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Communication, Culture and Change in Asia 7

Jan Servaes Editor

Learning
from Communicators
in Social Change
Rethinking the Power of Development
Communication, Culture and Change in Asia

Volume 7

Series Editor
Jan Servaes, Former UNESCO Chair in Communication for Sustainable Social
Change, University of Leuven, Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
This series offers a comprehensive view of contemporary theoretical and
programmatic issues in the field of communication, culture and social change in
Asia. It explores multiple linkages between communication and culture from a
social change perspective, an area that has been increasingly central to development
debates over the past decades. The purpose of the series is twofold: to showcase the
increasing richness and versatility of communication, culture and social change
research and practice, and to make a call for adopting and applying a more
comprehensive perspective on communication/culture for development and social
change, with a focus on localizing and globalizing cases and studies in the Asian
region. Given the variety and depth of challenges in this field, both researchers and
practitioners need to espouse a broad understanding of communication and culture
that transcends conventional approaches. Therefore, this series will solicit
manuscripts that link communication and cultural processes to the exercise of
fundamental human and citizen’s rights and the empowerment of citizens in making
decisions about change and other development-related issues. The series features
contributions from well-respected scholars and practitioners in the field who
address different communication and cultural dimensions and questions on current
global/local change and development issues. The contributions propose an
understanding of communication and culture as collective actions to redress social
inequalities and development challenges.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13565

Jan Servaes
Editor

Learning
from Communicators
in Social Change
Rethinking the Power of Development

123
Editor
Jan Servaes
UNESCO Chair in Communication
for Sustainable Social Change
Amherst, MA, USA

ISSN 2366-4665 ISSN 2366-4673 (electronic)

Communication, Culture and Change in Asia
ISBN 978-981-15-8280-6 ISBN 978-981-15-8281-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8281-3
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Contents

Introduction: The Murky Beginnings and Confusing Guidelines

of a “Do-Good” Ideology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Jan Servaes
Is It Government Communication or People Communication? . . . . . . . 13
Nora C. Quebral
A Personal Account of the History of Devcom: Beginning in 1964 . . . . . 23
John A. Lent
Communication for Development: Looking Backward, Looking
Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Emile G. McAnany
The Beginnings of DSC in FAO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Silvia Balit
Communication Planning Recalled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Alan Hancock
A Personal Encounter: Some Reflections on Communication
for Development and Social Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Jan Servaes
Understanding the Promise of Communication for Social Change:
Challenges in Transforming India Towards a Sustainable Future . . . . . 83
Kiran Prasad
Participatory Environmental Communication: Pedagogy
and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Usha S. Harris
The Development of Documentary in Post-1990s China . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Zhou Bing

v
vi Contents

Sure Ducks: What I Learned in the Village . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Timothy Kennedy
Growing up with and Within an Emerging Field: A Professional-
Personal Development Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Birgitte Jallov
Power/Poder: Working Class Organizing, Confronting Race
and Ethnic Hatred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
James Lescault
Rethinking Social Change and Development Communication
in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Charles Okigbo
Twenty Years of Communicating Social Change: A Southern African
Perspective on Teaching, Researching and Doing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Ruth Teer-Tomaselli, Lauren Dyll, and Eliza Govender
RNTC—Latin America: Lessons Learnt During Three Decades
of Educational Communication for Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Daniel Prieto Castillo, Amable Rosario, and Carlos Eduardo Cortés
Conclusion: Some Suggestions for Communication for Development
and Social Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Jan Servaes

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Editor and Contributors

About the Editor

Jan Servaes (Ph.D., 1987, Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium) has been
UNESCO Chair in Communication for Sustainable Social Change and Chairperson
of the Scientific Committee for the World Congress on Communication for
Development (WCCD), organized by the World Bank, FAO and Communication
Initiative, 25–27 October 2006, Rome.
He has taught International Communication and Communication for Social
Change in Australia, Belgium, China, Hong Kong, the United States, The
Netherlands, and Thailand, in addition to several teaching stints at about 120
universities in 55 countries.
From 2000 to 2004 he was President of the European Consortium for
Communications Research (ECCR) and Vice-President of the International
Association for Media and Communication Research (IAMCR) (in charge of
Research and Academic Publications).
Servaes was Editor-in-Chief of the Elsevier journal “Telematics and
InformaticsAn Interdisciplinary Journal on the Social Impacts of New Technologies”
(http://www.elsevier.com/locate/tele) from 2007 to 2019. He continues to be Editor
of the Lexington Book Series “Communication, Globalization and Cultural Identity”
(https://rowman.com/Action/SERIES/LEX/LEXCGC), and the Springer Book Series
“Communication, Culture and Change in Asia” (http://www.springer.com/series/
13565).
Servaes has undertaken research, development, and advisory work around the
world and is the author of journal articles and books on such topics as international and
development communication; ICT and media policies; intercultural communication;
participation and social change; and human rights and conflict management. He has
published more than 500 scientific articles on media and culture, international

vii
viii Editor and Contributors

communication and development, policy and planning, published in Chinese, Dutch,

French, English, German, Indonesian, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish and Thai; as well
as 20 books/monographs in Dutch, 17 in English, 2 in Chinese, 2 in Spanish, and 1 in
French.
He is known for his “multiplicity paradigm” in “Communication for Development.
One World, Multiple Cultures” (1999).

Contributors

Silvia Balit from Italy, has many years of experience in the field of communication
for development and social change. Her professional career has been devoted to
working for the UN system, first with the Political and Security Council Affairs
of the United Nations in New York, and then with the Food and Agriculture
Organization in Rome. Together with Colin Fraser she pioneered the Development
Support Communication program in FAO. From 1984 to 1998 she was in charge of
FAO’s Communication for Development program. In this capacity, she led many
initiatives aimed at strengthening rural communication systems in Africa, Asia, the
Near East and Latin America to promote sustainable development and social
change. She is currently a freelance consultant living in Rome, Italy.

Zhou Bing (周兵) is a Chinese documentary film director. He holds a Ph.D. from
the College of History at Nankai University. Bing Zhou served as writer-director of
Oriental Sons and producer of Oriental Time and Space and Chronicle for China
Central Television (CCTV) since 1993. Zhou has been named “Best Documentary
Film Director” in China three times and has created over 100 documentaries and
other productions. His works include Palace, Dun Huang, and Road of Millenia
Bodhi. All three aired on CCTV, National Geographic, SKY TV, the History
Channel, Arte, and NDR. Currently, he runs the Beijing Oriental Elites Culture
Development Co. Ltd. and works with Tiong Hiew King, the Datuk of Tan Sri,
Malaysia, at Sun Media International Co. Ltd. and Zero Media International Co.
Ltd. Throughout his career, Zhou has attempted to combine the industrialized
process of documentary film making with the identity of independent directors.
Zhou is also an adjunct professor in the Department of Media and Communication
at the City University of Hong Kong. Zhou aspires to broadcast Chinese culture to
the world through photographs and images.

Carlos Eduardo Cortés is a journalist, professor, and strategic communications

project manager with cross-functional expertise in ICT4D (ICTs for Development);
social web, e-Learning and Knowledge Management, and vast experience in the
design and execution of media development and international aid projects focused
on Educational Communication and Journalism. He is the current Director of the
Bachelor of Social Communication at the Pontifical Xavierian University School of
Editor and Contributors ix

Communication and Language in Bogotá, Colombia. Previously, he was Adjunct

Professor of Fundamentals of Speech Communication at the Miami Dade College
—West Campus; Multimedia Editor, Digital Entertainment at Univision
Communications Inc., and Manager/Project Coordinator of Radio Nederland
Training Centre—Latin America (RNTC-LA).

Lauren Dyll (orcid.org/0000-0001-8722-029X) is Associate Professor in the

Centre for Communication, Media and Society (CCMS) at the University of
KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN). Her research interests include participatory communica-
tion, critical indigenous qualitative methodologies and issues around cultural her-
itage and tourism in terms of the relationship between social change and identity.
She has been a key contributor to the long-standing Rethinking Indigeneity project
that signals strategies that aim to facilitate the participatory and transformative
aspects of the research (and/or development) encounter. The majority of her field-
work has been conducted in the Kalahari area of southern Africa, and more recently
in Mpumalanga (South Africa) where she is project leader for the South African
National Heritage Council (NHC)-funded project, Mashishing Marking Memories.
She is a member of the International Association for Media and Communication
Research (IAMCR) Clearinghouse and Associate Editor on the editorial board for
journal, Critical Arts: South-North Cultural and Media Studies (Taylor and Francis).

Amable Rosario is teacher and communicator. Former Academic Director of

Radio Nederland Training Center—Latin America. Specialist in Educational
Communication for Development. He has served as director of radio stations and
programmer, announcer and producer of radio programs and multimedia material
packages. He has taught radio broadcasting workshops in Latin America, Europe,
and Africa. He has written several works on Radio Production. Since 1998 he
designs, teaches, and advises virtual e-Learning and b-Learning courses in the field
of education and development.

Eliza Govender (orcid.org/0000-0003-2139-4881) is an Associate Professor and

Academic Leader in the Centre for Communication, Media and Society (CCMS),
University of KwaZulu-Natal. She teaches research methodology and social change
and health communication. Her research interests include entertainment education,
communication for social and behavioral change, and participatory methodologies
for health communication, and implementation science research. Govender is also
an Associate Social Scientist with the Centre for the Aids Programme of Research
in South Africa (CAPRISA), a member of the editorial board of the journal
Communicare and vice-chair of the Health Communication working group for the
International Association for Media and Communication Research (IAMCR). She
has also been guest editor for two special editions of the African Communication
Research Journal on HIV communication in Africa (2010) and entertainment
education in Africa (2014).
x Editor and Contributors

Alan Hancock started originally as a BBC radio and television producer and a
founder member of the UK Open University team. Dr. Hancock worked for a
number of years in Asia, beginning in Singapore in 1966–7 where he helped
establish an Educational Television Service. He joined UNESCO in 1969 as the
regional broadcasting communication adviser for Asia and the Pacific, where he
was responsible for broadcasting policy advice and training and was instrumental in
the establishment of the Asian Institute for Broadcasting Development (AIBD).
Moving to Unesco Headquarters in Paris in 1972, he spent more than twenty years
with the Communication Division, where he was Director from 1987. He worked
on the planning of major communication projects in Thailand, Afghanistan, and
Zambia, initiated a communication planning programme and was active in the
creation of the International Programme for the Development of Communication
(IPDC). In 1992, he became a Principal Director and established a dedicated
intersectoral programme for UNESCO in Central and Eastern Europe.
After becoming an independent consultant in 1996, he undertook numerous
assignments for the European Commission in Brussels, the World Bank, commu-
nication agencies in the Netherlands, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Most of
his assignments were devoted to planning, evaluation, and applied communication
in such fields as development, health and education, with a particular emphasis on
social participation, public consultation, and engagement.
In retirement since 2014, Dr. Hancock is active in civil society, primarily in the
health sector. In 2015, he received an Asian Communication Award, bestowed by
the Asian Media Information and Communication Centre (AMIC).
Dr. Hancock’s publications include “Communication Planning for
Development” (1981, Unesco, Paris) and “Communication Planning Revisited”
(1992, Unesco, Paris).

