, {2}, }, 𝐵 = {3}, 𝐶 = {{5,8,4}}, 𝐷 = {5,8,4, { 3}}, 𝐸 = {5,8,4}, 𝐹 =

{5,8,4, { 5,8,4}}.

a. Is 𝐵 ∈ 𝐴?
b. Is 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴?
c. Is 𝐶 ⊆ 𝐷?
d. Is 𝐸 ⊆ 𝐷?
e. Is 𝐸 ⊆ 𝐹?
f. Is 𝐸 ∈ 𝐹?
g. Is 𝐷 ⊆ 𝐹?

a. No. It’s not in the list.

b. Yes. It is contained in A.
c. No. It is not contained in D.
d. Yes. It is contained in D.
e. Yes. It is contained in F.
f. Yes. It is in the list.
g. No. { 3} ∉ 𝐹.

The Power Set.

The Power Set of a set, A, is the set containing all subsets of a given set plus the empty set and
the set itself.

It is denoted as 𝑃(𝐴).

𝑃(𝐴) = {𝑥: 𝑥 ⊆ 𝐴}.

E.g. Given 𝐴 = {1,2,3}, the subsets of A are { }, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3}.

The power set of A is

𝑃(𝐴) = {{ }, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3}}.

The number of subsets of a given set is given by the formula, 2𝑛 , where n is the number of
elements in the set. This is the cardinality of the power set.

|𝑃(𝐴)| = 2𝑛

For the set, A, above, there are 3 members, so, n=3. |𝑃(𝐴)| = 23 = 2.2.2 = 8.

Example. Find the power set of 𝐴 = {3,5}. What is its cardinality?

|𝑃(𝐴)| = 2𝑛 = 22 = 4

Subsets: { }, {3}, {5}, {3,5}.

𝑃(𝐴) = {{ }, {3}, {5}, {3,5}}.

Example. Find the power set of 𝐴 = {1,3,5, 𝑎}. What is its cardinality?

|𝑃(𝐴)| = 2𝑛 = 24 = 2.2.2.2 = 16

Subsets:
{ }, {1}, {3}, {5}, {𝑎}, {1,3}, {1,5}, {1, 𝑎}, {3,5}, {3, 𝑎}, {5, 𝑎}, {1,3,5}, {1,3, 𝑎}, {1,5, 𝑎}, {3,5, 𝑎}, {1,3,5, 𝑎}

𝑃(𝐴){{ }, {1}, {3}, {5}, {𝑎}, {1,3}, {1,5}, {1, 𝑎}, {3,5}, {3, 𝑎}, {5, 𝑎}, {1,3,5}, {1,3, 𝑎}, {1,5, 𝑎}, {3,5, 𝑎}, {1,3,5, 𝑎}}

Example: What is the power set of the empty set? What is its cardinality?

|𝑃()| = 20 = 1

Subset:  = { }

𝑃() = {} = {{ }}

Example. Given 𝐴 = {1,2,3} and 𝑃(𝐴) = {{ }, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3}},
find

a. 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑃(𝐴): |𝑥| = 1}
b. 𝐶 = {𝑥 ⊆ 𝐴: |𝑥| ≥ 2}
 c. 𝐷 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑃(𝐴): |𝑥| = 2 ∧ 3 ∉ 𝑥}
d. 𝐸 = {𝑥 ⊆ 𝑃(𝐴): |𝑥| = 1}

a. 𝐵 = {{1}, {2}, {3}}

b. 𝐶 = {{1,2}, {2,3}, {1,3}, {1,2,3}}
c. 𝐷 = {{1,2}}
d. 𝐸 = {{}, {{1}}, {{2}}, {{3}}, {{1,2}}, {{1,3}}, {{2,3}}, {{1,2,3}}}

Proper subsets.

For two sets, A and B, if 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵, then A is said to be a proper subset of B. A is a

proper subset of B if B contains at least one element that is not in B.

We write

𝐴⊂𝐵⇒𝐴≠𝐵

Any set that doesn’t include the set itself is a proper subset.

