REFLECTION ON

THEORIES ON PEC 102- CHILD

AND ADOLSCENT
DEVELOPMENT SUBJECT

Submitted by: Ella Jane B. Caraecle

PEC 102 - 42- B

Submitted to: Mrs. Clarita C. Cultura

PEC 102 INSRTUCTOR
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LESSON: META COGNITION BY JOHN FLAVEL

Metacognition refers to “allowing about allowing or thinking about thinking” and was

introduced as a conception in by John Flavell, who's generally seen as a founding

scholar of the field.

Flavell said that metacognition is the knowledge you have of your own cognitive

processes( your thinking). Flavell( 1979). It's your capability to control your thinking

processes through colorful strategies, similar as organizing, monitoring, and

conforming. also, it's your capability to reflect upon the tasks or processes you take

over and to elect and use the applicable strategies necessary in your intercultural

relations.

Metacognition is considered a critical component of successful learning. It involves

self-regulation and self-reflection of strengths, weaknesses, and the types of

strategies you create. It is a necessary foundation in culturally intelligent because it

underlines how you think through a problem or situation and the strategies you

create to address the situation or problem.

Many people become accustomed to having trainers and consultants provide them

with knowledge about cultures to the point where they are dependent on the coach,

mentor, trainer, or consultant. However, they need to learn to be experts in cultural

situations themselves through metacognitive strategies such as adapting,

monitoring, self-regulation, and self-reflection.

Metacognitive knowledge involves (a) learning processes and your beliefs about

how you learn and how you think others learn (b) the task of learning and how

you process information, and (c) the strategies you develop and when you will
use them. Let us say you have to learn a new language in 6 months. Here is

how you would think about it, using metacognitive knowledge:

Learning Process: I am good at learning new languages and I think I can do this in

the time period I have been given.

The Strategies: I think learning this new language is going to take me 12 months, but

I only have 6 months to prepare. I better find other ways to me meet this goal. I think

I will find out if there is an accelerated language class that I can take. Maybe I should

consider hiring a private tutor, or maybe I will just focus on learning the basics of the

language.

In metacognition, there are feelings and emotions present that are related to the

goals and tasks of learning.

These components of metacognition speak to metacognitive experience, which is

your internal response to learning. Your feelings and emotions serve as a feedback

system to help you understand your progress and expectations, and your

comprehension and connection of new information to the old, among other things.

Like when I learned new language I may recall memories, information, and earlier

experiences in your life to help you solve the task of learning a new language. In

doing this, in my internal responses (metacognitive experience) could be frustration,

disappointment, happiness, or satisfaction.

Each of these internal responses can affect the task of learning a new language and

determine your willingness to continue. Critical to metacognition is the ability to

deliberately foster a positive attitude and positive feelings toward your learning.
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LESSON : MULTI INTELIGIENCE BY HOWARD GARNER

Howard Gardner first proposed the theory of multiple intelligences in his 1983 book

“Frames of Mind”, where he broadens the definition of intelligence and outlines

several distinct types of intellectual competencies.

Gardner developed a series of eight inclusion criteria while evaluating each

“candidate” intelligence that was based on a variety of scientific disciplines.

He writes that we may all have these intelligences, but our profile of these

intelligences may differ individually based on genetics or experience.

Howard Gardner

Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences posits that individuals possess

various distinct types of intelligences, rather than a single general intelligence. These

types encompass areas like linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-

kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligences, emphasizing a

broader understanding of human capability.

Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences proposes that people are not born

with all of the intelligence they will ever have.

This theory challenged the traditional notion that there is one single type of

intelligence, sometimes known as “g” for general intelligence, that only focuses on

cognitive abilities.

To broaden this notion of intelligence, Gardner introduced eight different types of

intelligences consisting of: Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-

Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalist.

Gardner notes that the linguistic and logical-mathematical modalities are most typed

valued in school and society.

Gardner also suggests that there may other “candidate” intelligences—such as

spiritual intelligence, existential intelligence, and moral intelligence—but does not

believe these meet his original inclusion criteria. (Gardner, 2011).

 Inclusion Criteria to be Categorized as a Multiple Intelligence

 Potential of isolation by brain damage.

 Evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility.

 Identifiable core operations or set of operations.

 Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system.

 Distinct developmental history and definable set of expert “end state”

performances.

 Existence of savants, prodigies, and other exceptional people.

 Support from experimental psychological tasks.

 Support from psychometric findings.

 Linguistic Intelligence (word smart)

Linguistic Intelligence is a part of Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory

that deals with sensitivity to the spoken and written language, ability to learn

languages, and capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals.

Linguistic intelligence involves the ability to use language masterfully to express

oneself rhetorically or poetically. It includes the ability to manipulate syntax,

structure, semantics, and phonology of language.

People with linguistic intelligence, such as William Shakespeare and Oprah Winfrey,

have the ability to analyze information and create products involving oral and written

language, such as speeches, books, and memos.

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (number/reasoning smart)

Logical-mathematical intelligence refers to the capacity to analyze problems

logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically.

Logical-mathematical intelligence involves the ability to use logic, abstractions,

reasoning, and critical thinking to solve problems. It includes the capacity to

understand the underlying principles of some kind of causal system.

People with logical-mathematical intelligence, such as Albert Einstein and Bill Gates,

have an ability to develop equations and proofs, make calculations, and solve

abstract problems.

Spatial Intelligence (picture smart)

Spatial intelligence involves the ability to perceive the visual-spatial world

accurately. It includes the ability to transform, modify, or manipulate visual

information. People with high spatial intelligence are good at visualization, drawing,

sense of direction, puzzle building, and reading maps.

Spatial intelligence features the potential to recognize and manipulate the patterns

of wide space (those used, for instance, by navigators and pilots) as well as the
patterns of more confined areas, such as those of importance to sculptors, surgeons,

chess players, graphic artists, or architects.

People with spatial intelligence, such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Amelia Earhart,

have the ability to recognize and manipulate large-scale and fine-grained spatial

images.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (body smart)

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the potential of using one’s whole body or parts

of the body (like the hand or the mouth) to solve problems or to fashion products.

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence involves using the body with finesse, grace, and

skill. It includes physical coordination, balance, dexterity, strength, and flexibility.

People with high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are good at sports, dance, acting,

and physical crafts.

People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, such as Michael Jordan and Simone

Biles, can use one’s own body to create products, perform skills, or solve problems

through mind–body union.

Musical Intelligence (music smart)

Musical intelligence refers to the skill in the performance, composition, and

appreciation of musical patterns.

Musical intelligence involves the ability to perceive, discriminate, create, and

express musical forms. It includes sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, melody, and tone

color. People with high musical intelligence are good at singing, playing instruments,

and composing music.

People with musical intelligence, such as Beethoven and Ed Sheeran, have the

ability to recognize and create musical pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone.

Interpersonal Intelligence (people smart)

Interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations,

and desires of other people and, consequently, to work effectively with others.

Interpersonal intelligence involves the ability to understand and interact effectively

with others. It includes sensitivity to other people’s moods, temperaments,

motivations, and desires. People with high interpersonal intelligence communicate

well and can build rapport.

People with interpersonal intelligence, such as Mahatma Gandhi and Mother Teresa,

have the ability to recognize and understand other people’s moods, desires,

motivations, and intentions.

Intrapersonal Intelligence (self-smart)

Intrapersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself, to have an

effective working model of one self, including one’s desires, fears, and capacities—

and to use such information effectively in regulating one’s own life.

It includes self-awareness, personal cognizance, and the ability to refine, analyze,

and articulate one’s emotional life.

People with intrapersonal intelligence, such as Aristotle and Maya Angelou, have the

ability to recognize and understand his or her own moods, desires, motivations, and

intentions.

This type of intelligence can help a person understand which life goals are important

and how to achieve them.

Naturalist intelligence involves the ability to recognize, categorize, and draw upon

patterns in the natural environment. It includes sensitivity to the flora, fauna, and

phenomena in nature. People with high naturalist intelligence are good at classifying

natural forms.
Naturalistic intelligence involves expertise in recognizing and classifying the

numerous species—the flora and fauna—of his or her environment.

People with naturalistic intelligence, such as Charles Darwin and Jane Goddall, have

the ability to identify and distinguish among different types of plants, animals, and

weather formations that are found in the natural world.

In conclusion understanding multiple intelligences is important because it helps

individuals recognize that intelligence is not just about academic achievement

or IQ scores, but also includes a range of different abilities and strengths.

By identifying their own unique mix of intelligences, individuals can develop a greater

sense of self-awareness and self-esteem, as well as pursue career paths that align

with their strengths and interests.