Usha S. Harris taught in the Department of Media, Music, Communication &

Cultural Studies at Macquarie University, Sydney. She has more than 15 years of
professional media experience which includes working as a television researcher
and producer in Australia and as a print journalist in Fiji. She gained her Master of
Arts in International Communication and her Ph.D. from Macquarie University.
Her research focuses on the use of participatory media in bottom up environ-
mental communication strategies. Her current project is “Participatory Media in
Environmental Communication.” Usha has developed a theory of participatory
environmental communication that incorporates three foundational concepts of
diversity, network, and agency (DNA framework) in community action and resi-
lience building, explained in her book Participatory Media in Environmental
Communication (Routledge, 2019).

Birgitte Jallov has worked with communication and media in, for and around
development for the past 30 years. The work has included elaboration, imple-
mentation, and evaluation of participatory development strategies; work to
strengthen press freedom spaces and quality of an independent press; and work,
Editor and Contributors xi

carving out the field of community communication for empowerment and devel-
opment in the more than 70 different countries where she has worked within more
than 300 different development realities—all with an aim to facilitate empower-
ment, democratization, and effective social change. Jallov’s work areas include
Communication for Development, Alternative and Community Communication,
and Media Development—all carried out with a clear gender-lens along with
gender-specific interventions. More information here www.empowerhouse.dk;
https://www.linkedin.com/in/birgittejallov/

Timothy Kennedy (Ph.D. Cornell University) was chair of the Communications

Department and professor at the University of Tampa. He is a pioneering expert in the
field of development communication, and spent eleven years in Alaska developing
communication between remote Eskimo villages and the government using videog-
raphy. His experience was documented in his book, Where the Rivers Meet the Sky
(https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/distributed/W/bo8364977.html).
The Sky River Project, as the program was known, was very successful and has
been adapted around the world in countries like India and South Africa. As a Fulbright
Scholar, Dr. Kennedy later took the project to Fiji. He is a Board Member of the
Tampa Educational Cable Consortium, and a member of the Board of Trustees of the
London-based International Institute of Communications (llC).

John A. Lent (Ph.D.) taught at the college/university level for 51 years, beginning
in 1960, including stints as the organizer of the first journalism courses at De La
Salle College in Manila; founder and coordinator of the Universiti Sains Malaysia
(USM) communication program; Rogers Distinguished Chair at University of
Western Ontario; visiting professor at Shanghai University, Communication
University of China, Jilin College of the Arts Animation School, Nanjing
University of Finance and Economics, Beijing Film Academy in Qingdao, all in
China, and Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Dr. Lent is professor emeritus at
Temple University.
Prof. Lent pioneered in the study of mass communication and popular culture in
Asia (since 1964) and Caribbean (since 1968), comic art and animation, and
development communication. He participated as a speaker, author, or teacher of
devcom, beginning in 1964. He has authored or edited 85 books and monographs,
hundreds of articles, and chapters in books, and has edited book series with
Westview, Hampton Press, and Palgrave. Prof. Lent has lectured or presented
papers in 72 countries, many dealing with communication issues in so-called
developing countries, such as devcom, use of technology, and freedom of
expression.
Additionally, he publishes and edits International Journal of Comic Art (1999– )
and Asian Cinema (1994–2012), chairs Asian Popular Culture (PCA), Asian
Cinema Studies Society (1994–2012), Comic Art Working Group (IAMCR 1984–
2016), Asian-Pacific Animation and Comics Association, and Asian Research
Center for Animation and Comics Art (all of which he founded). He also founded
xii Editor and Contributors

the Malaysia/Singapore/Brunei Studies Group of Association for Asian Studies in

1976 and its quarterly periodical, Berita, which he edited for 26 years.
Prof. Lent has received lifetime achievement awards from organizations in
Singapore, Spain, Colombia, China, Peru, and the United States, and three asso-
ciations have sponsored ongoing prizes in his honor.

James Lescault was born and raised in Holyoke, Massachusetts, USA. During the
mid-1970’s he began to incorporate video production work into community issues
confronting low-income residents of Holyoke; first working with inner-city teen-
agers. Mr. Lescault’s community organizing work expanded into housing,
anti-arson, police-community relations, and education.
Mr. Lescault pursued and obtained a BA degree in Community Planning from the
University of Massachusetts College of Public and Community Service (CPCS). While
studying he became the Executive Director of the Boston based, national non-profit
consulting agency, Urban Educational Systems (UES). Mr. Lescault provided
anti-arson for profit workshops and trainings to community-based organizations, city
and state agencies as well as delivering testimony to U.S. Congressional committees.
As an independent video producer, Mr. Lescault has numerous credits servicing
community-based organizations, as well as unions, museums and city government. His
1995 documentary, Power/Poder, was instrumental in mobilizing municipal voters to
pass a referendum to successfully pursue a license to own and operate the Holyoke Dam.
In 2002, he was hired by the Holyoke Public Schools to start-up a new federally
funded program, Even Start Family Literacy Program. This evening program for ele-
mentary children and their guardians was based upon literacy through the arts across the
curriculum, with parent empowerment trainings as to their rights within the schools.
Mr. Lescault assumed his duties as the Executive Director of Amherst Media, a cable
access organization, in October 2007. Since that time, Amherst Media has undertaken a
radical reorganization, expanding the traditional roles of access.
In 2019, Mr. Lescault was executive producer and director of the documentary, A
House Built by HopeA Story of Compassion, Resilience and Religious Freedom. The
story is about Holocaust survivors building the Temple Beth Israel in Danielson,
Connecticut, and how these immigrants were received in a Christian community. The
documentary premiered at the Temple and received rave reviews from an inspired
community.
Amherst Media has expanded their offerings and space to welcome soft and hard-
ware developers, gamers, journalists, screenwriters, photographers, filmmakers, poets,
musicians, designers, and most recently created opportunities for Maker Space and
Citizen Scientists. For more information go to www.amherstmedia.org.

Emile G. McAnany completed a Ph.D. at Stanford University in 1970 and

remained there until 1978 as a research associate and lecturer. He began a 17-year
faculty position at the University of Texas at Austin in 1979 and was named an
endowed professor in 1988. He took a position at Santa Clara University in 1997 as
chair of the Department of Communication, retiring in 2013. His research has been
Editor and Contributors xiii

in international communication and development for his entire career. He has

published 11 books plus chapters, articles and monographs in both fields. He has
recently finished a biography of his mentor, Wilbur Schramm.

Charles Okigbo (Ph.D in Journalism, Ph.D. in Ed. Leadership) was the Executive
Coordinator of the African Council for Communication Education (ACCE) at the
University of Nairobi, Kenya, where he oversaw the extensive research activities,
the wide-ranging training programs, and the multiple academic and professional
publications of the association in various areas, especially development and social
change communication. At present, he teaches communication at North Dakota
State University, Fargo, ND, USA, where he also directs research in media cov-
erage of election campaigns and the uses of advertising and public relations in
corporate and political communication. His other academic interests are in mixed
methods research applications for studying social problems, explorations of framing
in crisis reporting, and the wider applications of communication in national
development. His recent publications are on strategic health communication in
urban contexts and strategic political communication in Africa. His teaching
experiences include full or part-time instructional positions at the University of
Nigeria, the University of Lagos, and Daystar University (Nairobi). He was the
pioneer Registrar of the Advertising Practitioners Council of Nigeria (APCON).
Among his publications, as editor, are Development Communication Principles
(ACCE, 1996), Development and Communication in Africa (with Festus Eribo,
2004), and Strategic Urban Health Communication (2014). His research has fea-
tured in Africa Media Review, Communication Educator, Communication
Yearbook, International Communication Gazette, Journal of Communication
(Germany), Journal of Development Communication, Journalism Quarterly (now
Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly (JMCQ), and Media Development,
among others. The central focus of his research activities is that development is a
potent force in society and mobilizing this for positive social change requires
purposeful and strategic communication.

Kiran Prasad is Professor, Department of Communication and Journalism, Sri

Padmavati Mahila University, Tirupati, India. She was Commonwealth Visiting
Research Fellow at the Centre for International Communication Research, Institute
of Communication Studies, University of Leeds, UK, and Canadian Studies
Research Fellow at the School of Journalism and Communication, Carleton
University, Canada. She is the youngest ever recipient of the “State Best Teacher
Award” from the Government of Andhra Pradesh, India, and recipient of several
national awards for academic excellence. She has researched extensively in India,
Bangladesh, Singapore, Malaysia, Middle East, USA, Canada, and the UK on the
interrelations between communication and development studies. She has published
twenty-three books and over hundred research papers. Her recent books include
Communication, Culture and EcologyRethinking Sustainable Development in Asia
(2018), Genderand ICTsFuture Directions in Bridging the Digital Divide (2016),
xiv Editor and Contributors

Transforming International CommunicationMedia, Culture and Society in the

Middle East (2014), New Media and Pathways to Social ChangeShifting
Development Discourses (2013), Media Law in India (Kluwer Law International,
2011), e-JournalismNew Media and News Media (2009), and Communication for
Development Reinventing Theory and Action (2009, in two volumes). She is the
Secretary for Communication Education, Asian Congress for Media and
Communication (ACMC), Philippines. She is series editor of Empowering Women
Worldwide, a book series published by the Women Press, New Delhi.

Daniel Prieto Castillo (Ph.D. in Social Communication) is Emeritus Professor at

the National University of Cuyo (Mendoza, Argentina). He has worked as specialist
in educational communication in several projects for development in different
countries of Latin America such as Ecuador, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Mexico.
He has published 48 books with theoretical, methodological, and practical contri-
butions to the relationship between communication and education, in formal and
non-formal education. Some of these books are “Communication in Education”,
“Eulogy of University Pedagogy, 20 Years of the Teaching Specialization”,
“Manual of Messages Production for New Readers”, “Educate with Sense, Notes
about Learning”, “Rural Communication”, “Radio Nederland Training Centre in
Latin America. Pedagogical Memory of three decades”. Prieto Castillo has been
Director of postgraduate studies in University Teaching and University Professor
since 1968 to date. He worked as an international expert in projects developed by
organizations for social communication and developmentILCE, CIESPAL,
RNTC-LA.

Nora C. Quebral is a Filipina communication scholar and institution builder. She

is renowned for pioneering development communication and for founding the first
faculty of development communication in Asia. Today, the College of
Development Communication at UP Los Baños is one of the world’s institutions
that offers a three-tiered academic program in development communication.
A Professor Emeritus of development communication at UP Los Baños, she
holds a Ph.D. in Communication from the University of Illinois and an MS in
Agricultural Journalism from the University of Wisconsin. She started her career at
the UP College of Agriculture as editor of the journal Philippine Agriculturist. She
would later helm the Office of Extension and Publications and the various academic
departments from which the College of Development Communication would arise.
For her sterling contributions to the field of development communication, she
was conferred an honorary doctorate by the London School of Economics in 2011.
Dr. Quebral passed away on October 24, 2020.