The number of proper subsets is then given by 2𝑛 − 1.

Note: Now ℕ ⊂ ℕ0 ⊂ ℤ ⊂ ℚ ⊂ ℝ

Disjoint sets.

Two sets are disjoint if they have no elements in common.

E.g. 𝐴 = {1,2}, 𝐵 = {2,4,6}, 𝐶 = {4,5,6,7}.

A and B have the element 2 in common. B and C have the elements 4 and 6 in common. But A
and C have no elements in common. A and C are disjoint.

Note: If two sets are disjoint then neither is a subset of the other, unless one is the empty set.

Venn Diagrams

A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets where the sets are represented by enclosed
areas in a plane. The universal set, U, is represented by a rectangle and the other sets are
represented by circles in the rectangle.
If A is a subset of B, then the circle representing A will lie within the circle representing set B.

If A and B are disjoint, then they will be represented by separate circles.

Note: Some elements of the universal set could be in A and not in B. Some elements of the
universal set could be in B but not in A, and some could be in neither A or B.

Set A. B is a subset of A. Disjoint sets.

Intersection and Union of Sets.

Intersection.

If A and B are not disjoint, and if one is not a subset of the other, then they will have some
elements of the universal set in common. This is called the intersection of A and B.

The intersection of two or more sets is the set of all elements that are common to all sets.

Intersection of A and B.

Formal definition:

For two sets, A and B: 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

∩ is the intersection symbol. ∧ is the logical conjunction symbol (and).

Note: if A and B are disjoint, then their intersection is empty.

𝐴∩𝐵 =
Union.

The union of two or more sets is the set of all elements that are common to all sets.

Formal definition.

For two sets, A and B: 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∨ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

∪ is the union symbol. ∨ is the logical disjunction symbol (or).

Example. 𝑈 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}, 𝐴 = {1,2,3} and 𝐵 = {3,4,5,6}

Draw a Venn diagram of U, A and B. Find 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {3}
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1,2,3,4,5,6}

Example. 𝑈 = ℕ. 𝑃 = {3,6,12,15,18}, 𝑄 = {2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18}.

Find 𝑃 ∩ 𝑄 and 𝑃 ∪ 𝑄

𝑃 ∩ 𝑄 = {6,12,18}, 𝑃 ∪ 𝑄 = {2,3,4,6,8,9,10,12,14,15,16,18}.
 Intersection. Union.

Example. 𝑈 = ℕ. 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4,5,6}, 𝐵 = {0,2,4,6}.

Find 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and draw the Venn diagrams.

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {2,4,6} 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {0,1,2,3,4,6}.

Example. 𝑈 = ℝ. 𝐴 = {−2,0,11,15}, 𝐵 = {−10,0,3/4, 4,11}.

Find 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and draw the Venn diagrams.

𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {−10, −2,0,3/4,11} 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {0,11}

Example. 𝑈 = {𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑡}, 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢},
Find 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and draw the Venn diagrams.

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑒} 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢}

Example. 𝑈 = ℕ0, 𝐴 = {3,6,9,12}, 𝐵 = {0,3,5,8,12}

Find 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and draw the Venn diagrams.

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {3,12} 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {0,3,5,6,8,9,12}

Example. Given the following Venn diagram and 𝑈 = ℕ0, find 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {2,3,4,6,8,9,10,12,14,15,16,18}, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {6,12,18}.

Example. If 𝑈 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10}, 𝑋 = {1,6,9} and 𝑌 = {1,3,5,6,8,9}, find 𝑋 ∩ 𝑌 and

𝑋 ∪ 𝑌 and draw the Venn diagrams.

𝑋 ∩ 𝑌 = {1,6,9} = 𝑋, 𝑋 ∪ 𝑌 = {1,6,9} = 𝑋.

Note: 𝑋 ⊆ 𝑌

Example. 𝑈 = ℕ0. Given the following Ven diagram, find 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶, 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐶,

𝐵 ∪ 𝐶, 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶), 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶), (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶, (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶, 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶), 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶),
(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 and (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 .