Additionally, understanding multiple intelligences can promote more inclusive and

personalized approaches to education and learning that recognize and value the

diverse strengths and abilities of all students.

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LESSON: TRIARICHIC THEORY BY ROBERT STERNBERG

Three categories of human intellect are distinguished by Robert Sternberg's triarchic

theory of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.

Each sub theory reflects a particular kind of intelligence or ability:

 Realistic or practical intelligence the capacity to handle difficulties in the

real world and adjust to the surroundings by drawing on past knowledge

and experience. The term "street smarts" is occasionally used to

describe this kind of intellect.

  Practical intelligence: Sternberg called one’s ability to interact

successfully with the everyday world practical intelligence.

 Practical intelligence is related to the contextual sub theory.

 Practically intelligent people are especially adept at behaving

successfully in their external environment.

 Creative intelligence: The experiential sub theory is related to creative

intelligence, which is one’s ability to use existing knowledge to create

new ways to handle new problems or cope with new situations.

 The ability to analyse the capacity for information analysis, evaluation,

judgment, comparison, and contrast. This kind of intelligence is

intimately related to academic computation and problem solving.

 The ability to be creative or creative the capacity to solve new issues

by applying existing information and abilities. This can involve creating

a piece of art or a short tale, or it can involve coming up with an idea

for a solution.

 According to Sternberg's view, intelligence consists of three separate

but connected components. Additionally, it implies that people with high

practical intelligence scores might or might not also have similar levels

of creative and analytical intelligence.

 Analytical intelligence: The componential sub theory is related to analytical

intelligence, which is essentially academic intelligence.

 Analytical intelligence is used to solve problems and is measured by

a standard IQ test.
In conclusion Sternberg observed that all three kinds of intelligence are necessary

for successful intelligence, referring to the ability to be successful based on one’s

abilities, desires, and environment.

REFLECTION

LESSON: GELSTAT THEORY BY KOFFKA KOHLER AND WERTHEIMER

German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler

developed the hypothesis in the 1920s. In the early 1900s, they fled Nazi Germany

and came to the United States.

Gestalt theory is a psychological theory that arranges disparate components into

identifiable patterns to describe how humans see the world:

Explanation

Gestalt philosophy highlights how individuals view objects as a whole rather than as

separate parts. According to the notion, by interpreting a collection of separate

components as a whole, the mind "informs" what the eye sees.

Principles

Gestalt theory is founded on a set of principles that deal with the innate need to

bring order to chaos. Among these statutes are:

Proximity: A coherent item is regarded as having elements that are closer to one

another.

Similarity: Similar elements frequently end up in the same group.

Closure: An organizational principle.

One organizational principle is simplicity.

Gestalt theory has been applied to graphic design and education: Education: Gestalt

theory can assist students in understanding how the elements of a whole are put

together intellectually.

Gestalt concepts are used by graphic designers to produce visually striking designs

with strategically arranged pieces.

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LESSON: OPERANT CONDITIONING BY BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER

Operant conditioning, or instrumental conditioning, is a theory of learning where

behavior is influenced by its consequences. Behavior that is reinforced (rewarded)

will likely be repeated, and behavior that is punished will occur less frequently.

By the 1920s, John B. Watson had left academic psychology, and other behaviorists

were becoming influential, proposing new forms of learning other than classical

conditioning. Perhaps the most important of these was Burrhus Frederic Skinner.

Although, for obvious reasons, he is more commonly known as B.F. Skinner.

Skinner’s views were slightly less extreme than Watson’s (1913). Skinner believed

that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study

observable behavior rather than internal mental events.

Skinner’s work was rooted in the view that classical conditioning was far too

simplistic to fully explain complex human behavior. He believed that the best way to

understand behavior is to examine its causes and consequences. He called this

approach operant conditioning.

B. F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is a method of learning that uses

rewards and punishments to modify behavior:

 Reinforcement: A desirable stimulus that increases the likelihood of a

behavior being repeated. For example, a child who tidies up toys might

receive a sticker as a reward.

 Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior

being repeated.
  Skinner box: A chamber used in Skinner's experiments on animals,

where the animal could press a lever or peck a disk to receive a food

reward.

Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is based on the idea that behavior change

and learning are the result of punishment and reinforcement. It's also known as

instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian conditioning.

Respondent vs. Operant Actions

Skinner distinguished between two different types of behaviors

Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as

pulling your hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on

your knee. You don't have to learn these behaviors. They simply occur automatically

and involuntarily.

Operant behaviors, on the other hand, are those under our conscious control.

Some may occur spontaneously and others purposely, but it is the consequences of

these actions that then influence whether or not they occur again in the future. Our

actions on the environment and the consequences of that action make up an

important part of the learning process.

Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows.

There are two kinds of reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the

behavior increases.

Reinforcement in Conditioning Behavior

Punishment in Operant Conditioning

Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a

decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of

these cases, the behavior decreases.

Positive Punishment sometimes called punishment by application, presents an

unfavourable event or outcome to weaken the response it elicits.

It sounds like an oxymoron, but in this instance, positive doesn't mean 'good.'

Instead, it suggests that something is added to the situation to act as a punisher.

Spanking for misbehaviour is an example of punishment by application.

Negative Punishment also known as punishment by removal occurs when a

favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a

child's video game following mis behavior is an example of negative punishment.

Reinforcement is not necessarily a straightforward process, and there are a number

of factors that can influence how quickly and how well new things are learned.

Skinner found that when and how often behaviors were reinforced played a role in

the speed and strength of acquisition.

In other words, the timing and frequency of reinforcement influenced how new

behaviors were learned and how old behaviors were modified.

Skinner identified several different schedules of reinforcement that impact the

operant conditioning process:

Continuous Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement involves delivering reinforcement every time a

response occurs. Learning tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response

rate is quite low. Extinction also occurs very quickly once reinforcement is

halted.

Partial Reinforcement

Once a behavior has been established, it is usually best to transition to a partial

reinforcement schedule. In this type of schedule, behaviors are only reinforced

sometimes. This can be based on the number of responses that have occurred or

how much time has elapsed.

Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are reinforced

only after a specific number of responses have occurred, typically leading to a fairly

steady response rate.

Fixed-interval schedules are another form of partial reinforcement. Reinforcement

occurs only after a certain interval of time has elapsed. Response rates remain fairly

steady and increase as the reinforcement time draws near but slow immediately after

the reinforcement has been delivered.

Variable-ratio schedules are also a type of partial reinforcement that involves

reinforcing behavior after a varied number of responses. This leads to both a high

response rate and slow extinction rates.4

Variable-interval schedules are the final form of partial reinforcement Skinner

described. This schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable amount of

time has elapsed. This also tends to lead to a fast response rate and slow extinction

rate.

A Skinner box, also known as an operant conditioning chamber, is a device used to

objectively record an animal’s behavior in a compressed time frame. An animal can

be rewarded or punished for engaging in certain behaviors, such as lever pressing

(for rats) or key pecking (for pigeons).

In conclusion Operant conditioning is something you may immediately recognize in

your own life, whether in your approach to teaching your children good behavior or

training the family dog.

Remember that any type of learning takes time. Consider the type of reinforcement

or punishment that may work best for your unique situation and assess which type of

reinforcement schedule might lead to the best results.

 REFLECTION

LESSON: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING BY IVAN POVLOV

Learning Theory and Classical Conditioning Explained

“Every existing organism must in some way or another be sensitive to both

meaningful as well as more coincidental relations between events in the

environment.” Eelen, 2018, p. 197

To understand this concept is to understand the premise of classical conditioning.

As learning can be described as an adaptive change in an individual’s behavior,

learning theory is the approach, either physical or mental, responsible for changing

the behavior (McLean & Christensen, 2017).

Learning theory includes both non-associative and associative learning. Classical

conditioning is considered associative learning, as there is an association between

two stimuli or events that cause the change in behavior.

To gain a better understanding of learning theory and classical conditioning, let’s

explore the infamous experiment involving the salivation of dogs. Pavlov (1927)

noticed that his research dogs began salivating around mealtimes, which is a natural

response to eating; however, the salivation began even before the dogs ate.

Observing this phenomenon, Pavlov theorized he could elicit the salivation of dogs

by presenting another stimulus to produce the same response. Pavlov introduced a

bell tone before the dogs were given their food, and the dogs salivated at the tone of

the bell.

Watson’s controversial experiment involving Little Albert is also an example of

classical conditioning (Powell, Digdon, Harris, & Smithson, 2014). Little Albert was a

young boy who was introduced to a white rat. At first, he enjoyed playing with and
petting the rat; however, Watson began pairing the furry rat with a loud sound. Soon,

Little Albert associated the rat with the loud noise, which made him cry.