Ruth Teer-Tomaselli (orcid.org/0000-0002-0275-1006) is Professor Emeritus and

Research Fellow at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban South Africa. She
holds a UNESCO Chair in Communications for Southern Africa, 2002– present.
She is a past Vice-President of the International Association for Media and
Editor and Contributors xv

Communications Research (IAMCR). Ruth has also served as the President of the
South African Communications Association (SACOMM) and is a Fellow of that
organization. She has served as a Board member on the South African Broadcasting
Corporation as well as the commercial station, East Coast Radio, and the com-
munity radio station, Durban Youth Radio. Ruth has supervised over 20 doctoral
and 40 masters’ candidates to completion, and published and written widely on the
history, regulation and content of television in South Africa and across Africa. Her
other research interests are visual communication, memory studies, and heritage
sites. Teer-Tomaselli is an Associate Editor of Critical ArtsSouth-North Cultural
and Media Studies (Routledge); and serves on the boards of the European Journal
of Cultural Studies (Sage) and Feminist Media Studies (Routledge). In her
spare-time she gardens and trains bonsai trees.
Acronyms

ABC Abstinence, Be faithfull and use a Condom

ACCE African Council for Communication Education
ACMC Asian Congress for Media and Communication
AIBD Asian Institute for Broadcasting Development
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
AMIC Asian Media Information and Communication Centre
BCC Behavior Change Communication
BIA Bureau of Indian affairs
BJP Bharatiya Janata Party
BRAC Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee
CCMS Centre for Communication, Media and Society
CEDEC Community Enterprise Development Corporation, Inc.
CfD or C4D Communication for Development
CFPD Communication for Participatory Development
CDSC Communication for Development and Social Change
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
CIESPAL International Center for Higher Communication Studies in Latin
America
CODESRIA Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa
CSC Communication for Social Change
CSD Commission on Sustainable Development
CSO Civil Society Organization
CSR Corporate Social Responsibility
CSSC Communication for Sustainable Social Change
CSSC&D Communication for Sustainable Social Change and Development
DevCom Development communication
DNA Diversity, Network, and Agency
DSC Development Support Communication
DSCS Development Support Communication Service
DSTV Digital Satellite Television

xvii
xviii Acronyms

DVD Digital Versatile/Video Disc

EC European Commission
ECA Ethnographic Content Analysis
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FARR Friends Association for Rural Reconstruction
FERC Federal Energy Commission
FGD Focus Group Discussions
GAID Global Alliance for ICT and Development
GED Gender Development Index
GEM Gender Equity Measure
GFATM Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria
GLTB Gay, Lesbian, Transgender, and Bisexual
GNH Gross National Happiness
GNP Gross National Product
HDI Human Development Index
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome
HPI Human Poverty Index
IAMCR International Association for Media and Communication Research
ICA International Communication Association
ICTs Information and Communication Technologies
ICTD Information and Communication Technologies for Development
ICT4D ICTs for Development
ILO International Labor Organization
IPDC International Programme for the Development of Communication
IMFInternational Monetary Fund
INEXSK Infrastructure, Experience, Skills, Knowledge
IT Information Technology
ITU International Telecommunications Union
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
KAP Knowledge, Attitude, and Behavior
LDCs Least Developed Countries
MDGs Millennium Development Goals United Nations Millennium Goals
(MDGs)
M&E Monitoring and Evaluation
MOOCs Massive Online Open Courses
NAM Non-Aligned Movement
NBA Narmada Bachao Andolan or Struggle to Save Narmada River
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NICTs New Information and Communication Technologies
NITI National Institution for Transforming India
NWICO New World Information and Communication Order
Acronyms xix

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

OU Open University
PAR Participatory Action Research
PBS Public Broadcasting Service
PCR Participatory Communication Research
PCRN Participatory Communication Research Section/Network
PEPFAR United States of America President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS
Relief
PDA Population & Community Development Association
PFA Press Foundation of Asia
PNS Philippine News Service
PR Public Relations
PROCEED Programme for Central and Eastern European Development
PPI Philippine Press Institute
PPP Public-Private Partnership
PPP Purchasing Power Parity
PSA Public Service Advertisement
PV Participatory Video
R&D Research and Development
RME Research, Monitoring, and Evaluation
RNTC Radio Netherlands Training Center
RTC Right to Communicate
SD Sustainable Development
SDG Sustainable Development Goals
SE Sufficiency Economy
SEs Social Enterprises
SEAPC South East Asia Press Centre
SEZ Special Economic Zone
SITE Satellite Instructional Television Experiment
SMS Short Message Service
STI Sexually Transmitted Infections
STD Sexually Transmitted Diseases
TB Tuberculosis
UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights
UGC User-generated content
UN United Nations
UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
UNCDP United Nations Capital Development Programme
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNCSD United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
UNCSTD United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for
Development
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
xx Acronyms

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USM Universiti Sains Malaysia
VISTA Volunteers In Service to America
WB World Bank
WCC World Council of Churches
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
WFTO World Fair Trade Organization
WHO World Health Organization
WSIS World Summit on the Information Society
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WTO World Trade Organization
WWF World Wildlife Fund
List of Figures

Growing up with and Within an Emerging Field: A

Professional-Personal Development Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 1 Cornerstones and Work Approaches . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Fig. 2 Three overlapping categories . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Fig. 3 From objectives to implementation in 13 steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Fig. 4 Social Ecological UNICEF model . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Fig. 5 Generic model in 4 phases . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

xxi
List of Tables

Participatory Environmental Communication: Pedagogy

and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 1 Diversity matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Table 2 The production process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Table 3 Evaluating participatory media process using the DNA
framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Sure Ducks: What I Learned in the Village . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 1 Roles: Social Broker, Social Advocate, Social Mobilizer . . . . . . . 141

xxiii
Introduction: The Murky Beginnings
and Confusing Guidelines
of a “Do-Good” Ideology

Jan Servaes

The history of Development Communication or whatever other name is preferred—

(e.g., devcom, comdev, C4D, communication in/for (sustainable) development,
communication for (sustainable) social change, communication for development and
social change, communication and education for development and/or knowledge
(management) for development)—is well documented. These historical accounts
have been dominated by framing developments within three paradigms—the modern-
ization paradigm, the dependency paradigm and the multiplicity or participatory
paradigm (see Servaes 1999), as the logical offspring of the Western drive to develop
the world after colonization and the Second World War. Modernization accelerated
the growth of a Westernized elite structure and of urbanization. The West considered
development as an international obligation, the beginning of a broad international
civil service, and the start of the continuing effort to find a way of promoting the
wellbeing of the earth’s people as a whole. However, the collapse of the Soviet Union
in the late eighties, which made the US for a while the only remaining ‘superpower,’
the emergence of the European Union and China, the gradual coming to the fore
of regional powers, such as Brazil, Russia, India, and South-Africa (the so-called
BRICS countries), the 2008 meltdown of the world financial system, the change of
our planet’s climate with its disastrous consequences for people everywhere, and the
COVID-19 virus crisis, necessitates a rethink of the “power” of development, and
consequently the place and role of communication in it. ‘Old’ rivalries, though not
completely gone, are being challenged by ‘new’ ones with more cultural, religious
or ethnic roots. The competition for the ‘hearts and minds’ of peoples has become
more complex today than in the bi-polar past.

J. Servaes (B)
UNESCO Chair in Communication for Sustainable Social Change, Amherst, MA, USA
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1

J. Servaes (ed.), Learning from Communicators in Social Change,
Communication, Culture and Change in Asia 7,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-8281-3_1
2 J. Servaes

Throughout the past century in separate regions of the globe, and both in the
professional and academic world, different definitions of development communi-
cation have emerged. They have been interpreted and applied in different ways by
organizations working at distinct societal and geographic levels. Both at theory and
research levels, as well as at the levels of policy and planning-making and implemen-
tation, divergent perspectives were and still are on offer. They are based on different
ontological and epistemological assumptions and therefore originate and relate to
different worldviews, disciplinary perspectives and methodological and case-based
applications. The United Nations has been an important player in the professional
field and FAO, UNESCO, UNDP, UNICEF and the World Bank have been forerun-
ners (see the chapters by Balit and Hancock who both played a prominent role in
FAO and UNESCO respectively). These institutions have organized several meetings
and published widely on the theme.
According to Manyozo (2006), the term development communication was first
coined in 1971 by Professor Nora C. Quebral. Quebral (1971) defined the field as
“the art and science of human communication applied to the speedy transforma-
tion of a country and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic state of
economic growth that makes possible greater social equality and the larger fulfill-
ment of the human potential” (p. 69). However, Quebral (1988) acknowledges that
the term borrows from contributions made by Chalkley (1968) and Jamias (1975) on
development journalism, and Erskine Childers and Mallica Vajrathon’s (1968) work
on development support communication. Erskine Childers started the first Develop-
ment Support Communication unit at UNDP in Bangkok in the sixties (see Silvia
Balit’s chapter, Fraser et al. 2008 for more details).
From the very beginning Quebral distinguished between top-down (or govern-
mental) and bottom-up (people’s) ways of development communication, as she
explains in the first chapter of this book. We are most grateful to Professor Cleofe
Torres, Dean of the College of Development Communication at UP Los Baños, for
granting us permission to reproduce this not widely published text by Nora Quebral.
It sets the agenda for this book but also the field of devcom at large: top-down versus
bottom-up. Some contributors have been struggling with this duality for most of their
professional or academic life.
Summarizing the history of development communication is not easy because it
is considered to have different origins and “founding fathers”. Some explain it as
the logical offspring of the Western drive to develop the world after colonization
and the Second World War. Staples (2006), for instance, explains that, after 1945
the West considered development as an international obligation, the beginning of
a broad international civil service, and the start of the continuing effort to find a
way of promoting the wellbeing of the earth’s people as a whole. Latham (2000)
explains how social science theory helped shape American foreign policy during
the Kennedy administration and resulted in the Alliance for Progress with Latin
America, the Peace Corps, and other US development aid programs worldwide. It
was assumed that, with the help of foreign aid, the rural backward areas would be
developed in the areas of agriculture, basic education, health, rural transportation,
community development, and so forth. As a result, government bureaucracies were
Introduction: The Murky Beginnings and Confusing Guidelines … 3

extended to the major urban centers. In fact, the United States was defining devel-
opment as the replica of its own political economic system and opening the way for
the transnational corporations. Others (e.g., Habermann and De Fontgalland 1978;
Jayaweera and Amunugama 1987) position devcom as a regional (mainly Asian)
reply to modernization. However, in Asia as elsewhere, US-educated professionals
and teachers were the ones who introduced the first devcom perspectives to local
students (see the contributions by John Lent, Silvia Balit and Alan Hancock in this
book). Therefore, Manyozo (2006) suggested that development communication be
discussed in plural and divided into six schools. These six schools of thought in devel-
opment communication comprise: Bretton Woods, Latin American, Indian, African,
Los Banos and the Communication for Development and Social Change schools.
These categorizations are based on planned, systematic and strategic communi-
cation strategies; coherent method; attachment to academic, training and research
institutions; and sources of project funding.
There are some who look for founding “fathers” and “mothers” in the academic
world. Quebral (2012) from The Philippines or Beltran (1993) in Latin America are
likely candidates from the Global South. The dominant discourse on the history of
development communication is documented by some of the main US representa-
tives of the communication and modernization tradition (Lerner and Schramm 1967;
Rogers 1976; Schramm and Lerner 1976).
Emile McAnany in his chapter, Bah (2008), Pooley (2017), Simpson (1994, 1998),
Samarajiva (1987), and Shah (2011, 2020), who also examined the beginnings of
development communication, identify the seminal work by Daniel Lerner (1958)
and Schramm (1964) as ‘foundational’ for the field. However, they also find that
their work was a spin-off from a large and clandestine audience research project
conducted for the Voice of America by the Bureau of Applied Social Research. Some
of these research reports still remain classified by the Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA). They note the strong influence exerted by the demands of psychological
warfare, in the context of the Cold War, on the early studies of communication in the
United States: “Exploratory work on the early period suggests the following pattern
of net influence flows: marketing research to communication research; marketing
and communication research to psychological warfare; from psychological warfare
to communication and development” (Samarajiva 1987: 17). The State Department,
the Pentagon, and the CIA,—with the help of major foundations, such as the Ford and
Rockefeller Foundation, invested heavily in psychological warfare research (Longley
2020; Simpson 1994). Longley (2020) contends:
“In his 1949 book, Psychological Warfare Against Nazi Germany, former OSS
(now the CIA) operative Daniel Lerner details the U.S. military’s WWII Skyewar
campaign. Lerner separates psychological warfare propaganda into three categories:
– White propaganda: The information is truthful and only moderately biased. The
source of the information is cited.
– Grey propaganda: The information is mostly truthful and contains no information
that can be disproven. However, no sources are cited.
4 J. Servaes