𝐴 = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
𝐵 = {3,4,5,7,8,9,10}
𝐶 = {4,5,6,7,8,11,12}

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {3,4,5}
𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 = {4,5,6}
𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = {4,5,7,8}
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
𝐴 ∪ 𝐶 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,11,12}
𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 = {3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12}

𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = {4,5}
𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12}

𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = {3,4,5,6}
𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = {4,5}
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12}

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = {3,4,5,6,7,8,11,12}
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = {4,5,6,7,8,11,12}

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶) = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) = {3,4,5,6}

Laws of Algebra of Sets.

From above example we can deduce the following laws.

1. Commutative law.
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴 and
𝐴∩𝐵 =𝐵∩𝐴

2. Associative law.
𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 and
𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶

3. Distributive law.
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶) and
(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) .

Example: show that 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.

𝐴 = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
𝐵 = {3,4,5,7,8,9,10}
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {3,4,5}

A is contained in 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.
B is contained in 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is contained in 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.

Note: This is always true.

Note: 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴 = 𝐴 and 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴 = 𝐴. Idempotent law.

Note: 𝐴 ∩  = 𝐴 = 𝐴 ∪ .

Difference of sets.

The difference between two sets, A and B, (also called the relative compliment) is the set of
elements that belong to A, but which do not belong to B.

𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐴\𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}
𝐵 − 𝐴 = 𝐵\𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}

Note: 𝐴\𝐵 ≠ 𝐵\𝐴. Order is important.

To find 𝐴\𝐵, remove the elements from A that are in A and B. The elements that are left in A
is the difference.

Example. 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4,5}, 𝐵 = {3,4,5,6,7,8,9}.

𝐴\𝐵 = {1,2}

Example. 𝐶 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, 𝐷 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔}

Find 𝐶\𝐷 and 𝐷\𝐶. Draw the Venn diagram.

𝐶\𝐷 = {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}, 𝐷\𝐶 = {𝑓, 𝑔}

Example. 𝐴 = {2,4,5,8,9}, 𝐵 = {3,4,5,6,7}.

Find 𝐴\𝐵, 𝐵\𝐴, and draw the Venn diagram.

𝐴\𝐵 = {2,8,9}, 𝐵\𝐴 = {3,6,7}

Example. 𝑃 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 10 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 16}, 𝑄 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 𝑥 = 2𝑛 ∧ 5 ≤ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ0 ≤ 8}, and 𝑅 =
{7,9,11,14,18,20}. Find

a. 𝑃\𝑄
b. 𝑄\𝑅
c. 𝑅\𝑃
d. 𝑄\𝑃

𝑃 = {10,11,12,13,14,15,16}, 𝑄 = {10,12,14,16}.

a. 𝑃\𝑄 = {11,13,15}
b. 𝑄\𝑅 = {10,12,16}
c. 𝑅\𝑃 = {7,9,18,20}
d. 𝑄\𝑃 = { }

Example. 𝑃 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 7 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 21}, 𝑄 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 𝑥 = 2𝑛 + 1 ∧ 2 ≤ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ0 ≤ 10}, and

𝑅 = {7,9,11,14,18,20,21,22,23}. Find

a. 𝑃\𝑄
b. 𝑄\𝑅
c. 𝑅\𝑃
d. 𝑄\𝑃

𝑃 = {7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21}, 𝑄 = {5,7,9,11,13,15,17,19,21}.

a. 𝑃\𝑄 = {8,10,12,14,16,18,20}
b. 𝑄\𝑅 = {5,13,15,17,19}
c. 𝑅\𝑃 = {22,23}
d. 𝑄\𝑃 = {5}

Symmetric Difference.

The symmetric difference of two sets, A and B, denoted by 𝐴∆𝐵 or 𝐴⨁𝐵, is the set of those
elements that belong to A or B, but not to both A and B.

It is the union of A and B minus the intersection of A and B.