Watson could eventually present the white rat without the loud noise and elicit a cry

from Little Albert. It was theorized that Little Albert would develop a phobia of furry

animals.

Simply put, classical conditioning is learning associations between two events

(Eelen, 2018). To change a behavior using classical conditioning, you must pair the

conditional stimulus (CS) with an unconditional stimulus (US), and then the

conditioned response (CR) now comes to be elicited by the CS, with many

opportunities for practice of course (Bouton & Moody, 2004). This process may be

better understood with a few examples.

Conditioning in the Classroom: 4 Examples

Conditioning in the classroom the last class before lunchtime can be difficult for

students and their growing bodies. They may sense that lunchtime isn’t far off, and

their tummies begin to rumble.

Perhaps students have music class before lunch every day. Halfway through music

class, their stomachs may begin to rumble, similar to the salivation of the dogs in

Pavlov’s experiment. The children may actually start to associate music class with

hunger.

Neutral stimulus (NS): After music class

Unconditional stimulus (US): Eating lunch

Unconditional response (UR): Feeling hungry

Conditional stimulus (CS): Music class

Conditional response (CR): Feeling hungry

As a child, perhaps you were given a special treat or privilege upon earning good

grades on report cards or progress reports. You may have begun to associate good

grades with a special treat.

Research has shown that parents’ perceptions have a stronger influence over

children’s sense of self and task perceptions, even more so than their own grades

(Frome & Eccles, 1998). Let’s break it down in the following example:

NS: Good report card grades

US: Going for ice cream

UR: Feeling excited

CS: Good report card grades

CR: Feeling excited

It comes as no surprise that mistreatment, which can include public humiliation, may

lead to student burnout and poor mental health (Markman, Soeprono, Combs, &

Cosgrove, 2019).

Being humiliated by a teacher could still be haunting you today. Let’s say that a math

teacher embarrassed a student. That student may develop a dislike for the subject

that follows them even into adulthood.

Classical conditioning can also be exhibited in forms of technology. Computer

games that play different sounds when you get the correct or incorrect answer are

prime examples. Baccus, Baldwin, and Packer (2004) designed a study that

demonstrated that implicit self-esteem can be increased using a computer game that

repeatedly pairs self-relevant information with smiling faces.

NS: Getting the correct answer

US: Hearing a high-pitched “ding!”

UR: Feeling pleased with yourself

CS: The high-pitched “ding!”

CR: Feeling pleased with yourself

How to Apply Classical Conditioning in the Classroom

There are several excellent ways to apply classical conditioning in school, and we

review a few of the options.

Attention-getters

Attention-getters such as turning off the lights, rhyming, student callbacks, hand

signals, a bell, music, or when the teacher simply stops talking could be used to

obtain students’ attention.

For example, a teacher may say, “Class, class!” and the class is expected to call

back, “Yes, yes!” and then wait for the teacher’s next direction. Modeling this

behavior will be crucial to beginning the conditioning process.

Transition notifications

Transition notifications such as a bell, gong, chimes, music, or a clap may

sometimes be used to notify students of a transition. As an example, a teacher may

strike a gong to alert students it is time to switch centers and move on to the next

activity.
Creating a procedure for quick transitions will grant the teacher additional

instructional time. Just as with the attention-getter, the teacher will want to explicitly

model the expected behavior and review the expectations often. Please see how to

play a transition game below.

Positive feedback

Positive feedback is an easy way to keep the students who are doing the right thing

on track while motivating students who are off-track to switch courses.

The students who receive the positive feedback will associate the activity they are

being praised for with a good feeling. Most students will continue to demonstrate the

behavior.

The students who may not be showing the desired behavior may hear the positive

feedback toward the other students and wish to receive the positive feedback as

well. They will then, most likely, exhibit the desired behavior. Of course, there are

always exceptions. This concept borders operant conditioning with positive

reinforcement.

Answer cueing

Answer cueing may be used to provide students a procedure for answering

questions, as well as grant students additional “think time.” This technique prevents

fast-paced students from shouting out the answers to questions before the other

students can process the question and formulate an answer.

For example, a teacher may raise their hands up while asking the question, keep the

hands up an extra few seconds, and then bring the hands down with palms facing

upward, signaling students they are now permitted to answer the question.

While this “think time” typically lasts only 1.5 seconds, research has shown that

waiting three seconds or more will benefit the students (Stahl, 1994). This additional

processing time can encourage more students to contribute to the lesson and

answer the question presented by the teacher.

Unfortunately, classical conditioning can also hinder learning. As demonstrated, a

bad experience in a certain class or with a specific teacher may cause a student to

dislike that particular subject in general.

To make classical conditioning more concrete for students or support the learning

even more, classical conditioning can be paired with operant conditioning. The

pairing of classical conditioning and operant conditioning would involve the use of

reinforcements.
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LESSON: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY BY ALBERT BANDURA

Social learning theory is the idea that humans learn from observing and imitating
the behavior modelled by others. Bandura labelled this phenomenon observational
learning. In short, it is not necessary to have a direct experience of something in
order to learn.

For observational learning to occur, there does not necessarily need to be a live
observation (i.e. a real person modelling or demonstrating the behavior). It can also
take place by observing characters, real or fictional, in movies, television programs,
video games etc.

Social learning theory was developed by Canadian psychologist, Albert Bandura.

Bandura believed that all behaviors are learned through social imitation as opposed
to genetics. In the early 1960s, he began conducting a series of now-famous studies
known as the Bobo doll experiments which led to the development of his theory
which he published in 1977.

As part of these experiments, a group of children were individually exposed to an

adult model that was physically and verbally aggressive towards a Bobo doll.

When these children were left to play with the Bobo doll independently, many of
them imitated and reproduced the behavior that they had observed.

This experiment was replicated at a later date but this time the adult model was
either rewarded or reprimanded for the abusive behavior.

The results of these experiments showed that children can be influenced and can
learn from observing the behavior of others.

It also indicated that behavior that is reinforced or rewarded tends to be repeated,

whereas behavior that is reprimanded is less likely to reoccur.

What Other Theories are linked to Social Learning Theory?

Social Learning theory is heavily rooted in Pavlov’s classical conditioning and

Skinner’s operant conditioning.

Bandura’s social learning theory is often linked to behavioral learning theories which
focus on the idea that all human behaviors are acquired through conditioning and
interaction with the external environment.

Behaviorists believe that all humans can be trained to perform any task with the right
environment and conditioning, regardless of their background or ability.
In social learning theory, Bandura agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of
classical and operant conditioning put forward by psychologists Ivan Pavolv and B.F.
Skinner respectively.

However, he believes that direct reinforcement cannot account for all types of
learning as both children and adults often learn things without ever having had direct
experience with it and without demonstrating their new behaviors.

For example, a child who has never been on a bicycle before will know that you need
to sit on the saddle and push the pedals with your feet in order for the bicycle to
move.

This child would have learned this behavior by observing a model.

This model may have been another child or adult in their environment but could also
have been a cartoon character on TV.

This led Bandura to add his own two ideas when formulating his theory:

Behavior is learned from the environment through observational learning.

There are mental factors that determine whether or not a new behavior is acquired.

Accepting that not all behaviors that are observed will be imitated, Bandura identified
four factors (or elements) required for observational learning to be successful.

What are the 4 Elements of Social Learning Theory?

Attention: A lesson must engage a student sufficiently to hold their attention.

Retention: Students must be able to remember what they have seen or heard.

Reproduction: Students should be given time to practice the observed behavior.

Motivation: A student must be able to see the benefit of a new behavior for long
term assimilation.

Bandura's four Elements of Social Learning Theory

Attention: In order for a behavior to be observed and subsequently imitated, the

observer must first notice the behavior and focus their attention on it.

If the behavior does not hold the interest of the observer or they become distracted,
it is unlikely that the behavior will be retained reproduced at a later stage.

Retention: The observer must be able to remember the behavior they have
observed and store it in their memory to be accessed at a later stage.
Even if the behavior is imitated shortly after it is observed, this still requires
significant memory skills. A student’s ability to retain can be impacted by a number of
factors.

Reproduction: This involves replicating the behavior that was observed. The ability
of the observer to reproduce the behavior will depend on whether or not they
retained the behavior following observation.

Of course, retention is not the only factor here. A person’s physical capability may
also limit their ability to reproduce the behavior.

Motivation: In order for a behavior to be replicated, the observer must be motivated

to reproduce it.

This motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Reinforcement and punishment are

key factors in motivation, with learners more likely to imitate an observed behavior if
it results in a positive outcome.

Motivation can also arise from observing others being rewarded for the same
behavior.

A person’s self-efficacy or belief in their own capability to reproduce the behavior can
also have a significant impact on motivation.

How can Social Learning Theory be Applied in the Classroom?

As teachers, we want our students to be successful and to learn to the best of their
ability. The way we teach and the strategies we employ, as well as our classroom
environment, all have an impact on teaching and learning.

Let’s look at a few ways in which we can utilize Bandura’s social learning
theory in our classroom.

Behavior good classroom management is key to successful teaching and learning.

Without it, chaos can ensue and this will hinder both the teacher and the students.

Social learning theory can be used to encourage and teach desirable behaviors in
the classroom through the use of positive reinforcement and rewards.

For example, a student who is praised for raising their hand to speak will more than
likely repeat that behavior. Additionally, other students will follow suit and raise their
hands after observing that the behavior elicited a positive outcome.

Conversely, a student who is reprimanded for an undesired behavior is less likely to

repeat that behavior, as are their peers who will also wish to avoid the negative
consequence of replicating the action.
Teaching as previously stated, one the prerequisites for observational learning to be
successful is that the observer’s attention is focused on the behavior.

Therefore, before demonstrating or modelling something to our students, it is

paramount that we have their full attention. Ensuring that lessons are level
appropriate and as engaging as possible will help sustain students’ attention.

Retention of the behavior or information modeled is also key to successful learning.

As we know, individual students learn in a variety of ways.

One of the ways we can help our students to retain information and behaviors is to
incorporate as many different activities into our lesson as possible. A multisensory
approach to learning helps to increase retention.

For example, while teaching a lesson verbally, we can use visual aids to help
reinforce the information.

Motivating Students

As Bandura identified, in order for observational learning to be successful, the

observer must be motivated to reproduce the behavior.

Studies show that teachers who are enthusiastic and passionate when teaching can
motivate students to learn as they are likely to imitate their teacher.

Teachers can motivate students extrinsically through positive reinforcement and

rewards. They can also help boost a student’s intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy
through verbal persuasion, positive reinforcement and constructive feedback.

Bandura’s self-efficacy theory is rooted in the social learning theory. If a student has
confidence and believes that they have the ability to reproduce a certain behavior
then they are more likely to try and to succeed.

Conversely, if a student lacks confidence and does not believe that they have the
ability to carry out a task, then they are less likely to exert effort into the task and
may ultimately end up failing.

As educators, it is our job to find different ways of motivating our students to learn.

Pair and Group Work

In our classroom, learning does not solely take place through students observing
their teacher.

Learning also takes place through observing their peers which is why using pair work
and group work in the classroom can have many benefits.
For example, pairing a higher ability student with a student that is struggling allows
for peer coaching to occur.

This is a very useful and effective strategy used in classrooms today. Students are
often more likely to pay attention to their peers than to another adult.

When facilitating group work, a teacher may place a less motivated student in a
group with a highly motivated student with the intention that their influence will
motivate the other student to take on some responsibility, helping the unmotivated
student learn.

Each member of the group can act as a model and members of the group can learn
through observing the behaviors and attitudes of their peers.

Criticisms of Social Learning Theory

While social learning theory has been praised for offering us a different perspective
on how learning occurs, it is not without its flaws and has attracted criticism from
those that feel it has its limitations.

Many theorists feel that it offers too narrow a view, disregarding important
environmental influences and factors such as socio-economic status.

Social learning theory suggests that a person’s actions and behavior are determined
by society and fails to take into consideration individual accountability.

It also fails to take into account the influence of biological factors such as genetics,
with biological theorists arguing that some behaviors are in fact partly inherited.

Conclusion

Social learning theory certainly has its place in our education system and offers us a
greater understanding of the way our students learn.

However, it is also important for teachers to be aware that if strategies are not
implemented correctly or are used inconsistently, they are unlikely to be effective.

It should also be noted that what works for some students may not work for others
regardless of how much positive reinforcement or punishment is given. There is no
doubt that there are many external factors that impact a student’s desire and ability
to learn.

One thing that social learning theory does show us is that observation plays an
important role in shaping the knowledge, behavior and attitudes of our students.

For this reason, teachers need to be excellent role models and ensure they are
being inclusive, inspiring and compassionate towards their students.
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LESSON: SIGMUND FREUD

Sigmund Freud is renowned for his innovative insights on the human mind and

behavior. His writings have had a significant influence on psychology and are being

researched and discussed extensively today.

Freud's creation of the psychoanalytic theory, which highlighted the role of the

unconscious mind in determining behavior, was one of his most important

contributions to psychology. According to him, we frequently are not aware of the

ways in which our unconscious wants, anxieties, and ideas affect our conscious

thoughts and actions.

Personality develops in a series of phases, each with its own internal psychological

conflict, according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory.

According to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality, the id, ego, and

superego—three parts of the mind—interact to produce human behavior. In addition,

this so-called "structural theory" of personality emphasizes the importance of

conflicts between the various parts of the mind in shaping behavior and personality.

Every developmental stage involves a conflict between the kid's biological drive and

societal expectations, which must be resolved in order for the child to master each

stage and acquire a fully developed personality.

Our personalities may thus be developed through the interactions between the three

primary components of the human mind—the id, ego, and superego—that he

posited. These three structures' contradictions, together with our efforts to strike a

balance between their respective "desires," undoubtedly affect our thoughts, actions,

and worldview.
How we manage the conflict between the two main behavioural trends—our

aggressive biological desires and our socialized internal control over those drives—

depends on the balance we achieve in each particular circumstance.

Despite their widespread influence, Freud's theories have also generated a lot of

discussion and criticism. His dependence on subjective interpretation and his lack of

scientific backing for his assertions have drawn criticism from some quarters. His

views have been criticized by others for their shortcomings, especially with regard to

their application to non-Western cultures and to people with diverse experiences and

backgrounds.

Numerous psychologists and academics have been impacted by his focus on the

unconscious mind's significance and how early events shape our personalities and

behaviours. Freud's work is still a significant part of psychology's history, and his

legacy continues to influence our understanding of the human mind and behavior.

Furthermore, Freud believed that fear was a vehicle via which people may

communicate their unconscious wants.

As a result of their concealed aspirations, worry and tension arose. This anxiousness

and tension must be released, which generally manifests as the dread, worry, and

stress that a phobia causes.

According to the psychoanalytic perspective, phobias are caused by anxiety and

panic attacks when the ego is overshadowed by forces such as the superego and

the id. Those who suffer from phobias thus have unconscious impulses or ideas that

cause conflict between the three elements of the human personality or psyche.

The phobia might indicate another cause of concern inside the individual, such as

anxiety. Like myself I always I started to have anxiety after my graduation and every
time my anxiety will attack me I can’t function or think clearly and I end up also

having panic attack.

Furthermore, according to this viewpoint, phobias can develop as a result of the

complexities and difficulties of human experience, which can lead to disputes,

complexes, and even psychological trauma.

Regarding the concept of psychoanalysis, I can definitely empathize with it because

I, too, have had a few phobias up to this point. When I go back to my childhood, I

recall a specific incident that prompted me to be afraid of dogs.

This has manifested until now.

My phobia of dogs otherwise known as cynophobia. Because the dogs in our

neighbourhood keep barking and following me as if wants to bite me and until now

whenever I see dog coming or near to me I always think that will bite that’s why

sometimes I will shout or freak out because of the dog.

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LESSON: JEAN PIAGET STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

According to Piaget, intelligence goes through several stages of growth and

development. It is not merely that older kids think faster than younger ones. Rather,

the thinking of early children differs from that of older children in both qualitative and

quantitative ways.

 The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire

knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire

experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses,

and motor responses.

 Birth to 2 Years

 Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

 Know the world through movements and sensations

 Learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,

looking, and listening

 Learn that things continue to exist even when they cannot be seen

(object permanence)

 Realize that they are separate beings from the people and objects

around them

 Realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world

around them

During the sensorimotor stage, children go through a period of dramatic growth and

learning. As kids interact with their environment, they continually make new

discoveries about how the world works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a

relatively short time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how

to perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great

deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this

stage down into substages. Early representational thought emerges during the final

part of the sensorimotor stage.

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the

understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an

important element at this point of development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an

existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to

begin to attach names and words to objects.

 The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

 The Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous

stage, but the emergence of language is one of the major hallmarks of the

preoperational stage of development.