– Black propaganda: Literally “fake news,” the information is false or deceitful and
is attributed to sources not responsible for its creation.
While grey and black propaganda campaigns often have the most immediate
impact, they also carry the greatest risk. Sooner or later, the target population iden-
tifies the information as being false, thus discrediting the source. As Lerner wrote,
“Credibility is a condition of persuasion. Before you can make a man do as you say,
you must make him believe what you say””. (Lerner remained mentioned as an ICA
‘operative’ well into the sixties (Mander 1968: 29)).
The lines between truth and falsehood, between persuasion and propaganda have
become increasingly blurred in today’s world with its ubiquitous social media and
authoritarian and populist leaders (Moore 2019). Ellul (1976) brilliantly analyzes how
propaganda attempts to ‘take hold of the entire person’, with an ‘organized myth’
acting as an anchoring belief that limits options for discovering truth. “Through
the myth it creates, propaganda imposes a complete range of intuitive knowledge,
susceptible of only one interpretation” (Soules 2015: 4).
How the above history got introduced and ‘received’ in the Asian context is
analyzed in a number of the contributions in this book. Especially John Lent vividly
describes his own experience and involvement in The Philippines and Malaysia, and
explains how the changes to a more indigenous perspective resulted in the foundation
of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and pleas for a New World Information and
Communication Order (NWICO) in the seventies and early eighties, resulting in the
so-called MacBride (1980) report at the level of the United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (see also Hancock’s chapter).
One of the latest attempts to present a unified and agreeable definition of develop-
ment communication was made during the first World Congress on Communication
for Development (Rome, 25–27 October 2006) (see also Balit’s chapter). The so-
called Rome Consensus states that “Communication for Development is a social
process based on dialogue using a broad range of tools and methods. It is also about
seeking change at different levels including listening, building trust, sharing knowl-
edge and skills, building policies, debating and learning for sustained and meaningful
change. It is not public relations or corporate communication”1 (Servaes 2015).
However, major aspects of many projects and programs currently being promoted
and implemented in the world are, I believe, nothing but “public relations or corpo-
rate communication.” I am joined by Rogers (2005), past Head of Communications
and Information at UNCDF and now with the UN Development Group (UNDG),
who aptly summarizes the major “brand” of devcom approaches as “Participatory
diffusion or semantic confusion”: “Many development practitioners are avoiding the
semantic debates … in order to harness the benefits of both approaches. For them,
what is most important is not what an approach is called, the origins of an idea or
how it is communicated. What is critical is that we find the most effective and effi-
cient tools to achieve the noble objectives outlined in the Millennium Declaration”
(Rogers 2005).

1 https://www.devcomm-congress.org/worldbank/macro/2.asp, emphasis added.

Introduction: The Murky Beginnings and Confusing Guidelines … 5

Therefore, I have argued (see, for instance, Servaes 2020) that in essence commu-
nication for social change is the sharing of knowledge aimed at reaching a consensus
for action that takes into account the interests, needs and capacities of all concerned.
It is thus a social process, which has as its ultimate objective sustainable development
at distinct levels of society. Communication media and Information and Communi-
cation Technologies (ICTs) are important tools in achieving social change but their
use is not an aim in itself–interpersonal communication, traditional and group media
must also play a fundamental role.
When conceptualizing this book we wanted to present the perspectives of some
of the main players, both academics and professionals, in order to provide valuable
lessons for future generations of change agents. When inviting the authors for a
contribution, the following questions were raised:
How would you define social change and/or development?
What’s the role and place of communication in social change?
What does it take to be a great communicator for social change?
How did you get involved?
Which do you consider your success-stories, which failed and why?
What would you do differently, if you were given a second chance?
Any advice to the new generations?

They were at liberty to approach their contribution as they saw fit. Some obviously
addressed the questions from their personal experience and involvement, others posi-
tioned them in a more historical, geographic or institutional context. The result is a
rich compilation which provides interesting glimpses into complex and often wicked
problems.
– John Lent shares his experience with institutions as the Press Institute of the Philip-
pines, the Press Foundation of Asia, UNESCO, and the Non Aligned Movement
and evaluates the issues they, and by extension, he had to deal with: communication
oriented for the masses, two-way flow of information, appropriate, affordable, and
sustainable technology, freedom and autonomy to conduct research, and relevant
research theories and methods more accommodating to the customs, conditions,
and needs of specific people.
– Emile McAnany recounts the more than fifty years he worked in international
communication research and development communication. He provides a brief
overview of the projects he has been involved in, first at Stanford, then at the
University of Texas at Austin, and last at UCLA Santa Barbara. Wilbur Schramm
features prominently in this chapter because McAnany acknowledges him as his
mentor and teacher (McAnany 2017). When the MacBride Report in 1980 began to
show the cracks in the modernization paradigm of development communication,
which Wilbur Schramm represented, that lead to more critical studies of both
communication and development. McAnany also addresses the United Nations
Millennium Development Goals after 2000. He reviews the major project that
Jeffrey Sachs led between 2005–2015 with the different reactions to its success.
He introduces the discussion of economists as to the value of large and small
6 J. Servaes

projects and suggests that innovative ideas for small-scale communication for
development projects might engage local university faculty and students in their
field work.
– Silvia Balit is uniquely placed to describe the beginnings of Development Support
Communication (DSC) and its evolution in the Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion of the United Nations (FAO). From 1984 to 1998 she was in charge of FAO’s
Communication for Development program. She focuses on the difficult times to
gain recognition as well as the years when FAO became internationally known
as a pioneer and a leader in communication for development. She argues that
contrary to the first years the present landscape is favourable to communication
for development and social change. Compared to the beginnings change agents
have a wide range of academic programs, new technologies and a number of
communication networks to select from. At the same time there are many chal-
lenges, some of them dating from the early years, such as mainstreaming to ensure
that communication is included in development policy. Change agents will need
to merge the guidelines resulting from past experience with new approaches to
meet the changing needs of our planet.
– Alan Hancock started originally as a BBC radio and television producer and a
founder member of the UK Open University team. Afterwards, he spent more than
twenty years with UNESCO’s Communication Division, where he was Director
from 1987 to 1992. He became, inspired by Wilber Schramm, known as the expert
on communication policies and planning. He argues that, at an international level,
the relationship between policy and planning proved difficult to manage, largely
because consensus could not be reached on ideological issues. It appears that
systems-based planning is best suited to scenarios which are more interventionist
and both objectives and outcomes are broadly agreed. In more open situations,
where priorities and desired outcomes are less clear, a more sensitive and evolu-
tionary approach is needed, with an emphasis on needs assessment, consultation
and engagement. In future, he contends, the organic models employed by commu-
nity media may be more relevant to communication planning for development, if
they can be made compatible with the dominant political and social environment.
– In addition to the rich insights presented by the previous authors, Jan Servaes
recalls an often ignored or overlooked conference which he considers crucial
for the ‘turning’ of the development communication debate: the so-called third
seminar on Communication and Change, hosted by the University of Hawaii and
the East–West Center in Honolulu (July 20-August 1, 1987). Like the two previous
ten-year seminars, coordinated by Wilbur Schramm and Daniel Lerner, this
seminar was meant to review and synthesize the status of the field of development
communication. The proceedings of the 1987 seminar were never published.
Furthermore, he summarizes the major shifts which took place at theoretical,
professional and institutional levels over the past decades.
– The second part of the book, with a more country-specific focus, is opened by
Kiran Prasad’s contribution on India. Prasad describes how urban–rural divides
and socio-economic inequalities have led to a struggle for social justice and rights
Introduction: The Murky Beginnings and Confusing Guidelines … 7

for sustainable development. She analyses the marginalization and near exclusion
of women’s reality in development policy debates and media discourse. Alter-
native communication media and the digital media are being widely used for
giving voice to the marginalized and rural communities. This chapter analyzes
the challenges of communicating social change in the midst of widespread social
inequalities and a vibrant media landscape to provide a critical understanding of
steering India’s transformation to a more inclusive and sustainable future.
– Usha Harris promotes a participatory environmental communication framework
that engages ordinary people in communicative processes about environmental
concerns so that they are able to identify the problems and are collectively empow-
ered to make decisions to improve their situation. Participatory media provides
an important platform for communities to tell their stories and create awareness
about environmental issues from their own perspective. Based on her research in
the Pacific region, Harris provides a step-by-step explanation of the participatory
production process including choice of project, the process of message creation,
and how engagement in the participatory process invites diversity, strengthens
networks and fosters agency in participants.
– Having been recognized as the “Best Documentary Film Director” in China three
times, and producer of over 100 critically acclaimed documentaries like The
forbidden city, Palace, Dun Huang, and Road of Millenia Bodhi, Zhou Bing is
uniquely placed to describe the transformations in Chinese society. He describes
how, after China entered the World Trade Organization (WTO), television and
film viewing and production have changed.
The third part of the book expands the regional focus again because the cases and
approaches qualify for having a more universal appeal.
– The Skyriver: Lower Yukon Project in Alaska is considered to be a pioneering use
of film and video as tools to strengthen and enhance a village level community
development process. Tim Kennedy, who collaborated for more than thirty years
with and among Native Alaskan villagers, reviews this longitudinal process and
discusses some of the main lessons learned. Kennedy argues that, although the
SkyRiver process is impossible to package, there are several general features that
are applicable to a wide variety of situations:

1. Unlike advocacy, collaboration focuses on the process of change, on orga-

nizing and mobilizing the competencies of citizens, instead of the resolution
of an issue as an end in itself.
2. The SkyRiver Process contains mechanisms that ensure accountability of the
Social Mobilizer (and local leaders) and prevents the imposition of external
agendas, parameters of discussion, and time frames.
3. The process is respectful of both citizens and responsible decision makers by
giving both parties the opportunity to present their views in a direct manner
without the distortion that often results from the use of an intermediary—an
advocate.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Ananda wheeled around in terror, but there was no person visible behind her. Only
she noticed a richly carved table in the corner with a gold cage upon it, and in the
cage a beautiful snow-white bird.
 She noticed a richly carved table in the corner with a golden
eagle upon it. Page 33.