It is the set containing the elements of either A or B, but not their intersection.
 𝐴∆𝐵 = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)\(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = (𝐴\𝐵) ∪ (𝐵\𝐴)

Formal definition: 𝐴∆𝐵 = {𝑥: (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴)⨁(𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)}

⨁ is the exclusive or (exclusive disjunction) symbol: A or B, but not to both A and B.

Example. 𝐴 = {2,4,6,8}, 𝐵 = {2,5,7,8}.

𝐴∆𝐵 = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)\(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = {2,4,5,6,7,8}

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = {2,8}

𝐴∆𝐵 = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)\(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ={2,4,5,6,7,8} − {2,8} = {4,5,6,7}

𝐵∆𝐴 = (𝐵 ∪ 𝐴)\(𝐵 ∩ 𝐴)

(𝐵 ∪ 𝐴) = {2,4,5,6,7,8}

(𝐵 ∩ 𝐴) = {2,8}

𝐵∆𝐴 = (𝐵 ∪ 𝐴)\(𝐵 ∩ 𝐴) = { 4,5,6,7}

Example. 𝐴 = {2,6,7,9}, 𝐵 = {2,4,6,10}.

𝐴∆𝐵 = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)\(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = {2,4,6,7,9,10}

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = {2,6}

𝐴∆𝐵 = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)\(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ={2,4,6,7,9,10} − {2,6} = {4,7,9,10}

𝐵∆𝐴 = (𝐵 ∪ 𝐴)\(𝐵 ∩ 𝐴)

(𝐵 ∪ 𝐴) = {2,4,6,7,9,10}

(𝐵 ∩ 𝐴) = {2,6}
𝐵∆𝐴 = (𝐵 ∪ 𝐴)\(𝐵 ∩ 𝐴) = { 4,7,9,10}

Note: 𝐴∆𝐵 = 𝐵∆𝐴.

Example. 𝐴 = {2,4,6,7}, 𝐵 = {2,4,8,10}. Find 𝐴∆𝐵 and draw the Venn diagram.

𝐴∆𝐵 = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)\(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = {2,4,6,7,8,10}

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = {2,4}

𝐴∆𝐵 = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)\(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ={2,4,6,7,8,10} − {2,4} = {6,7,8,10}

Example. 𝑃 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 10 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 16}, 𝑄 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 𝑥 = 2𝑛 ∧ 5 ≤ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ0 ≤ 8}. Find 𝑃∆𝑄.

𝑃 = {10,11,12,13,14,15,16}, 𝑄 = {10,12,14,16}.

𝑃∆𝑄 = (𝑃 ∪ 𝑄)\(𝑃 ∩ 𝑄)

(𝑃 ∪ 𝑄) = {10,11,12,13,14,15,16}

(𝑃 ∩ 𝑄) = {10,12,14,16}

𝑃∆𝑄 = (𝑃 ∪ 𝑄)\(𝑃 ∩ 𝑄) ={10,11,12,13,14,15,16} − {10,12,14,16} = {11,13,15}

Example. 𝑃 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 7 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 21}, 𝑄 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 𝑥 = 2𝑛 + 1 ∧ 2 ≤ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ0 ≤ 10}. Find

𝑃∆𝑄.

𝑃 = {7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21}, 𝑄 = {5,7,9,11,13,15,17,19,21}.

𝑃∆𝑄 = (𝑃 ∪ 𝑄)\(𝑃 ∩ 𝑄)

(𝑃 ∪ 𝑄) = {5,7,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21}

(𝑃 ∩ 𝑄) = {7,9,11,13,15,17,19,21}

𝑃∆𝑄 = (𝑃 ∪ 𝑄)\(𝑃 ∩ 𝑄) = {5,7,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21} −

{7,9,11,13,15,17,19,21} = {5,10,12,14,16,18,20}

Compliment of a set.
The compliment of a set, A, written 𝐴́, 𝐴𝑐 or 𝐴̅, is the set of elements that are members of the
universal set, but which are not members of A.

𝐴𝑐 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}. 𝐵 𝑐 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}.