 2 to 7 Years

 Major characteristics and developmental changes during this

stage:

 Begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to

represent objects

 Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of

others
  Getting better with language and thinking, but still tend to think in very

concrete terms

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking

the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the

idea of constancy.

Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of

development, yet they continue to think very concretely about the world around

them.

For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces,

and then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece

of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake

shape. Because the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose

that piece, even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.

 The Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development

 The Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in

development, they become much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the

previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how

other people might view a situation.

 7 to 11 Years

 Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

 Begin to think logically about concrete events

 Begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of

liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for

example
  Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete

 Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a

general principle

While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it

can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract

and hypothetical concepts.

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how

other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin

to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else

necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

 The Concrete Operational Stage in Cognitive Development

 The Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use

deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this point,

adolescents and young adults become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions

to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them.

 Age 12 and Up

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this time:

 Begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems

 Begins to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and

political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning.

 Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to

specific information.
The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the

formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan

for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that

emerge during this stage.

Important Cognitive Development Concepts

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a

quantitative process. That is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to

their existing knowledge as they get older.

Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as

they gradually process through these four stages. At age 7, children don't just have

more information about the world than they did at age 2; there is a fundamental

change in how they think about the world.

Piaget suggested several factors that influence how children learn and grow.

 Schemas

A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding

and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and

understand the world.

In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of

obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to

modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas.

 Assimilation

The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is

known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend

to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with our pre-existing

 beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of

assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.

 Accommodation

Another part of adaptation is the ability to change existing schemas in light of

new information; this process is known as accommodation. New schemas

may also be developed during this process into substages. Early

representational thought emerges during the final part of the sensorimotor

stage.

 Equilibration

As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to

maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and

changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation).

Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and

accommodation using a mechanism he called equilibration. Equilibration helps

explain how children can move from one stage of thought to the next.

In conclusion Jean Piaget stages of development helps us to understand more the

children development. Our knowledge of children's intellectual development has

been enhanced by Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Additionally, it

emphasized that kids were more than just passive consumers of information.

Instead, as they develop their comprehension of how the world functions, children

are always exploring and trying new things.

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LESSON: LEV VYGOTZKY THEORY OF SOCIO CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much research and

theory in cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly of what

has become known as sociocultural theory.

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory views human development as a socially mediated

process in which children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving

strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of

society. Vygotsky's theory is comprised of concepts such as culture-specific tools,

private speech, and the Zone of Proximal Development.

Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the

development of cognition (Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that community

plays a central role in the process of "making meaning."

Unlike Piaget's notion that childrens' development must necessarily precede their

learning, Vygotsky argued, "learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the

process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological

function" (1978, p. 90). In other words, social learning tends to precede (i.e., come

before) development.

Vygotsky has developed a sociocultural approach to cognitive development. He

developed his theories at around the same time as Jean Piaget was starting to

develop his ideas (1920's and 30's), but he died at the age of 38, and so his theories

are incomplete - although some of his writings are still being translated from

Russian.
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LESSON: ERIK ERIKSON PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and

influential theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst

Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory centred on psychosocial development rather

than psychosexual development.

The stages that make up his theory are as follows:

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months)

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler years from 18 months to

three years)

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from three to five)

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from six to 11)

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18)

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40)

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65)

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood from 65 to death)

His theory on Trust vs. Mistrust contains the trust of an infant and how we show a

child that we are trusting I really can’t reflect on this first stage because it’s the first

stage of infancy. The identity stage starts at twelve and ends around eighteen.
This stage is the adaptation of becoming an adult. A child is adapting through

different changes like puberty, transferring from middle school to high school and

more. A child is growing into the person you lead them to be, a child is starting to find

out what they want to be in life.

The stage identity is actually the stage I’m growing into. I am learning the stages of

being an adult and also been through puberty.

The learning of my childhood turn me to the person I am. The stages of Identity are

not just finding what you want to be but finding who you are.

After, finding who you are you have to accept it be proud into the person you grew

up to Being motivated as a baby would lead you into a good life. Having a parent that

loves and care for you also is a key. If you didn’t follow some stages Erikson’s had

stated, he stated that you might be surrounded by negativity. The people who are

involved and were born into different stages might have a trouble in life. In infancy

ages you should be surrounded by positive and nothing more than that.

It is important to remember that the psychosocial stages are just one theory of

personality development. Some research may support certain aspects of this

theoretical framework, but that does not mean that every aspect of the theory is

supported by evidence. The theory can, however, be a helpful way to think about

some of the different conflicts and challenges that people may face as they go

through life.
It is also easy to look at each stage of Erikson's theory and consider how it can apply

to your life. Learning about each stage can provide insight into what you might face

as you age. It can also help you reflect on things that may have happened in the past

and help you see ways you might be able to improve your coping skills to better deal

with today's challenges.

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LESSON: LAWRENCE KOHLBERG STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Kohlberg's moral development stages theory is one of the best-known theories that

focus on a stepwise process of development of morality and moral reasoning in

children. According to this theory, children’s moral development occurs in six stages,

and moral logic is primarily focused on obtaining and upholding justice.

Kohlberg's moral development stages are a six-stage theory of how children learn

and develop a sense of morality. According to this theory, which was first proposed

in the early 1960s by developmental psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, children pass

through six distinct stages as they mature. Each stage involves considering different

considerations when deciding what is right and wrong.

One can ascertain a person's stage of moral development by looking at moral

dilemmas. Psychologists can determine a person's position in the six phases of

Kohlberg's moral developmental stages by giving them moral decision-making tasks.

Examples of moral dilemmas include questions such as, “Would you go against your

parents if they told you to do something wrong?” or “What would you do if you found

a wallet full of cash and had an urge to keep it for yourself?”

According to Kohlberg's theory, moral action consists of 3 stages.

The first stage is pre-conventional morality, in which a person uses their own

interests and desires as the basis for moral decisions.

The Pre conventional level: Children accept the authority (and moral code) of

others.

If an action leads to punishment, it must be bad. If it leads to a reward, it must be

good. There is also a sense in which decisions concerning what is good are defined

in terms of what is good for us.

The second stage is conventional morality, in which a person follows societal

standards and expectations when making moral decisions. Lastly, there is post-

conventional morality which involves considering the rights and needs of others

when making choices.

The Conventional level: Children believe that social rules and the expectations of

others determine what acceptable or unacceptable behavior is. A social system that

stresses the responsibilities of relationships and social order is seen as desirable

and must, therefore, influence our views of right and wrong.

The third and last is Post conventional level: here what is right is based on an

individual’s understanding of universal ethical principles.

What is considered morally acceptable in any given situation is determined by what

is the response most in keeping with these principles.

With these 3 stages of morality, Kohlberg believed people followed an inherent

hierarchy of moral actions. People first acted on the basis of their own interests and

desires, then out of societal expectations for acceptable behavior, and finally, with an
understanding of individual rights which guides their moral choices. This concept is

often referred to as "the morality of actions" and shows how Kohlberg's theory can

be applied in different situations.

Lawrence Kohlberg formulated a theory asserting that individuals progress through

six distinct stages of moral reasoning from infancy to adulthood.

Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development.

Kohlberg suggested that people move through these stages in a fixed order and that

moral understanding is linked to cognitive development.

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LESSON: URIE BROFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY

Urie Bronfenbrenner was a Russian ecological theorist from the twentieth

century. He studied how different “systems” interact and influence human

development. He developed a bioecological model. According to this model, we

interact with four systems: the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and

macrosystem.

The microsystem is our immediate relationships, including friends, family, and

teachers.

The mesosystem is the interactions between the microsystems.

The exosystem deals with the links between social settings in which the individual

does not have an active role.

Lastly, the macrosystem is the culture in which an individual lives, including ethnicity

and socioeconomic status.

Bronfenbrenner also says that there is a chronosystem which encompasses all four

systems, in other words the cumulative experiences an individual has in their

lifetime. Below is a visual representation of Bronfenbrenner Bioecological Model.

According to Bronfenbrenner, parental styles also influence human development.

Authoritarian parenting is when a parent lays down strict rules for the child and

shows little to no love and affection.

Authoritative parenting is when parent lay down strict rules, but show love and

affection to their child. Permissive parenting is when a parent is more relaxed with

the rules and lets the child have independence, showing love and affection.

Neglectful parenting is when a parent lets the child have independence and shows

little to no love and affection.

According to Bronfenbrenner's hypothesis, there are numerous "layers" of the

environment that influence a child's development. "Bioecological systems theory" is

the new name for this idea, which highlights that a child's own.

One of the main environments influencing her development is biology.