“Who could have been speaking?” said she to herself, still looking in every
direction, and, as if in answer to her thought, the white bird moved on his golden
perch and spoke again.

“Damsel, I bid you good day, and welcome to my dwelling. But pray tell me what it
is you are seeking?”

Ananda stared in astonishment. “So it was you who spoke!” said she. “In truth, I
hadn’t noticed you before!” And then, bethinking her of the question twice asked,
and not yet answered, she continued, “I beg your pardon—I have come to seek my
father’s goat which is lost. I followed his hoof marks to the door of this cave and
had hoped to find him within.” [34]

“I can restore your goats to you,” said the bird, “that which you lost to-day, and
those which your sisters lost before you.”

“Oh, you are most kind!” cried the girl. “Give them to me, I beg, and I will hasten
home and trouble you no longer!”

“Not so fast! Not so fast!” replied the bird. “Wait and hear my conditions. Your
sisters refused them with scorn and preferred to endure all the ill-treatment and
abuse at home rather than to consider for a moment what I proposed.”

“They must be hard conditions indeed,” said Ananda, “to make me refuse them and
go home goatless to my angry father! Tell me, good bird—what are they?”

“This is the bargain I propose,” said the white bird slowly. “If you will marry me and
live in luxury here, in my palace cave, I will send all the goats straightway back to
your father. Moreover, you shall have all that your heart can desire, in so far as
wealth can give it. Come, now! I will let you have fifteen minutes in which [35]to
consider. Sit down upon that divan yonder, and when your mind is made up, speak
and I will listen.” Then the white bird began busily pecking grains of food from the
cup in his cage, as if he had nothing further to say on the subject.

Slowly Ananda walked over to the divan and sat down. “If I go home without the
goat,” she reasoned with herself, “my father will nigh kill me in his anger—and yet,
to marry a white bird, truly that would be a very sorry adventure. But (looking
around the brightly lighted room) life at home is poor and dull, and here would be
much to amuse and interest me. And even a white bird might prove a good
companion, if I had no other.” She arose and walked back to the cage with a
decided step.

“I will marry you!” said she to the white bird.

“Good!” said he, and rising on his perch, fluttered his wings. Immediately there
appeared before Ananda a table [36]spread with a fine cloth and having upon it the
best supper her eyes had ever looked on.

“Sit down and eat,” continued the white bird, “for you must be hungry. The goats
are even now on their way homeward and will find your father’s pen unguided, with
the rest of the flock, to-night.”

So Ananda married the white bird and lived in the palace cave, and for a long time
her days were full of wonder and delight. There seemed no end to the treasures
around her, and she had but to form a wish in her mind to have it straightway
granted. But after awhile she began to grow lonely. Every morning the white bird
disappeared (whither, she never knew), and all day long she must remain by
herself in the great vaulted room. In the evening the white bird would return, but
after all, he was poor company compared with her two sisters, and she began to
regret what she had done and long to be at home again. The white bird brought
[37]her news of the outside world and tried to cheer her by talk and gossip, and one
time he told her of a fair which was to be held next day in a near-by village.
Ananda sighed deeply as he told of it.

“How I should love to go to that fair!” said she. “It is so long since I have seen any
of my kind.”

“My dear,” said the white bird, “I think it unwise for you to go; my heart tells me
that ill will come of it. Nevertheless, if you greatly desire it, if nothing else will make
you happy, you shall have your wish. Go to the fair and stay all day. Indeed, if you
go at all, you must promise me faithfully not to return until six o’clock in the
evening.”

Ananda was delighted, readily gave the desired promise and bustled eagerly about,
preparing for the morrow. The next day she started forth bright and early and in
good time reached the fair grounds. Such a merry time she had from the very
start! She made friends with everybody [38]around her, and having plenty of money
to spend on herself and others, she soon found herself extremely popular. She saw
all there was to be seen and did all there was to be done, and the morning was
gone before she knew it.
Early in the afternoon there rode into the fair grounds a stranger on a snow-white
horse. Very tall and strong he was, and good to look upon, and he was dressed in
silk and cloth-of-gold, like a prince. Everybody began at once to ask everybody else
who he was and whence he came, and it soon appeared that nobody at the fair
had ever seen or heard of him before. All talked and marvelled at his handsome
face, fine carriage and princely clothes, and wherever he went, a little crowd
followed after him, watching curiously everything he did. Ananda saw him too, and
when she looked into his face, all the happiness suddenly died within her, and she
wished mightily that she had never come to the fair at all, for she knew that she
loved him [39]with all her heart. She wandered away from her gay young
companions and stood watching the stranger from a distance and feeling very
sorrowful.

“What ails you, my girl?” a thin, cracked voice suddenly said in her ear, and looking
around she saw a little old woman, very bent and aged, and with a shrewd,
wrinkled face. “What ails you?” she repeated, tapping the ground with her staff.
And because Ananda did not seem to be able to do otherwise, she told her frankly
the whole thing.

“Alas, good mother,” she said, “I have fallen in love with yonder princely stranger!”

“And why should that make you unhappy?” said the old woman. “Why should you
not hope to marry him as well as any other; you are a pretty wench, to be sure!”

“I am already married to the white bird,” said Ananda, with a sigh.

“That is as it should be, my dear! That [40]is as it should be!” And the old woman
broke into a cackling laugh.

“How can that be?” cried Ananda crossly, for she was quite bewildered.

“Because, my dear, yonder princely stranger is the white bird himself in his right
and proper form.”

Ananda could only gasp with amazement, and the crone continued, “He is
bewitched, that is all!” And then she moved off as if she had done with the subject,
but Ananda ran after her and, catching her by the sleeve, made her stop.

“Tell me! Tell me!” she cried. “Can I not break the spell? Is there no way in which I
can keep him in his right form?”
“Let me go!” snapped the old woman. “Yes, of course there is a way! Go home at
once, before he can reach there, and you will find his gold cage and perch and bird
feathers in a corner of the vaulted room. Take these and burn them; then when he
comes back, he will keep his man form forever.” [41]

Scarcely waiting to murmur her thanks, Ananda started for home, running all the
way and arriving at the red door of the cave quite out of breath and exhausted.
She soon found the gold cage and perch and the white bird feathers in a corner of
the vaulted room, as the old woman had said, and these she quickly took outside
and burned, until nothing remained but a little pile of ashes. Then she sat down
happily beside the red door to await the return of the White Bird Prince.

Before long she caught sight of him riding towards her, and she jumped up and ran
to meet him. But he, when he saw her, stopped short and looked down upon her
very sorrowfully.

“Ananda,” said he, “you have broken your word; you have come home before me.
Alas, nothing but ill can come of it!” They moved on slowly until they came to the
little pile of ashes which was all that was left of the golden cage and perch, and the
white feathers. The White Bird Prince [42]got down from his horse and stood
looking at it for a long time in silence. Then he turned to Ananda and said, “You
have burnt my bird form, my perch and my cage, have you not?”

“Yes,” replied Ananda, beginning to cry, “but I did it that you might keep your man
form forever, my dear husband.”

“In burning my feathers,” he continued, “you have burnt my soul, and now I shall
be taken from you, and we can never see each other again.”

“No! no! don’t say that!” cried Ananda wildly. “If through my fault you have lost
your soul, surely I can win it back for you! I cannot, cannot lose you now that I
have got you in your own true form!”

The White Bird Prince looked upon her kindly, but there was little hope in his face
as he spoke.

“Because you have burnt my soul, to-night there will come a throng of good and
evil spirits who will fight for me, and at the end of seven days and seven nights the
[43]victorious ones will carry me away. And then I shall never be able to see my
dear wife again. Nevertheless, there is one way in which you can save me, though
I fear it is far too hard a task for any woman. If, for seven days and seven nights,
while the good and evil spirits are fighting for me, you can beat with a staff upon
the mother-of-pearl door outside our palace, without rest or pause for a single
moment, then at the end of that time you will be able to break through the door
and win back my soul for me. If you can do that, the good and evil spirits will be
forced to flee, and you and I may dwell in peace together.”

“Surely,” cried Ananda joyfully, “that is not such a hard task, and for love of you, I
can easily perform it! Give me a stout staff that I may be ready!”

That evening, when the sun had set, there came a great company of good and evil
spirits as the prince had foretold, and they strove together outside the cave, and
[44]the din of their fighting was terrible to hear. But Ananda heeded them not. With
a mighty staff she beat upon the mother-of-pearl door, all that night and the next
day and the next, never pausing a moment, though she grew so weary she could
scarcely stand or see. For seven days and seven nights she hammered on the door,
and in the very last hour it began to give way beneath her blows. But in that hour
her strength failed her, and she dropped exhausted and senseless to the ground
and slept, unknowing, while the spirits carried away her beloved husband. When
she came to herself again and found that he was gone, her grief knew no bounds.

“But weeping will do no good!” she said to herself at last. “I will rise up and search
for my prince, though I have to go to the ends of the world to find him!”

So, drying her eyes, she took a stout staff in her hand and set forth at once,
though she still ached with weariness and knew not which way to turn first. [45]

It would be long to tell of her journey and of the adventures she met with by the
way. Far and wide she traveled over the face of the earth, neither pausing nor
resting, but ever seeking the White Bird Prince. At last, one day, when she was
walking through a deep and lovely valley, to her unbounded joy she heard the
prince’s voice calling her from the top of a mountain. Quickly and happily she
climbed to the top, though the way was rough and hard beyond anything she had
yet experienced. But when she had reached the summit, her husband was nowhere
to be seen, and she was about to give up in despair when she heard his voice
again from the depths of the valley. So she hurried breathlessly down again, and
there, seated beside a stream and waiting for her, was the White Bird Prince
himself. With a cry of joy she ran toward him, and they kissed and caressed and
were happy beyond measure, but their joy was short. [46]

“My dear wife,” said the Prince, “most grateful am I for this meeting, but now we
must part again. The evil spirits have me in their power and have made me their
water-bearer, and all day long I travel from the depths of the valley to the top of
the mountain and back again, carrying water for them in a huge jug. And now I
must return again to my labor.”

“Let me stay with you!” cried Ananda eagerly. “Have I not gone to the ends of the
earth to find you?”

“That may not be,” replied the Prince; “nevertheless, since your love for me is so
great, perhaps you can even yet win back my soul for me.”

“How? Oh, tell me how!” said Ananda. “Nothing can be too hard for my love!”

“Go back, then,” replied her husband, “go back to our palace cave and there build
for me another golden cage and perch like those you burned. When they are
finished, sit down before the cage and [47]sing, and put into your song all your love
for me. If your love is strong enough, it will woo my soul back in the form of a bird,
and I shall return and take my soul again, the magic spell under which I used to
live will be broken, and you and I can dwell together in our true forms happily and
lovingly for the rest of our lives.”