𝐴𝑐 = 𝑈\𝐴 = 𝑈 − 𝐴

Example. If 𝑈 = {2,3,5,7,9,11,13,17,19,23}, 𝐴 = {2,3,5}. Find 𝐴𝑐 .

𝐴𝑐 = 𝑈\𝐴 = 𝑈 − 𝐴 = {2,3,5,7,9,11,13,17,19,23} − {2,3,5} = {7,9,11,13,17,19,23}

Example. If 𝑈 = {1,2,3,5,7,9,11,12,13}, 𝐴 = {1,5,9,13}. Find 𝐴𝑐 .

𝐴𝑐 = 𝑈\𝐴 = 𝑈 − 𝐴 = {1,2,3,5,7,9,11,12,13} − {1,5,9,13} = {2,3,4,6,7,8,10,11,12}

Example. If 𝑈 = ℕ0 and 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 𝑥 = 2𝑛 + 1 ∧ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ0 }, Find 𝐴𝑐 .

𝑈 = {−∞, … , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … , ∞}, 𝐴 = {−∞, … , −5, −3, −1,1,3,5, … , ∞}

𝐴𝑐 = 𝑈\𝐴 = 𝑈 − 𝐴 = {… , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … } − {… , −5, −3, −1,0,1,3,5, … }

= {… , −4, −2,0,2,4, … } = {𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠}

Example. If 𝑈 = ℕ0 and 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 𝑥 = 2𝑛 ∧ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ0 }, Find 𝐴𝑐 .

𝑈 = {−∞, … , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … , ∞}, 𝐴 = {−∞, … , −4, −2,0,2,4, … , ∞}

𝐴𝑐 = 𝑈\𝐴 = 𝑈 − 𝐴 = {… , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … } − {… , −4, −2,0,2,4, … }

= {… , −3, −1,1,3, … } = {𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠}

Properties of the Compliment.

𝐴 ∪ 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑈

𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝑐 = { }

(𝐴𝑐 )𝑐 = 𝐴

𝑈𝑐 = { }
𝑐 = 𝑈

De Morgan’s laws.

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐

Example. 𝑈 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔}, 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} and 𝐵 = {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}. Prove de Morgan’s

laws.

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐

𝐴𝑐 = 𝑈 − 𝐴 = {𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔}

𝐵 𝑐 = 𝑈 − 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑓, 𝑔}

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔} − {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} = {𝑓, 𝑔}

𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐 = {𝑓, 𝑔}

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}
(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑐 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔} − {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔}

𝐴𝑐 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔}

Example. 𝑈 = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, 𝐴 = {2,4,6,8}, and 𝐵 = {1,3,5,6,7,9}. Prove de

Morgan’s laws.

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐

𝐴𝑐 = 𝑈 − 𝐴 = {0,1,3,5,7,9,10}

𝐵 𝑐 = 𝑈 − 𝐵 = {0,2,4,8,10}

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} − {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} = {0,10}

𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐 = {2,10}

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = {6}

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑐 = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} − {6} = {0,1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9,10}

𝐴𝑐 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐 = {0,1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9,10}

Cartesian Product.

For two sets, A and B, the cartesian product, 𝐴 × 𝐵, is the set of all ordered pairs, (a,b), where
a comes from set A and b comes from set B. They are coordinates of a point in a plane.

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}.

If A=B, then 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐴 × 𝐴 = 𝐴2 . This is called the cartesian square of A.

𝐴 × 𝐴 = 𝐴2 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴}.

Cardinality.

The cardinality of the cartesian product is the number of ordered pairs.

If |𝐴| = 𝑚 and |𝐵| = 𝑛, then |𝐴 × 𝐵| = 𝑚𝑛

Example. 𝐴 = {2,3}, and 𝐵 = {4,5}. Calculate 𝐴 × 𝐵 and 𝐵 × 𝐴.

Number of ordered pairs is 4: (2,4), (2,5), (3,4), (3,5).