His development is fuelled and guided by his biology, his immediate family and

community, and the social environment.

Any disagreement or changes in one layer will have an impact on other layers.

In order to investigate a child's growth, we must consider how the child interacts with

her immediate surroundings as well as the bigger environment as well.

Bronfenbrenner Bio ecological Theory has four specific layers.

The first being the microsystem, layer in which the child has relationships and

interactions with their immediate surroundings. This includes family, school, and

even neighborhood environments. The parents, and the school teachers influences

the child the most, they are consistently with the child majority of the time. The

child’s parents may affect them just a little bit more, simply because the parents are

basically with them through the most important developmental stages of their lives.

An example of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model would be the relationship

between a child’s home life and a child’s relationship with their friends. If a child is

raised in a home where they are neglected and are unloved then he may develop
certain characteristics. He may feel as though it is hard to trust people. He may also

have a hard time with letting people get close to him. The parents are in the

Mesosytem because they can have an impact on the child’s microsystem. The

friends are in the microsystem because they can be where the child spends most of

their time. The friends are in the immediate system because the child doesn’t get

much attention at home.

Economics can have an effect on a child’s development. If a child’s parents lost their

job then the child may struggle. The child’s family may not have enough money to

fully nourish the child then the child may not learn as well as other children. This

factor in their exosystem impacts their mesosystem and microsystem. Religion in a

child’s exosystem can also have an effect on development .Religion may affect the

way the child views certain situations and certain people. The child may choose to

hang out with a group that shares their same beliefs.

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LESSON: EDWARD THORNDIKE CONNECTIONISM THEORY

Edward Thorndike was a prominent American psychologist who contributed

significantly to the development of behavioral psychology. His influential work on

learning and behavior set the foundation for modern educational psychology and

animal behavior research.

Thorndike's theory of learning emphasized the significance of reinforcement and

punishment in shaping behavior, which has since been widely applied in various

fields of psychology.

According to Edward Thorndike's connectivist concept, learning results from the

interaction between stimulus and reaction. Something that triggers a reaction is

called a stimulus, and the reaction to a stimulus is called a response. An S-R bond,

also known as a stimulus-response bond, is the link between the two.

Thorndike's theory of learning emphasized the significance of reinforcement and

punishment in shaping behavior, stating that behavior that is followed by a positive

consequence is more likely to be repeated, while behavior that is followed by a

negative consequence is less likely to be repeated.

Thorndike's theory has had a significant impact on modern psychology, particularly in

the areas of behaviorism and cognitive psychology, and the principles of

reinforcement and punishment that are central to his theory are still widely used in

behavior modification and therapy.

Thorndike's theory has been instrumental in the development of applied behavior

analysis (ABA), a therapy that is widely used to treat a variety of conditions, including

autism and developmental disabilities.

Thorndike's experimental work with animals, particularly his development of the

puzzle box, provided insights into the role of reinforcement in learning and behavior

and helped to lay the groundwork for the development of operant conditioning

theory.

Overview of Thorndike's Theory

One of the key concepts in the study of learning is the overview of the principles

proposed by Thorndike. Thorndike's theory of learning is based on the principle that

learning occurs through the association between a response and a stimulus.

According to Thorndike, learning is the result of the strengthening of the connections

between a stimulus and a response.

The more a response is reinforced, the stronger the connection between the

response and the stimulus becomes. This reinforcement can be positive or negative,

and it can increase or decrease the likelihood of a particular response in the future.

‍Some of the key principles of Thorndike's theory include:

Law of effect: Responses that are followed by positive consequences are more

likely to be repeated, while responses that are followed by negative consequences

are less likely to be repeated.

Law of readiness: Learning is most effective when the learner is ready to learn and

is motivated to do so.

Law of exercise: Learning occurs through repetition and practice.

Law of multiple responses: There are often multiple responses to a given stimulus,

and learning occurs through the strengthening of the connections between the

appropriate response and the stimulus.

Thorndike's theory has had a significant impact on modern psychology, particularly in

the areas of behaviorism and cognitive psychology.

Impact of Thorndike's Theory on Modern Psychology

The principles of reinforcement and punishment that are central to Thorndike's

theory continue to have a significant impact on behavior modification and therapy in

modern psychology.

Thorndike's learning theory, based on the idea that behavior is shaped by its

consequences, paved the way for the development of behavioral psychology. Today,

behaviorism is still a popular approach in psychology, and its principles are used to

explain and modify a wide range of behaviors.

In addition to its influence on behaviourism, Thorndike's theory has been

instrumental in the development of applied behavior analysis (ABA), a therapy that is

widely used to treat a variety of conditions, including autism and developmental

disabilities.

‍
ABA relies on the principles of reinforcement and punishment to modify behavior,

and it has been found to be effective in promoting positive behavior change.

Overall, Thorndike's theory has had a lasting impact on modern psychology, and its

relevance can be seen in the continued use of its principles in both research and

practice.

With the impact of Thorndike's theory on modern psychology, it is important to delve

into the history of Edward Thorndike to gain a deeper understanding of his work and

the context in which he developed his ideas.

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LESSON: EDWARD TOLMAN PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORIAL THEORY

Edward Chace Tolman (1886–1959) is credited with creating a number of

psychological ideas, such as:

Behaviourism with a purpose according to this view, learning occurs through

meaningful behaviour, and all behaviour has a purpose.

According to Tolman, behaviour involves motivation and thought and is pragmatic

and functional. Theory of Expectancy According to this idea, the cognitive

expectation that an action will result in a desired consequence drives human

behaviour.

Learning signs according to this hypothesis, organisms learn by following clues that

lead them to a destination.

Mental maps no matter where they begin, rats create cognitive maps that guide them

to a desired destination, according to Tolman's research with rats.

Many people view Tolman's work as a link between behaviourism and cognitive

theory.

Purposive Behaviorism (Edward Chance Tolman – 1922)

Another contribution to cognitive learning theory, which somewhat smudged the line

between cognitive and behavioral learning theory, was the work of Edward Chance

Tolman. Tolman was a behaviorist, but he was a purposive behaviorist (McDougall,

1925a, p. 278).
Purpose is held to be essentially a mentalistic category…[but] it will be the thesis of

the present paper that a behaviorism (if it be of the proper sort) finds it just as easy

and just as necessary to include the descriptive phenomena of “purpose” as does a

mentalism. (Tolman, 1925a, pp. 36-37)

For Tolman, a “proper sort” of behaviorism was “not a mere Muscle Twitchism of the

Watsonian variety” (1925a, p. 37), but was broad enough to cover “all that was valid

in the results of the older introspective psychology” (1922, p. 47). In his view, the

Watsonian variety of behaviorism was “an account in terms of muscle contraction

and gland secretion” and “as such, would not be behaviorism at all but a mere

physiology” (p. 45).

In contrast to the limiting notions of physiological behaviorism, Tolman (1922)

suggested a new formula of behaviorism that would “allow for a more ready and

adequate treatment of the problems of motive, purpose, determining tendency, and

the like” (p. 53). He defined purpose quite simply as persistence in behavior:

Purpose, adequately conceived, it will be held, is itself but an objective aspect of

behavior. When an animal is learning a maze, or escaping from a puzzle-box, or

merely going about his daily business of eating, nest-building, sleeping, and the like,

it will be noted that in all such performances a certain persistence until character is to

be found. Now it is just this persistence until character which we will define as

purpose. (1925a, p. 37)

As an example he gave the following:

When a rat is running a maze and is exhibiting trial and error, such trials and errors,

we discover, are not wholly identifiable in terms of specific muscle contraction A,

followed by specific muscle contraction, B, etc. They are only completely describable

as responses which “persist until” a specific “end-object,” food, is reached. An

identification of these trial-and-error explorations has to include, in short, a statement

of the end-situation (i.e., the presence of food) toward which they eventuate. Such a

behavior is, therefore, in our terminology a case of purpose. (p. 38)

These new concepts will differ from the usual ones in not being restricted to the

customary physiological notions of stimulus, neural excitation, synaptic resistance,

and muscle contraction (or gland secretion). They will rather include such immediate

and common sense notions as purpose and cognition. These latter, however, will be

defined objectively and behavioristically, not ‘mentalistically.’ (p. 285)

Tolman’s efforts to establish himself apart from the physiological behaviorism of

Pavlov, Thorndike, and Watson, and from the introspective, mentalistic practices of

clinical and human psychology are products of the time in which his research took

place.

When he began, introspection had largely been discredited among its opponents as

a valid means of fact finding, and displaced by the methodology of the early,

physiologically grounded, experimental behaviourists.