At this point in the story the Siddhi-kur stopped short and said no more.

“Well, did she do it? Did Ananda sing the song and woo back the soul of the White
Bird Prince?” asked the Khan’s son, forgetting in his interest all about Nagarguna
and his command to keep silent.

“Of course she did!” replied the Siddhi-kur, “and her song was so full of love and
beauty that its like has never been heard, even to this very day. But see now, you
have broken silence, my son, and so I am free once more to go back to my mango
tree in the cool grove beside the [48]garden of ghost children. Farewell! And be you
wiser in future!”

And with that, the Siddhi-kur jumped lightly from the sack on the Prince’s back and
in a flash had vanished in the distance.

It profited nothing for the Prince to rage at himself and his folly. There was nothing
left to do but to go back all the way he had come and fetch the Siddhi-kur again,
for never would he dare to face Nagarguna with his task unaccomplished. So,
taking a bite from his magic cake, which grew not less, he turned about and set
forth once more to the northward. Over the same rough road he traveled, meeting
the same adventures and passing them safely by, until at last he came again to the
beautiful garden of ghost children and found the Siddhi-kur sitting in his mango
tree and smiling down upon him. Now, after he had captured the Siddhi-kur as
before and set him on his back, and after they had gone far on the homeward way
[49]in silence, that creature of magic spoke again, saying,

“Truly, O Khan’s son, this is a long and wearisome journey. Tell me, I beg you,
some tale of marvel that the way may seem shorter and pleasanter to us both.”
But, as his suggestion received no reply, he continued:

“Since you are minded to keep silence at any cost, at least you can have no
objection to my telling you a story. I have a goodly one in my mind even now, and
if you say nothing to prevent me, I shall begin at once.” After waiting for a moment
in silence, the Siddhi-kur began his second tale. [50]

[Contents]
TALE TWO
 THE PROMISE OF MASSANG
Long ago, there dwelt by the bank of a river a very poor man who had nothing in
the world but a cow. “If only I had a calf too,” he would say to himself, “I would be
so much better off, for then I could sell the calf and with the money buy goods and
trade with them, and in time might even become rich.” So he wished and wished
for a calf, and prayed to his gods and recited many magic forms; and every
morning he went hopefully into the shed where his cow was kept, thinking he
might find the longed-for calf beside her. At last, one morning he heard a strange
noise in the shed and rushed out, feeling sure that his wishes and prayers were at
length to be rewarded. What was [51]his surprise when he reached the shed to see,
standing by the cow, not a calf at all, but a boy, tall and thin and very ragged, with
bushy hair and clear brown eyes. His disappointment and anger rose at the sight.

“What are you doing here, you young beggar?” he shouted. “Trying to steal my
cow, I suppose—the only thing I have in the world!” Seizing a great staff, he went
at the boy as if to kill him, and the lad shrank back against the wall.

“Kill me not, master!” he cried. “I had no thought of evil towards you. I am alone
and friendless and have come begging you to take me as your son.”

The man put down his staff and laughed loudly and disagreeably. “My son!” said
he; “as if I did not have enough to do in keeping this poor body and soul together
without taking upon me the care of another! Son, indeed, when I wanted a calf!
Nay, I’ve a mind to kill you for [52]your folly!” And he advanced angrily toward the
boy again.

“But I will not be a care to you,” said the lad, drawing farther away. “I will bring
you riches and happiness, far more than a calf could do!”

The man laughed again. “That is a likely tale!” said he. “Get away from here! When
you show me that wealth and prosperity, then I’ll adopt you and make you my son,
but not before.”

The boy crept to the door and there paused. “Master,” said he, “you have grown
bitter through poverty; but your heart is not so hard and scornful as are your
words. My name is Massang, and I will come again and bring wealth with me. Such
is my promise—farewell!”
The man went back to his hut, pondering deeply and in his heart regretting the
harsh words he had spoken to the boy, while Massang fled away into the fields.

For a long distance the lad traveled, seeing no one and meeting with no
adventures. [53]At last, however, as he was passing through a fair green meadow,
he came upon a man sitting under a tree, and the color of this man’s clothing and
of his face and hands was as green as the grass beneath his feet.

“What manner of man are you?” asked Massang, greatly wondering. The man put
his head on one side and looked at him slyly out of small green eyes.

“I am a youth,” he said, “of good understanding as this world goes, and I was born
as green as the green meadows.”

“Come with me,” said Massang, “and let us live together, for I have need of you.”
So the Green Man arose and followed the boy without a word.

After awhile they came to a forest so deep and dark that they had great trouble in
making their way through it. And in the very center of it they found a man sitting
upon a log under a tree, and the clothing and skin of this man were as black as
midnight. [54]

“What manner of man are you?” said Massang to him. The man flashed his dark
eyes upon him and said:

“I am a youth of good understanding as this world goes, and I was born as black
as the black forests.”

“Then come with us,” said the boy, “and we will live together. I have work for you
to do.” So the three traveled silently on, through the woods and out again into the
open country.

When they had gone a great distance, they reached a region of rocks and sand,
very bare and white in the sunshine. As they were traversing this land, they came
upon a huge rock, at the foot of which was seated a man clad in linen, very white,
and the color of his face and hands was as white as the sand about him.

“What manner of man are you?” asked Massang. The man turned and looked at
him, and his eyes were as pale and colorless as his face.

“I am a youth,” said he, “of good understanding [55]as this world goes, and I was
born white—as white as the sand and crystal rocks about me.”
“Then,” said Massang, “we have need of you; come with us, and we four will live
together.”

Not far from this place the four companions spied a little hill whereon stood a hut,
strong and in good condition, but apparently quite deserted. Here they took up
their abode and lived quietly for many days without any adventures. Every day
three would go out to hunt and one would stay at home and prepare the midday
meal, each taking this task in turn.

Now one morning, Massang, the Black Man and the White Man set forth to hunt,
leaving the Green Man behind them, and at midday they returned, tired and
hungry. To their dismay they found the ground in front of the hut much cut up by
horses’ hoofs and the Green Man standing at the door, looking thoroughly puzzled
and frightened. [56]

“Alas!” he cried. “My comrades, we shall all have to go dinnerless to-day, for, while
I was cooking the stew in the big pot over the fire, a band of horsemen came upon
me and took all that we had in the house, even the pot itself. Come in and see for
yourselves.”

The three entered and, finding no sign of food, were forced to prepare for
themselves a meal from the result of the morning’s hunt, which was difficult
enough with no pot to cook it in. There seemed no reason to doubt the Green
Man’s story, for the marks of the horses’ hoofs were clear and plain in the soft
ground before the door of the hut. But Massang examined these marks very
carefully and then came back and spoke sternly to the Green Man:

“Comrade, you have dealt falsely with us. However it came about that you lost our
dinner, I know not, but of this I am sure, no horsemen came to our door this day.
You made those hoof marks yourself [57]with a horseshoe. Tell us now the truth of
the matter!” The Green Man gave Massang a sly, cunning look, but he said nothing.

The next day, having got another pot, Massang, the Green Man and the White Man
set out to hunt, leaving the Black Man to watch the stew and get everything ready
for the noon meal. When they returned, they found all as it had been the day
before; dinner and everything to cook it in had vanished, the ground in front of the
hut was cut up as with horses’ hoofs, and the Black Man was standing at the door
empty-handed.

“They came again,” said he, “a band of many horsemen, and they took the pot of
stew from the fire, and all else that I had prepared for you to eat. I was powerless
to fight against them, they were so many.”

But Massang doubted his word, and after he had looked closely at the marks before
the door, he said: [58]

“My friend, these are marks you have made yourself with a horseshoe. What
adventure has befallen you? Why should you hide it from us? I pray you, tell us the
truth.”

The Black Man looked darkly and evilly upon Massang and answered never a word.

The third day the same thing happened. It was the White Man’s turn this time to
stay at home and prepare the dinner, but he had no better success than his
companions, and had only the same story to tell them when they returned.

“I am glad,” said Massang, when he had tried in vain to learn the truth from him,
“that to-morrow it will be my turn to play at cook. Mayhap the same adventure will
befall me, and then I shall learn why and how you three have deceived me.” The
three said nothing, but they looked at each other understandingly.

The next morning, having secured a new pot from a near-by village, Massang
[59]sat down to prepare dinner while the others went forth to hunt. “There!” said he
to himself as he set the pot of stew over the fire, “now may the adventure that
befell my companions come also to me, and then I shall see whether or no I have
more wit than they to meet it!”

For some time there was no sound within or without save the snapping of the fire,
but scarcely had the stew begun to boil before Massang’s sharp ears caught a little
sound of rustling outside the window. He sat quite still, looking and listening. In a
few moments there appeared over the edge of the window sill the top of a small
ladder, and a thin, sharp voice exclaimed from without:
 Up the ladder and into the room climbed a little old woman. Page
59.

“Alack-a-day! Alack-a-day! What a steep climb! But methinks I smell a savory stew
cooking within!” Up the ladder, over the window sill and into the room climbed a
little old woman not more than two feet high, all shriveled and bent, [60]and
carrying on her back a bundle no bigger than an apple.

“Ah!” said she, looking from Massang to the stew and back to Massang again. “I
pray you, son, give a poor old woman a taste of your stew—just a taste, and then I
will be gone and trouble you no more.”

Massang moved as if to give her what she asked, but catching sight of a very evil
smile on her face, he paused.

“It may well be,” thought he to himself, “that this is a wicked witch, and if I give
her a taste of my stew, she will carry off stew, pot and all, as she very likely did
when each of my three companions was here before. I had best be careful.” Then,
turning to the old woman, he said, “Good mother, right gladly will I give you a taste
of my stew, but it is now much too thick, and I dare not leave it lest it burn. I pray
you fetch me a small pail of water, that I may make it the more savory, and then
you shall have as much as you desire.”

The old woman grunted, being ill [61]pleased, but she took the pail which Massang
handed her and immediately disappeared out of the window. But she left her little
bundle behind her.

Now Massang had purposely given her a pail with a hole in it so that she would be
a long time trying to fill it, and as soon as she had gone he went to her bundle and
opened it. In it were a ball of catgut, an iron hammer and a pair of iron scissors. As
he took these out they grew larger, and by this he knew for a certainty that she
was a witch and determined to deal very carefully with her. He stowed away the
three treasures in his pocket and put in their place a ball of ordinary cord, a
wooden hammer, and a pair of wooden scissors. As soon as he had placed these in
the bundle, they became as small as the others had been. Then he went back to
his place beside the stew and sat watching it as if he had never moved. Before long
the little witch woman flew in at the window, [62]tossed down the useless, empty
pail and stamped her foot in a terrible rage.

“Have a care!” she shouted, and her high cracked voice trembled with anger. “Have
a care how you meddle with me! My body is small, but my power is great! Give me
a taste of your stew at once, or it will be the worse for you!”

Massang looked at her quietly and did not move. “I am not afraid of your power,”
said he. “So long as you taste not my food, you are no stronger than I.”