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(2,4), (2,5), (3,4), (3,5)}

Ordered pairs: (4,2), (4,3), (5,2), (5,3)

𝐵 × 𝐴 = {(4,2), (4,3), (5,2), (5,3)}

Note: (2,4) ≠ (4,2)

𝐴×𝐵 ≠ 𝐵×𝐴

Example. 𝐴 = {1,2,3}, and 𝐵 = {3,4}. Calculate 𝐴 × 𝐵 and 𝐵 × 𝐴.

Number of ordered pairs is 6: (1,3), (1,4), (2,4), (2,4), (3,3), (3,4).

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,4), (2,4), (3,3), (3,4)}

Ordered pairs: (3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3)

𝐵 × 𝐴 = {(3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3)}

Example. 𝐴 = {1,2,3}. Find 𝐴2

Number of ordered pairs is 9: (1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3).

𝐴2 = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3)}.

Example. 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} and 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2}.

𝐵 = {0,1,2}.

|𝐴 × 𝐵| = 12.

Number of ordered pairs is 12:

(𝑎, 0), (𝑎, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑏, 0), (𝑏, 1), (𝑏, 2), (𝑐, 0), (𝑐, 1), (𝑐, 2), (𝑑, 0), (𝑑, 1), (𝑑, 2).

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 0), (𝑎, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑏, 0), (𝑏, 1), (𝑏, 2), (𝑐, 0), (𝑐, 1), (𝑐, 2), (𝑑, 0), (𝑑, 1), (𝑑, 2)}.

𝐵 × 𝐴 = {(0, 𝑎), (1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑎), (0, 𝑏), (1, 𝑏), (2, 𝑏), (0, 𝑐), (1, 𝑐), (2, 𝑐), (0, 𝑑), (1, 𝑑), (2, 𝑑)}.

Example. 𝐴 = {{1,2}, { }}, 𝐵 = {5,3, {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}}. Find 𝐴 × 𝐵.

|𝐴| = 2, |𝐵| = 3.
|𝐴 × 𝐵| = 6

Number of ordered pairs is 6:

({1,2}, 5), ({1,2}, 3), ({1,2}, {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}), ({ }, 5), ({ }, 3), ({ }, {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐})

Note: In this case the ordered pairs cannot be plotted in a plane.

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {({1,2}, 5), ({1,2}, 3), ({1,2}, {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}), ({ }, 5), ({ }, 3), ({ }, {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐})}

Intervals.

An interval is a subset of the real numbers that lies between two points. These points are called
the endpoints of the interval. The endpoints, a and b, are written in brackets:
(𝑎, 𝑏), [𝑎, 𝑏], (𝑎, 𝑏], [𝑎,𝑏).

Note: these are not points in a plane.

Geometrically, it can be regarded as a line segment, or portion, of the real number line.

Types of intervals.

Intervals are classified according to their endpoints.

1. Closed interval.

A closed interval includes the endpoints.

[𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}

2. Open interval.

An open interval does not include the endpoints.

(𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏}

3. Open-closed interval.

An open-closed does not include the left endpoint, but includes the right endpoint.

(𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}

4. Closed-open interval.

A closed-open interval includes the left endpoint but does not include the right
endpoint.

[𝑎,𝑏) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏}

5. Infinite intervals.

Infinite intervals have one of the endpoints at infinity.

(−∞, 𝑎) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: −∞ < 𝑥 < 𝑎} = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 < 𝑎}

(−∞, 𝑎] = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: −∞ < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎} = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎}

(𝑎, ∞) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 < 𝑥 < ∞} = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 > 𝑎}

 [𝑎,∞) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < ∞} = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎}

Example.

(2,4) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 2 < 𝑥 < 4}

Example.

[−2,2] = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2}

Example.

(−3, 1] = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: −3 < 𝑥 ≤ 1}

Example.

(−1, ∞) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: −1 < 𝑥 < ∞} = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 > −1}

Example.
(−∞, 2] = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: −∞ < 𝑥 ≤ 2} = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≤ 2}

Examples: Draw the following intervals on the number line.