However, Tolman did not agree with their “molecular” view of behavior—the

contraction of muscles, the firing of nerve receptors, or the secretion of glands. In

contrast, he viewed behavior as a molar phenomenon, larger than what happens

inside the cells of the nervous system:

Behavior is more than and different from the sum of its physiological parts. Behavior,

as such, is an “emergent” phenomenon that has descriptive and defining properties

of its own. And we shall designate this latter as the molar definition of behavior.

(Tolman, 1932, p. 7)

But these descriptions in terms of getting to or from, selections of routes and

patterns of commence-with imply and define immediate, immanent purpose and

cognition aspects in the behavior. These two aspects of behavior are, however, but

objectively and functionally defined entities. (p. 21)

Tolman was not the first to suggest that behaviorism was larger than its physiological

roots, but in defining behavior as purposive, he was faced with the two-fold challenge

of (a) reintroducing the notions of purpose, goal, and motive without being dismissed

as a mentalist, and (b) securing for his views a place apart from those of Thorndike.

As has already been mentioned, the first he did by simply defining purpose as the

persistence of behavior, and by merely stating that his use of the term ‘cognition’

was not mentalistic but behavioristic.

More importantly, in accomplishment of the second challenge—finding a place of

light in Thorndike’s shadow—his most valuable contributions to cognitive psychology

were made, namely the phenomenon of latent learning and the development and

use of cognitive maps.

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LESSON: GEORGE MILLER INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

The development of the information processing framework has continued and

broadened through the years. Below are four models especially important to

the approach:

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Stage Theory

In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin developed the stage theory model. The model

was later modified by other researchers but the basic outline of stage theory

continues to be a cornerstone of information processing theory. The model

concerns how information is stored in memory and presents a sequence of

three stages, as follows:

Sensory Memory — Sensory memory involves whatever we take in through

our senses. This kind of memory is exceedingly brief, only lasting up to 3

seconds. In order for something to enter sensory memory, the individual has

to pay attention to it. Sensory memory can’t attend to every piece of

information in the environment, so it filters out what it deems irrelevant and

sends only what seems important to the next stage, short-term memory. The

information most likely to reach the next stage is either interesting or familiar.

Short-Term Memory/Working Memory — once information reaches short-

term memory also called working memory, it is filtered further. Once again,

this kind of memory doesn’t last long, only about 15 to 20 seconds. However,

if the information is repeated, referred to as maintenance rehearsal, it can be

stored for up to 20 minutes. As observed by Miller, working memory’s capacity

is limited so it can only process a certain number of pieces of information at a

time.

Several factors will impact what and how much information will be processed

in working memory. Cognitive load capacity varies from person to person and

from moment to moment based on an individual’s cognitive abilities, the

amount of information being processed, and one's ability to focus and pay

attention. Also, information that is familiar and has often been repeated

doesn’t require as much cognitive capacity and, therefore, will be easier to

process. For example, riding a bike or driving a car takes minimal cognitive

load if you’ve performed these tasks numerous times. Finally, people will pay

more attention to information they believe is important, so that information is

more likely to be processed. For example, if a student is preparing for a test,

they are more likely to attend to information that will be on the test and forget

about information they don’t believe they will be asked about.

Long-Term Memory — Although short-term memory has a limited capacity,

the capacity of long-term memory is thought to be limitless. Several different

types of information are encoded and organized in long-term memory:

declarative information, which is information that can be discussed such as

facts, concepts, and ideas (semantic memory) and personal experiences

(episodic memory); procedural information, which is information about how to

do something like drive a car or brush your teeth; and imagery, which are

mental pictures.
Craik and Lockhart’s Level of Processing Model

Although Atkinson and Shiffrin’s stage theory is still highly influential and is the

basic outline on which many later models are built, its sequential

nature oversimplifies how memories are stored. As a result, additional models

were created to expand upon it. The first of these was created by Craik and

Lockhart in 1973. Their levels of processing theory state that the ability to

access information in long-term memory will be affected by how much it was

elaborated upon. Elaboration is making information meaningful so it is more

likely to be remembered.

People process information with different levels of elaboration that will make

the information more or less likely to be retrieved later. Craik and Lockhart

specified a continuum of elaboration that starts with perception, continues

through attention and labeling, and ends at meaning. Regardless of the level

of elaboration, all information is likely to be stored in long-term memory, but

higher levels of elaboration make it more likely that the information will be able

to be retrieved. In other words, we can recall far less information stored in

long-term memory.

Parallel-Distributed Processing Model and Connectionist Model

The parallel-distributed processing model and connectionist model contrast to

the linear three-step process specified by the stage theory. The parallel-

distributed processing model was a precursor to connectionism that proposed

that information is processed by multiple parts of the memory system at the

same time.
This was extended by Rumelhart and McClelland’s connectionist model in

1986, which said that information is stored in various locations throughout the

brain connected through a network. Information that has more connections will

be easier for an individual to retrieve.

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LESSON: ROBERT GAGNE CONDITIONS OF LEARNING

Gagne's Conditions of Learning outlines 9 events of instruction based on cognitive

information processing theory: 1) gain attention 2) inform objectives 3) recall

prior learning 4) present content 5) provide guidance 6) elicit performance 7)

give feedback 8) assess performance 9) enhance retention.

Conditions of Learning (Robert Gagne)

This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The

significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types

of instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information,

intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes.

Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For

example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice

developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be

exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a

hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation,

procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule

application, and problem solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to

identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level.

Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task.

Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.

In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive

processes:

 Gaining attention (reception)

 Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)

 Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)

 Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)

 Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)

 Eliciting performance (responding)

 Providing feedback (reinforcement)

 Assessing performance (retrieval)

Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).

These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and

serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne,

Briggs & Wager, 1992).

Application

While Gagne’s theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, the focus of the

theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been applied to the design of

instruction in all domains (Gagner & Driscoll, 1988). In its original formulation

(Gagne, 1 962), special attention was given to military training settings. Gagne

(1987) addresses the role of instructional technology in learning.

Example

The following example illustrates a teaching sequence corresponding to the nine

instructional events for the objective, recognize an equilateral triangle:

 Gain attention – show variety of computer generated triangles

 Identify objective – pose question: “What is an equilateral triangle?”

  Recall prior learning – review definitions of triangles

 Present stimulus – give definition of equilateral triangle

 Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral

 Elicit per formance – ask students to create 5 different examples

 Provide feedback – check all examples as correct/incorrect

 Assess performance- provide scores and remediation

Enhance retention/transfer – show pictures of objects and ask students to identify

equilaterals

Gagne (1985, chapter 12) provides examples of events for each category of learning

outcomes.

Principles

Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.

Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of

learning.

The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for each

different type of learning outcome.

Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence

of instruction.
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LESSON: DAVID AUSUBEL SUBSUMPTION THEORY

David Ausubel's Subsumption Theory is a theory of learning that explains how

people learn new information by connecting it to what they already know:

Explanation the theory states that people learn more effectively when new

information is related to their existing knowledge base.

This process is called sub sumption. Development the theory was developed in 1963

by American psychologist David Ausubel, who specialized in learning behaviors and

education.

Application the theory was originally developed for instructional design. It's

concerned with how people learn large amounts of information from verbal or textual

presentations in a school setting.

 Types of sub sumption

 There are four types of sub sumption:

 Derivative: New information is derived from current knowledge.

 Correlative: New information extends beyond current knowledge.

 Superordinate: New information is related to existing knowledge in a

hierarchical manner.

 Combinatorial: New information is related to existing knowledge in a

combinatorial manner.

Ausubel's theory emphasizes meaningful learning over rote learning. It suggests that

teachers should help students understand concepts instead of memorizing them.

David Ausubel's Sub sumption Theory is a theory of learning that explains how

people learn by relating new information to existing knowledge:

Meaningful learning when new information is understood and internalized by relating

it to existing knowledge, it's called meaningful learning. This process is called

subsumption.

Rote learning when information is memorized but not related to existing knowledge,

it's called rote learning. Rote learning is easily forgotten.

Cognitive structure the cognitive structure is organized hierarchically, from more

generic to more specific concepts. A well-organized cognitive structure enables

faster learning.

Learning experiences the goal of Ausubel's theory is to create authentic learning

experiences.

Key principles some key principles of Subsumption Theory include:

Present learners with general concepts first, then their analysis.

Include new and previously acquired information in instructional materials.

Compare new and old concepts.

Reorganize existing cognitive structures, don't develop new ones.

The instructor's role is to bridge the gap between what's already known and what's

about to be learned.