“Indeed!” said the old woman, stamping her foot again. “Do you think in your pride
you can match your strength with mine? Well, so be it; let us see which has the
greater power. I will put you to three tests, after which, if you do not cry aloud for
mercy, you may put me to the same. Come now, do you agree, or does your
courage already begin to fail you?”

“Not in the least!” said Massang, getting up. “Let us have the tests at once.”

The witch picked up her bundle, opened [63]it and took out the ball of cord which
she thought to be her magic catgut. “First I will bind you with this,” said she, “and
if you succeed in freeing yourself, you can do the same to me; if not” (and here she
laughed scornfully), “you shall be bound to me, soul and body, to be my slave
forever.” Then she flew at Massang and tied his legs and arms securely with the
cord; but as it was only ordinary cord, and Massang’s strength was great, he very
soon broke loose from it. The old woman howled with rage, but he quickly seized
her and tied her fast with her own magic catgut, and though she struggled long
and hard, she could not work herself free.

“Enough!” cried she at length, panting and weary. “Loose me! You have won in this
test, but it is only the first and the least; there are two more, and in these you will
find yourself easily overcome.” Massang unwound the catgut from her, and she
sprang up, trembling and gnashing her teeth in anger, while Massang was [64]calm
and quiet as if he were merely playing a little game.

“Tell me, Mother Witch,” said he, “are you the one who has visited our hut for three
days past, and each time spirited away our dinner and the pot to cook it in?”

The little old woman broke into a cackling laugh. “Indeed, yes,” said she, “and your
three fine companions had not wit enough to save their dinner! One taste of their
food gave me power to carry away all that they had, and I tell you, it was very pity
for their stupid heads which kept me from bearing them away also, to be my slaves
and water carriers! A likely tale they made up when they were ashamed to own
that a little old woman had got the better of them! Band of horsemen! Ha! Ha! And
it was only little me! But come, the second test, and if you fail in that, young man,
as you surely will, you will die; there will be no mercy for you!” With that, she
snatched from her bundle the [65]wooden mallet, not stopping to notice that it was
not her own iron one. She flew savagely at Massang and began to beat upon his
head with it, shouting:

“There, now! There, now! Cry for mercy before I hammer out your brains!” But the
blows fell upon Massang’s head as lightly as the blows of a tiny stick, and he
laughed aloud, bidding her hammer away,—it quite amused him!

At length, weary and breathless, she paused. “And now,” said Massang, “you must
let me do the same to you!” Taking the witch’s iron hammer from his pocket, he
brought it down upon her head with great force.

The old woman clapped her hands to her head, uttered a shriek, leaped into the air
and flew out through the window. Just at that minute the Black Man, the Green
Man and the White Man, having returned from the hunt, appeared in the doorway.

“Quick! Quick!” cried Massang, pushing past them. “Let us follow the [66]little witch
woman! She is wounded and will fly right to her lair. Come with me, quick, and
follow her!” So the four dashed out of the hut and after the old witch as fast as
they could go. She flew low in the sky like a great bird, and every now and then a
drop of black blood fell to the ground from the wound in her head. At first she flew
so fast that Massang, with the other three behind him, had great difficulty in
keeping up with her, but after awhile she began to waver and fly unevenly. By this
time the four found themselves running over a barren stretch of land, very rough
and uneven, and they stumbled and fell more than once, but as the flight of the
witch became ever slower, they managed to keep her in sight. At last they saw her
fall to the ground and lie quite still, and running up to her, they found she was
dead.

“An evil old witch,” said Massang, “yet I meant not to kill her—only to wound and
drive her away.” [67]

“She would have killed you quickly enough,” said the three, “and us too, if we had
let her!”

Looking around them, they saw near by the mouth of a deep, dark cave.

“This must be her lair,” said Massang, “and no doubt it is filled with treasure; let us
go down and see.” But apparently there was no way of getting down. The cave was
so deep they could scarcely see the bottom of it, and the sides were steep and
smooth as polished marble.
Massang, however, found that he still had in his pocket the ball of magic catgut.
This he unwound and, finding it would reach to the bottom of the cave, bade his
companions hold one end of it firmly while he climbed down upon it. Inside the
cave the light was very dim, but as soon as his eyes became accustomed to it, he
saw, lying in great heaps upon the floor, gold and silver, diamonds, rubies,
emeralds and all manner of precious stones. He shouted joyfully up to his
companions, who were [68]leaning over the mouth of the cave. “Fetch bags,” said
he, “big bags, and I will fill them with treasure; then you shall pull them up with
the catgut, and afterwards we will divide the spoil and be all four rich and
prosperous for the rest of our lives!”

The three men hurried back to the hut to get bags, and while they were gone,
Massang roamed around the cave, which was large and full of dark corners heaped
high with treasure. He had scarcely finished looking about when he heard the
Green Man shouting to him from above. Then bags were thrown down, and he
filled them to the brim with gleaming gold and precious stones. All the rest of the
day until darkness covered them, they were busy, Massang filling bags and the
three men hauling them up, emptying them and sending them down again to be
refilled. At last Massang called up, saying it was too dark for him to see further, and
the cave was pretty well cleared out, anyway. He fastened the catgut around his
waist [69]and bade his companions draw him up. But to his dismay he saw the
Green Man leaning over the mouth of the cave, with an evil smile on his face and a
knife in his hand.

“Now, Master Massang,” said the Green Man, and his voice sounded harsh and
cruel, “if you think we are going to drag you up to share the spoil, you are much
mistaken! There will be just so much more for us if you are not here! So farewell,
and peace be to your bones. You will never be able to get out of this cave to tell
tales on us!”

With that he cut the catgut and disappeared, and Massang could hear the three
talking together and then moving away. All night long he could hear them coming
and going. Evidently they were bearing away the treasure. When morning came,
there was not a sound, and Massang knew that he was quite deserted. He sat
down on the floor of the cave and buried his face in his hands, and his heart was
very heavy. [70]But after a while he got up and looked around, thinking that he
would not despair until he had made sure there was no possible way of getting out
of the cave. A careful search showed him there was nothing left to make use of but
a handful of neglected gold and three cherry pits. These he picked up. “It is my last
and only hope,” he thought, and aloud he said, “By all the power of good magic, I
wish that I may find a way out of this cave to light and freedom.” Then he buried
the cherry pits directly beneath the mouth of the cave. Scarcely had he done so
when a great wave of drowsiness came over him and, lying down on the ground, in
a few moments he fell into a deep, dreamless sleep.

When he awoke he found to his astonishment three young cherry trees standing
tall and straight beside him, and the top of the tallest of these reached up to the
mouth of the cave. He jumped up joyfully and stretched himself. In reality he had
been [71]asleep for several years, yet it seemed no more to him than so many
hours. It was easy enough now to climb up the cherry tree and out of the cave,
and glad indeed he was to be free again and out in the sunshine. He tramped
eagerly along until he came to a hut where he bought food, paying for it with some
of the gold which he had brought up in his pockets from the witch’s cave.

It were long to tell of all Massang’s wanderings after that. He traveled far and wide,
ever searching for his false companions, until at last, after many weeks, he came
upon three very elegant houses surrounded by beautiful grounds, and with every
sign of prosperity and wealth about them. These houses, he soon learned,
belonged to his wicked friends,—the Green Man, the Black Man and the White Man.
At the time all three were away upon a hunting trip, so Massang procured a stout
staff and took up his stand by a gateway [72]through which they must pass on their
way home.

He had not waited very long before he spied them in the distance, coming toward
him. They walked gaily enough, never thinking of trouble, and did not even see him
until they had got quite close to him. Massang stood directly in their path, his staff
in his hands. The Green Man saw him first and, giving a cry of fear, fell at his feet.
Then the other two saw him, and they also fell trembling before him. “It is
Massang,” they cried, “or his ghost come for vengeance! Surely now we are
doomed!”

“Get up!” said Massang sternly, touching them with his staff. “Get up! I am no
ghost but Massang indeed, whom you left to die miserably in the witch’s cave. I
had intended to slay you with this staff, for your falseness and cruelty—but you are
too base and cowardly to touch!”

The three still lay trembling and grovelling upon the ground. “Alas! good
[73]Master,” cried the Black Man, “we have suffered enough already because of our
evil deed. With all our wealth we have been wretchedly unhappy and have found
neither peace by day nor sleep by night!”
“That is indeed true!” groaned the White Man. “We will give you all our wealth and
become beggars, if you will but forgive us and let us go away unharmed.” And even
the Green Man nodded his head in token of agreement. At this the heart of
Massang was softened.

“Come!” said he. “Get up and we will talk it over.” And when they had risen to their
feet, he said, “This much I will require of you; let each of you take half of his
wealth and go with it to the bank of a certain river. There you will find a poor man
who has nothing in all the world save only one cow. Give him the treasure that you
have brought, and say to him, ‘Your son, Massang, sends you wealth and
prosperity with his love.’ Do [74]this faithfully, and I will freely forgive you.”

The men readily promised to do all that Massang had bidden them, and in a few
days he saw for himself the three starting forth at the head of a great train of
mules laden with wealth and treasure of every sort.

“And did they find the poor man with the one cow?” asked the Khan’s son. “Go on!
You haven’t finished!”

“Yes, they found him,” said the Siddhi-kur, with a laugh. “And they poured out their
wealth before him, and when Massang came shortly afterwards, you may be sure
the old man received him and kept him as a well loved son.

“But you, O Prince, you have forgotten the words of the wise Nagarguna! You have
broken silence on the homeward way, and so now you have no further power over
me.” With a shout of joy, the Siddhi-kur leaped from the bag on the [75]Prince’s
back and sped away into the distance. Nor did the Khan’s son set eyes on him
again until he had retraced his steps through all the dangers and hardships he had
met before and stood once more under the mango tree in the cool grove beside
the garden of ghost children.

Seeing him so persistent in his mission, the Siddhi-kur made no objections to being
taken again, and allowed himself to be tied into the magic bag with the cord of a
hundred threads and tossed once more on to the Prince’s back. After they had
traveled a long time in silence and were both grown weary, he suggested again
that some wonder tale be told, and receiving no answer from the Prince but a nod
of agreement, he began at once. [76]
[Contents]
TALE THREE
 HOW SIX FRIENDS SOUGHT ADVENTURE
In a far country, many years ago, there lived six young men who were fast friends.
One was a Magician’s son, one a Blacksmith’s son, the third a Doctor’s son, the
fourth the son of a Woodcarver, the fifth the son of a Painter, and the sixth the son
of a Prince. Now all these six lads intended to follow the lives and the work of their
fathers, but before settling down, they all desired to seek some great adventure.

“Let us go forth together,” said they, “and travel into some strange country, and
then perhaps something wonderful may befall us which will make us rich to the end
of our days, or at least give us a goodly tale to tell our neighbors when we [77]shall
have returned and taken up our fathers’ work.”

So it was agreed among them, and on a certain day, very early in the morning, all
six started out together. For several days they traveled, choosing always the least
known road and going farther and farther from the country they knew into the
unfamiliar lands beyond. Yet no adventure whatever befell them.

At last they came to a small, round pond into which six streams emptied, each
coming from a different direction. Then said the Blacksmith’s son:

“Friends, here are six rivers, one for each of us. Suppose we separate, each
choosing one stream and following it alone to its source. It may be that Dame
Adventure is shy and will not meet us all together, whereas to each of us apart she
will bring some rare happening.”