1. (−1,3) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: −1 < 𝑥 < 3}, 2. [−2,2] = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2}, 3. (−2, 4] =

{𝑥 ∈ ℝ: −2 < 𝑥 ≤ 4}, 4. [1,∞) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 1 ≤ 𝑥 < ∞} = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≥ 1}
Examples. Write the following intervals in interval notation.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Questions.

1. Is ℝ an interval?
2. What integer comes immediately after 4?
 3. What real number comes immediately after 4?
4. Can [0,1] = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1} be written in list form?
5. Can [0,1] = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 : 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4} be written in list form?

Operations with intervals.

Given

𝑈 = ℝ,

𝐴 = [2, 9)

𝐵 = [1, 6)

𝐶 = (3, ∞).

Find

1. 𝐴∩𝐵
2. 𝐵𝑐 ∩ 𝐶
3. 𝐶𝑐 ∪ 𝐵
4. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 \𝐶
5. 𝐶 𝑐 \𝐴𝑐
6. (𝐵 ∩ 𝐴𝑐 )\𝐶

1. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = [2,6]

2. 𝐵 𝑐 = 𝑈\𝐵 = (−∞, 1) ∪ (6, ∞)

𝐵 𝑐 ∩ 𝐶 = (6, ∞)
3. 𝐶 𝑐 = 𝑈\𝐶 = (−∞, 3]

𝐶 𝑐 ∪ 𝐵 = (−∞, 6]

4. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = [1, 9)

𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = [2, 9)

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝑈\𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = (−∞, 1) ∪ [9, ∞)

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 \𝐶 = (−∞, 1)

5. 𝐶 𝑐 = (−∞, 3]

𝐴𝑐 = (−∞, 2) ∪ [9, ∞)

𝐶 𝑐 \𝐴𝑐 = [2, 9)

6. 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴𝑐 = [1, 2)

(𝐵 ∩ 𝐴𝑐 ) − 𝐶 = [1, 2)
Cartesian product intervals.

ℝ × ℝ = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∧ 𝑦 ∈ ℝ} = ℝ2 : a point in 2 dimensional space.

ℝ × ℕ0 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∧ 𝑦 ∈ ℕ0 }

ℕ0 × ℕ0 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 ∈ ℕ0 ∧ 𝑦 ∈ ℕ0 }

E.g. 𝐴 = [1,2], 𝐵 = [1,2]. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = [1,2] × [1,2] = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑥 ∈ [1,2] ∧ 𝑦 ∈ [1,2]}

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2)}.

The ordered pairs are the x and y coordinates of the corners of a square.

A and B are closed intervals: 𝐴 × 𝐵 includes the boundary.

(𝐴 × 𝐵)𝑐 is everything outside the square.

Example. 𝐴 = [1,4], 𝐵 = [2,4]. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = [1,4] × [2,4] = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑥 ∈ [1,4] ∧ 𝑦 ∈ [2,4]}

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1,2), (1,4), (4,2), (4,4)}.

Example. 𝐴 = [2,3], 𝐵 = [2,3]. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = [2,3] × [2,3] = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑥 ∈ [2,3] ∧ 𝑦 ∈ [2,3]}

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(2,2), (2,3), (3,2), (3,3)}.

Example.
𝐴 = [1,5], 𝐵 = [3,4]. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = [1,5] × [3,4] = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑥 ∈ [1,5] ∧ 𝑦 ∈ [3,4]}

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1,3), (1,4), (5,3), (5,4)}.

Example.

𝐴 = [0,4], 𝐵 = [0,4]. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = [0,4] × [0,4] = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑥 ∈ [0,4] ∧ 𝑦 ∈ [0,4]}

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(0,0), (0,4), (4,0), (4,4)}.

Example.

𝐴 = [−1,3], 𝐵 = [−1,2]. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = [−1,3] × [−1,2] = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑥 ∈ [−1,3] ∧ 𝑦 ∈

[−1,2]}

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(−1, −1), (−1,2), (3, −1), (3,2)}.

𝑋 = [1,3] × [1,3], 𝑌 = [2,4] × [2,4]