Subsumption Theory is a perspective on expository instruction. It’s based on the

assumption that meaningful learning – which, in this case, refers to learning that can

be readily applied and reliably retained – can only happen if new content is related to

what one already knows. Teaching advice includes that the most general concepts

should be presented first and that presentations should blend new and familiar

content. Prominent subdiscourses include:

Advance Organizer (Advanced Organizer) an overview, graphic, or other device

that is presented at the start of a teaching episode with the intention of helping

students relate new content to established understandings. Types of Advance

Organizer include:

Comparative Organizer – an Advance Organizer that draws a strong link (e.g., an

analogy) between familiar content and new content

Expository Organizer – a “preview” sort of Advance Organizer that focuses on core

definition and/or generalizations

Obliterative Subsumption – when already-learned material cannot be recalled

accurately because it has been subsumed into a broader concept.

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LESSON: ROBERT STERNBERG SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE

A successfully intelligent person accomplishes these goals by figuring out his or her

strengths and weaknesses, and then by capitalizing on the strengths and correcting

or compensating for the weaknesses. Strengths and weaknesses are in terms of four

kinds of skills: creative, analytical, practical, and wisdom-based.

According to Sternberg's thesis, an individual's intelligence should be assessed

based on whether they have demonstrated the abilities and dispositions necessary

to accomplish their goals and have selected worthwhile objectives.

Sternberg's theory of successful intelligences attempts to go beyond prediction of

school grades to account for success in all settings of a person's life.

Sternberg's theory of successful intelligence includes the following ideas:

Successful intelligence is a combination of three components

Successful intelligence is made up of three components: analytical, creative,

and practical. A successful person can effectively combine these three parts.

Successful intelligence is more complex than traditional views

The traditional view of intelligence is that it is a single general ability, but Sternberg's

theory suggests that intelligence is more complex.

Successful intelligence involves identifying and overcoming weaknesses

Successful people identify their strengths and weaknesses, and then use their

strengths and compensate for their weaknesses.

Successful intelligence involves setting and accomplishing goals.

Successful intelligence involves setting and accomplishing goals that are

personally meaningful and within one's cultural context.

Successful intelligence also includes wisdom, which can help people find

novel solutions to problems, analyse whether those solutions are good, and

implement them.

Sternberg's theory suggests that intelligence should be evaluated based on whether

someone has chosen a worthwhile set of goals and has the skills to achieve them,

rather than on what goal they choose.

Sternberg (1997) also stated that to be a successful intelligent person, one must

combine and balance the three abilities: analytical, creativity and practicality.

Moreover he instill that “successful intelligent people don't just have abilities, they

reflect on when and how to use these abilities effectively.”

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LESSON: EDWARD TORRANCE PROBLEM SOLVING/CREATIVITY

Edward Paul Torrance was an American psychologist who developed a theory of

creativity and problem solving that includes the following:

Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking measures creativity through fluency,

flexibility, elaboration, and originality.

Torrance Creativity Framework process for creative problem solving that includes

identifying problems, gathering information, formulating problems, generating ideas,

developing solutions, and implementing them.

Definition of creativity Torrance defined creativity as the ability to find gaps, come

up with solutions, produce new ideas, and combine them.

Beliefs about creativity Torrance believed that creativity is a process that can be

enhanced or blocked in many ways. He also believed that creativity is an infinite

phenomenon, and that it's possible to be creative in many ways.

Components of creative thinking

Torrance identified fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration as

components of creative thinking.

Torrance was a pioneer in creativity research and education for over 50 years. He

published several articles on measuring creativity before publishing the first version

of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking in 1966.

The four criteria of creativity according to Torrance are fluency, flexibility, originality,

and elaboration. Various problem solving models and techniques are presented,

including defining problems, generating solutions, and implementing the best option.
Torrance's test battery is a leading creativity test that includes verbal and figural

parts. The test asks subjects to provide as many ideas as they can for a given

situation. The test is scored based on several components, including:

 Fluency: The number of responses given

 Originality: The number of responses that are considered rare

 Flexibility: The number of different content categories represented in the

ideas

 Elaboration: The number of details in the responses

 Torrance's work in the field of educational psychology is the focus of

the

E. Paul Torrance Collection. The collection includes books, articles,

speeches, pamphlets, tests, and scoring manuals.

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LESSON: BENJAMIN BLOOM BLOOM TAXONOMY

Bloom's taxonomy is a hierarchical model that classifies learning objectives by levels

of complexity and specificity. It was developed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom and a

committee of educators.

The taxonomy is used to: Help instructors identify learning objectives, Create

learning activities and instructional materials, Structure curricula and assessments,

and Foster different types of learning.

 The taxonomy is based on three learning domains:

 Cognitive: Knowledge or thinking

 Affective: Growth in feelings or emotional areas

 Psychomotor: Manual or physical skills

What Is Bloom's Taxonomy and How to use?

Each domain has a hierarchy of skills and abilities. The levels of thinking within each

domain are hierarchical, meaning each level subsumes the levels that come before

it.

The cognitive domain is the most widely recognized component of the taxonomy.

The six main categories of the cognitive domain are:

Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation.

In 2001, the category names were revised from nouns to verbs. Educators can use

Bloom's taxonomy to: Ask questions that are closely related to the learning

objectives at each stage of the process create assignments that are closely related

to the learning objectives at each stage of the process understand that before you

can apply a concept, you must first understand it understand that to evaluate a
process, you must have analysed it understand that to create an accurate

conclusion, you must have completed a thorough evaluation

Bloom's Taxonomy is a framework that categorizes cognitive skills into six levels,

from basic recall to complex tasks like evaluation and creation. It can be used to

guide teachers in structuring lessons that gradually engage students in higher levels

of cognitive thinking.

Reflection is a key part of Bloom's Taxonomy, and can be used to help students

engage in higher levels of cognitive thinking:

 Asking questions: Teachers can ask questions that require students to

reflect on why a lesson is significant or how it builds on their previous

knowledge. The question should be one that students need to answer, but for

which there is no direct answer.

 Analyzing and evaluating: Students can participate in analysis and

evaluation when they reflect on their learning.

 Synthesizing information: Students can synthesize information and critique

their own understanding.

 Generating new ideas: Students can generate new ideas based on their

reflections.

Bloom’s Taxonomy is a hierarchical model that categorizes learning

objectives into varying levels of complexity, from basic knowledge and

comprehension to advanced evaluation and creation.

After the initial cognitive domain was created, which is primarily used in the

classroom setting, psychologists devised additional taxonomies to explain affective

(emotional) and psychomotor (physical) learning.

In 2001, Bloom’s initial taxonomy was revised to reflect how learning is an active

process and not a passive one.

Although Bloom’s Taxonomy is met with several valid criticisms, it is still widely used

in the educational setting today.

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LESSON: RICHARD LERNER CONTEXUTALISM THEORY

Richard M. Lerner's developmental contextualism theory is a perspective on human

development that views it as a result of the complex and reciprocal relationship

between an individual and their multiple contexts:

 Contexts the people and places in an individual's life, such as family, peers,

school, and community.

 Interplay the dynamic and developmental relationship between the individual

and their contexts.

 Influence both the individual and their contexts influence each other

development the individual's development is shaped by the interplay between

themselves and their contexts learner's theory is part of the developmental

systems theory, which is a theoretical orientation to human development. It

has its roots in home economics, which is now known as family and consumer

sciences.

Developmental contextualism is based on the idea that a child's

characteristics will lead to adaptive outcomes if they match the demands of a

particular setting. Children who match the most settings will receive positive

feedback and show the most adaptive behavioral development.

The contextualism theory of Richard Lerner can be considered as one of the most

influential personality
Most especially during the establishment of this school of thought. Lerner highlights

the embeddedness off the organism or the individual within the context.

Richard M. Lerner's developmental contextualism theory is based on the idea that

human development is a result of the dynamic interactions between individuals and

the various contexts they live in. Here are some aspects of Lerner's work that relate

to contextualism theory:

Relational developmental systems learner has advocated for the use of

study designs that acknowledge the variability of individuals and the fusion of

person-context systems.

 Applied developmental science learner has worked to integrate

developmental research with policies and programs that promote human

development.

 Organism-context relations learner's 1991 article, "Changing organism-

context relations as the basic process of development: A developmental

contextual perspective," suggests that genes do not produce structural or

functional characteristics by themselves.

 Social relationships learner has noted that adolescents' social relationships

are rooted in their family and school settings, and that these relationships can

have a significant impact on their development.

In conclusion, early parent-child relationships learner has noted that early parent-

child relationships can have a powerful impact on a child's emotional well-being,

coping and problem-solving abilities, and future relationships.