This saying pleased the other five, and they agreed at once. “Moreover,” said [78]the
Magician’s son, “let us each plant a small tree at the mouth of his chosen river, and
I will weave a spell upon them all so that if aught evil befalls its planter, that tree
will wither away.”

“Splendid!” said the Doctor’s son, “and let us agree to return to this spot at the end
of a year and a day. And when we are met, if any one of us is absent and his tree
withered, we will straightway follow his stream and try to rescue him from his
danger.”

The other friends were greatly pleased at these suggestions, and each of the six
set about at once choosing a tree and planting it at the mouth of one of the
streams. When the trees were all planted, the young men took their stand beside
their respective streams while the Magician’s son went around from one tree to
another, weaving a magic spell about it so that it would wither and die if any ill
came to the one who had planted it. Then, with many handshakes and words of
faithfulness and [79]affection, the six friends parted, each one disappearing up the
bank of the river he had selected.

Now we shall follow the fortunes of the Prince’s son. The underbrush along the
bank of his stream was thick and heavy, so that he must needs walk slowly and
with difficulty. All day long he wandered on, finding no open space, and hearing
nothing but the sound of the water babbling beside him. At length, however, the
banks of the little river began to widen out, and toward sunset he found himself in
an open meadow, with an old broken well in the middle of it and a dark forest
beyond. He was tired and warm with the long hard walk through the underbrush,
so when he had reached the well, he sat down beside it to rest and cool himself.
He had not been there long before he saw approaching him a tall and exceedingly
beautiful girl with a water pitcher on her shoulder. Her hair was very long and
black, she was clothed in flowing white linen garments, [80]and she moved across
the field bare-footed, with a light, lithe step. And marvellous to behold, wherever
her foot pressed the soft earth, a white flower sprang into bloom, marking her
course across the meadow in a trail of beauty. While the Prince’s son was
wondering at this and at the unusual loveliness of the girl, she drew up to the well
and lowered her pitcher from her shoulder. He jumped up at once and, taking it
from her hand, offered to draw the water for her. She said not a word, but when
the pitcher was full, she set forth again across the meadow, leaving him to follow
her and carry it. Over the field and into the woods they went, in the deepening
twilight. The maiden moved with a sure step, quickly and easily among the trees,
but the Prince’s son had great trouble in following her, often stumbling in the
darkness and finding the pitcher of water ever heavier and harder to carry. At last it
grew so dark in the woods that he could see nothing at [81]all except the gleam of
the girl’s white dress before him, and the water pitcher became so heavy that his
shoulder well-nigh broke with the weight of it, but he struggled on, determined not
to lose sight of his strange and beautiful guide.

Quite unexpectedly they came at length to a little log hut with a candle shining in
the window. As they approached it, the door was opened by an old man, white-
haired, shriveled and bent, with an old, wrinkled woman beside him.
 Quite unexpectedly they came at length to a little log hut. Page
81.

“Come in, daughter,” said the aged man, motioning to the girl. “Have you brought
the Prince’s son?”

“That I have, Father,” she replied, and her voice was as lovely as her beautiful face.
The Prince’s son entered the little hut, wondering greatly, and the door was closed
behind him.

Without a word of explanation, the aged couple made haste to set before him a
simple, hearty supper, the girl having disappeared meanwhile into an inner room.
[82]When he had finished, as if in answer to his unspoken thought, the old man
said:

“You are doubtless wondering, my son, about the lovely damsel who abides here
with us, and whom you have followed this day to our humble door. But in truth, sir,
it is little enough we can tell you ourselves. Whence she comes, we know not,
though we have cherished and reared her as our own child. Several years ago we
found her on our doorstep, a little laughing maid as fair as ever the sun looked on,
and clothed in the softest, richest raiment. Right joyfully we took her in, and she
dwelt with us happily day by day, yet never did she say a word by which we might
know whose child she was. A king’s daughter she must be, or the child of some
good spirit. Of late she has spoken much of a change to come in her life, of a
Prince’s son, and of many other things which we have not understood, but our
hearts have been sad within us, fearing lest the girl prophesied her marriage and
separation [83]from us who love her more than all else in the whole world.”

At this point the Prince’s son eagerly interrupted the old man, saying, “I pray you,
Father, be no longer sad, but hear the great desire of my heart. I am indeed the
son of a Prince, and the maiden is in my eyes the loveliest and most beautiful
creature in the universe. Having once seen her, I have no further wish in life than
to marry her and live peacefully with her here in this forest, in a house that I shall
build for her with my own hands, near by this hut. Surely the fates have decreed
that this shall be, for have I not traveled far this day in search of whatsoever Dame
Fortune might have in store for me?”

“So be it,” said the other; “needs must you be the destined bridegroom, the son of
a Prince, for had it been otherwise our daughter never would have led you through
the dark forest to our lonely home. Let the blessing of an old man rest upon you.”
[84]
And so it came about that the Prince’s son married the beautiful maiden of the
woods and lived with her in peace and happiness in a little log house hard by her
foster-father’s hut. Days passed by, and weeks, and ever the two grew more loving
and contented, and it seemed as if nothing could mar the even joy of their lives.
But, alas, one day a great misfortune befell them!

It was warm and sultry, and the two had strolled hand in hand down to the bank of
a rushing stream that ran through the forest. Now the water looked so very cool
and refreshing that the maiden must needs sit on the mossy bank and dabble her
feet and her hands in it. While she was doing so, a ring slipped from her finger and
before she could rescue it, was borne down the current and out of sight. The poor
girl cried out in dismay, then fell to weeping so bitterly that her husband was
astonished.

“Nay, now,” said he soothingly, “truly [85]a paltry ring is not worth so many tears.
My dearest, when I go again to my father’s kingdom I will buy you a dozen rings
more beautiful than that which you have lost! So dry your eyes and think no more
about it.”

But the girl refused to be comforted. “That ring,” said she between her sobs, “is a
magic one, and its loss will bring all manner of woe to us both.”

Nor was she mistaken in this. The ring was borne along by the swift stream for a
long distance and was finally washed ashore near the pleasure gardens of a great
Khan. There some one found it and, seeing that it was a strange ring, curiously
wrought, took it at once to the Khan himself. The monarch looked long upon it, and
then, calling his ministers about him, he said:

“This trinket has magic power about it. I believe that it belongs to a very beautiful
woman, perhaps the daughter of some king. Take it, therefore, and wheresoever
[86]it leads you, follow. And if its owner indeed proves to be a lovely damsel, take
her prisoner and bring her at once to me, that she may be head over my
household.”

The chief minister bowed low, took the ring and called a goodly number of soldiers
and servants to accompany him on his quest. As soon as he held the magic ring in
his hand, he felt a strange power drawing him; and as he yielded to that power, it
led him out of the pleasure gardens to the bank of the stream, and then up along
the bank straight toward the log hut in the woods. And so, in a very short time, the
Khan’s minister and all his soldiers and servants were standing before the door of
the little house where the Prince’s son and his wife had been living so happily
together, and were calling them to come out at once. They dared not disobey, and
so the unhappy husband led forth the beautiful damsel, weeping as if her heart
would break, and delivered her to the Khan’s minister. She was taken away at
[87]once, and the poor Prince’s son was left alone to grieve in his lonely little cabin.
The old foster-father and mother were so stricken with sorrow that it seemed they
would die, yet neither did they nor the Prince’s son dare to do anything against the
commands of the great Khan.

Meanwhile the girl was led by the chief minister to the monarch’s palace. He was
delighted with her beauty and charm and paid not the slightest heed to her tears or
prayers to be allowed to return to her husband. She was made chief of the royal
servants, must needs live in the palace within constant call of the Khan, and there
seemed to be no possible hope of escape. Days passed by, and her sorrow and
longing for her husband became ever greater instead of less, until she began to
grow pale and thin, and those about her feared she would sicken and die. The
Khan, too, noticed the change in her and tried every means in his power to cheer
her, but all in vain. At last he grew angry. [88]

“This husband of hers,” he cried, “is making the fairest of my servants sickly and
plain. But if it is, indeed, longing for him that is eating the bloom off her cheeks, I
will quickly remedy the matter!” And calling the court executioner, he whispered a
few words in his ear. “There now!” said he later to the damsel, “when you know
that your husband is dead and there is no use in wishing for him any longer, then
perhaps you will forget him and learn to smile again.”

In vain did the poor girl plead with the monarch for her husband’s life! The more
she wept and besought him, the more angry and determined he became.

So the executioner set out with a number of soldiers and, finding the log hut in the
woods, dragged forth the Prince’s son with little gentleness and took him afar off to
a meadow in which was a dry, deserted well. Down in this the poor lad was thrust,
and a great rock was rolled over it. There in the darkness he laid [89]him down to
die, with no hope of rescue and no desire for life, anyway, if he could not live it
with his dear and beautiful wife.

Now it happened that the very next day was that on which the six friends had
agreed to meet by the little round pond with the six streams running into it. And
true to their promise, the other five gathered together and there awaited the
coming of the Prince’s son. The day passed slowly by and he did not appear, and
then they noticed that the tree which he had planted was drooping and withering.
“Our friend is in danger or trouble,” said the Doctor’s son. “Let us lose no time in
searching for him; even now we may be too late to save him.” The others were
alarmed at the ill omen and were eager to start at once, but the Magician’s son
detained them.

“One moment!” said he. “By my magic art I can learn exactly where our friend is,
and then we can go straight to him.” Bidding the others sit down and [90]wait, he
drew a circle on the ground and, placing himself in the center of it, began to recite
all manner of incantations and to draw figures and signs in the air. After a while he
erased the circle and announced to his friends that he knew the exact whereabouts
of the Prince’s son at that moment. “But we must hurry,” he said, “for he is in great
danger and will surely die unless we rescue him.”

So the five set out at a smart pace and traveled all that night without pause or rest.
By early morning they had reached the well wherein the Prince’s son was
imprisoned.

“How shall we move away the rock?” said they in despair, seeing the huge boulder
completely covering the mouth of the well.

“I will move it!” said the Blacksmith’s son, and taking the heavy iron hammer which
he always carried in his belt, he fell to work upon the rock, knocking great
[91]chunks out of it until it was all broken to pieces.

When the mouth of the well had thus been opened, they hastily lowered the
Doctor’s son, who found the son of the Prince lying there quite white and still and
nigh unto death.

“It is well they chose me to fetch him up!” he muttered as he drew forth his bag of
medicines. Taking a small flask of red fluid, he poured the contents of it down the
throat of his unconscious friend, who soon began to stir and then to sit up.

With great difficulty the two were hauled up to the mouth of the well, and when
they were once safely out of it, the friends all embraced with heartfelt joy and
affection. Then the Prince’s son told the tale of his adventure and its sorry ending,
and the other five were full of compassion for him and indignation against the
wicked Khan.

“I have a plan!” suddenly spoke up the Wood-carver’s son. “By my art I can
[92]fashion a great wooden bird, large enough to carry a man, and I will fit it with
wings, hinges and springs so that it will fly through the air.”
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