1-2_Propositional_Logic

Key Terms
Logic is used for mathematical reasoning and verification.
Propositional Logic: The area of logic that deals with propositions is called propositional
logic.
Proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both.
Declarative sentence is a sentence that declares a fact

Not propositions
Questions
Commands

Propositional variables are variables that represent propositions.

Compound propositions are formed from existing propositions.
Truth Table is a table displaying the truth values of propositions.

Logical operators
Precedence Operator Symbol Usage
1 Negation ¬ NOT
2 Conjunction ∧ AND
3 Disjunction ∨ OR
4 Exclusive OR ⊕ XOR
5 Conditional → if, then
6 Biconditional ↔ iff (XNOR)

Negation is the only unary operator.

The conjunction p ∧ q is true when both p and q are true and is false otherwise.
The disjunction p ∨ q is false when both p and q are false and is true otherwise.
Disjunction is true when at least one of the components is true.
The exclusive or of p ⊕ q is true when exactly one of p and q is true and is false otherwise.

Conditional Statements
Characteristics

The conditional statement p → q is the proposition p implies q

Conditional connective

Hypothesis Conclusion

The connective (→) is called conditional connective

 A conditional statement is also called an implication

Truth Table for Conditional Statement

Whole statement false

True for all other combination

True False

Equivalent expressions of p → q

p → q is here hypothesis → conclusion

p implies q
if p, then q
if p, q
p only if q
q if p
q when p
q whenever p
"Carol gets seasick whenever she is on a boat"
whenever p, q
q unless ¬ p
p is a sufficient condition for q
a sufficient condition for q is p
"A Sufficient condition for the warranty to be good is that you bought the
computer less than a year ago."
q is a necessary condition for p
 "It is necessary to wash the boss's car to get promoted"
a necessary condition for p is q

Converse, Contrapositive, and Inverse

New conditionals for p → q

Inverse ¬p → ¬q

Converse q → p

Contrapositive ¬q → ¬p

Biconditional
Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional statement p ↔ q is the proposition p if and
only if q

p ↔ q is only true when p and q have the same truth values (T, T or F, F)

Equivalent expression for p ↔ q

p if and only if q
p is necessary and sufficient for q

Info

Biconditional statements are also called bi-implications

Truth table for bi-conditional

 Which operator is the opposite of ↔?

↔ has the exact opposite truth table of ⊕

3_Propositional_Equivalences
Tautology
Tautology is a compound proposition that is always true.

p ∨ ¬p

People either like watching TV or they don't

Contradiction
Contradiction is a compound proposition that is always false.

p ∧ ¬p

x is a prime and x is an even integer greater than 8

All men are good and all men are bad

Contingency
Contingency is a compound proposition whose truth value is not constant.

p → ¬p

Logical Equivalences
Compound propositions that have the same truth values in all possible cases are called
logically equivalent
 Notations

p ≡ q or p ⇔ q

Laws of Logical Equivalences

A Useful Logical Equivalence (ULE)
4_Predicates_Quantifiers
Predicates

Predicate Predicate Predicate

function Variable
or
Subject

Predicate is a property that the subject can have.

Predicate is also called propositional function

Note

Once a value has been assigned to the variable x, the statement P(x) becomes a
proposition and has a truth value.

For example If P(x): x>3, then P(2): 4>3 , which is statement or proposition.

Example 1

Multivariable Predicates

Predicates that have more than one variable

 For example: Q(x, y) : x = y + 3

Quantifiers

Domain

Domain is the set of values a variable in a propositional function may take

Also called domain of discourse and universe of discourse.

Universal Quantification

A predicate is true for every element in the domain

Denoted as ∀x P (x)
Reads for all P(x)
It is basically the conjunction of P(x) for all the domain

Example

Existential quantification

There is one or more elements in the domain for which a predicate is true.

Denoted as ∃x P (x)
Reads There is an x such that P(x)
It is basically the disjunction of P(x) for all the domain

Example
Truth values

Precedence

The quantifiers ∀ and ∃ have higher precedence that all logical operators from proposition
calculus.

Negating quantifiers

Universal negation: ¬∀x P (x) ≡ ∃x ¬P (x)

Existential negation: ¬∃x P (x) ≡ ∀x ¬P (x)
5_Functions
Function

Synonyms

Functions are also called maps and transformations

Terminology

If f is a function from A to B, we write f : A → B

A is the domain of f
B is the codomain of f
If f (a) = b
a is called the preimage of b
b is called the image of a
Domain: Set of values a function is allowed to take as input.
Codomain: Set of values a function is allowed to map to.
Range: Set of values a function actually maps (subset of the codomain).
OR set of all images of elements of A
Preimage: Subset of the domain.
Image: Subset of the range.

Range vs Codomain example

Multiple functions

Let f and f be functions from A to B. Then f

1 2 1 + f2 and f 1 f2 are also functions from A to B.

(f 1 + f 2 )(x) = f 1 (x) + f 2 (x)

(f 1 f 2 )(x) = f 1 (x)f 2 (x)

One-to-One Functions (Injective)

A function is one-to-one if all the elements in the domain have distinct images.

Denoted using quantifiers as:

∀a ∀b (f (a) → a = b)

∀a ∀b (a ≠ b → f (a) ≠ f (b))

Example

Onto Function (Surjective)

A function is onto if every element of codomain has preimage(s).

Example
One-to-One correspondence (Bijection)

A function is a one-to-one correspondence or a bijection if it is both one-to-one and onto.

Example
9_Integer_Modular
Integers and Division
a divides b
b dividend
a|b = =
a divisor

multiple factor
a does not divides b
a ∤ b

a, b, c is all integers

The Division Algorithm

•Remainder cannot be negative (since 0 ≤ r < d)

Congruence

OR m divides a − b
a, b are integers
m is a positive integer

Ceaser Cipher
f (p) = (p + 3) mod 26

−1
f (p) = (p − 3) mod 26

Shift Cipher
f (p) = (p + k) mod 26

−1
f (p) = (p − k) mod 26
10_Prime_GCD_LCM
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

Integer or Prime?

GCD & LCM

if d|a and d|b , then d is the GCD of a and b.
 a = dc and b = dc
if a|d and b|d , then d is the LCM of a and b
d = ac and d = bc

Finding GCD & LCM

ab = gcd(a, b) ⋅ lcm(a, b)